ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

35. An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adjectives and adverbs are very closely related in both their forms and their use.

36. Comparison. The variation of adjectives and adverbs to indicate the degree of modification they express is called Comparison. There are three degrees of comparison.

The Positive Degree indicates the mere possession of a quality; as, true, good, sweet, fast, lovely.

The Comparative Degree indicates a stronger degree of the quality than the positive; as, truer, sweeter, better, faster, lovelier.

The Superlative Degree indicates the highest degree of quality; as, truest, sweetest, best, fastest, loveliest.

Where the adjectives and adverbs are compared by inflection they are said to be compared regularly. In regular comparison the comparative is formed by adding er, and the superlative by adding est. If the word ends in y, the y is changed to i before adding the ending; as, pretty, prettier, prettiest.

Where the adjectives and adverbs have two or more syllables, most of them are compared by the use of the adverbs more and most, or, if the comparison be a descending one, by the use of less and least; as, beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful, and less beautiful, least beautiful.

37. Some adjectives and adverbs are compared by changing to entirely different words in the comparative and superlative. Note the following:

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
bad, ill, evil, badly	worse	worst
far	farther, further	farthest, furthest
forth	further	furthest
fore	former	foremost, first
good, well	better	best
hind	hinder	hindmost
late	later, latter	latest, last
little	less	least
much, many	more	most
old	older, elder	oldest, eldest

Note.—Badly and forth may be used only as adverbs. Well is usually an adverb; as, He talks well, but may be used as an adjective; as, He seems well.

38. Confusion of Adjectives and Adverbs. An adjective is often used where an adverb is required, and vice versa. The sentence, She talks foolish, is wrong, because here the word to be modified is talks, and since talks is a verb, the adverb foolishly should be used. The sentence, She looks charmingly, means, as it stands, that her manner of looking at a thing is charming. What is intended to be said is that she appears as if she was a charming woman. To convey that meaning, the adjective, charming, should have been used, and the sentence should read, She looks charming. Wherever the word modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb, an adverb should be used, and wherever the word, whatever its location in the sentence, modifies a noun or pronoun, an adjective should be used.

39. The adjective and the adverb are sometimes alike in form. Thus, both the following sentences are correct: He works hard (adverb), and His work is hard (adjective). But, usually, where the adjective and the adverb correspond at all, the adverb has the additional ending ly; as, The track is smooth, (adjective), and The train runs smoothly, (adverb).

Exercise 18

In the following sentences choose from the italicized words the proper word to be used:

1. The sunset looks beautiful beautifully.
2. The man acted strange strangely.
3. Write careful carefully and speak distinct distinctly.
4. Speak slow slowly.
5. He acted bad badly.
6. He behaved very proper properly.
7. The boat runs smooth smoothly.
8. He is a remarkable remarkably poor writer.
9. I am in extremely extreme good health.
10. The typewriter works good well.
11. The bird warbles sweet sweetly.
12. He was terrible terribly angry.
13. He was in a terrible terribly dangerous place.
14. He talks plainer more plainly than he ever did before.
15. The dead Roman looked fierce fiercely.
16. The fire burns brilliant brilliantly.
17. You are exceeding exceedingly generous.
18. He struggled manful manfully against the opposition.
19. My health is poor poorly.
20. He is sure surely a fine fellow.
21. Have everything suitable suitably decorated.
22. That can be done easy easily.
23. I can speak easier more easily than I can write.
24. The music of the orchestra was decided decidedly poor.
25. She is a remarkable remarkably beautiful girl.
26. The wind roared awful awfully.
27. The roar of the wind was awful awfully.
28. I have studied grammar previous previously to this year.
29. I didn't study because I felt too bad badly to read.
30. The roses smell sweetly sweet.
31. They felt very bad badly at being beaten.
32. That violin sounds different differently from this one.
33. The soldiers fought gallant gallantly.
34. She looks sweet sweetly in that dress.
35. I can wear this coat easy easily.
36. Speak gentle gently to him.
37. He talks warm warmly on that subject.
38. He works well good and steady steadily.
39. He stood thoughtful thoughtfully for a moment and then went quiet quietly to his tent.
40. He walked down the street slow slowly, but all the time looked eager eagerly about him.
41. The music sounds loud loudly.
42. That coin rings true truly.
43. He looked angry angrily at his class.
44. He moved silent silently about in the crowd.
45. His coat fits nice nicely.
46. That is easy easily to do.
47. He went over the work very thorough thoroughly.

Exercise 19

The adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences are correctly used. In every case show what they modify:

1. The water lay smooth in the lake.
2. She looked cold.
3. The train runs smoothly now.
4. The sun shone bright at the horizon.
5. The sun shone brightly all day.
6. She looks coldly about her.
7. Be careful in your study of these sentences.
8. Study these sentences carefully.
9. We found the way easy.
10. We found the way easily.
11. He looked good.
12. He looked well.
13. We arrived safe.
14. We arrived safely.
15. Speak gently.
16. Let your speech be gentle.

Exercise 20

Write sentences containing the following words correctly used:

Thoughtful, thoughtfully, masterful, masterfully, hard, hardly, cool, coolly, rapid, rapidly, ungainly, careful, carefully, eager, eagerly, sweet, sweetly, gracious, graciously.

40. Improper Forms of Adjectives. The wrong forms in the following list of adjectives are frequently used in place of the right forms:

RIGHT	WRONG
everywhere	everywheres
not nearly	nowhere near
not at all	not much or not muchly
ill	illy
first	firstly
thus	thusly
much	muchly
unknown	unbeknown
complexioned	complected

Exercise 21

Correct the errors in the following sentences:

1. She goes everywheres.
2. Hers is the most illy behaved child I know.
3. Not muchly will I go.
4. Use the lesser quantity first.
5. He is nowhere near so bright as John.
6. You do the problem thusly.
7. The causes are firstly, ignorance, and second, lack of energy.
8. They came unbeknown to me.
9. He is a dark complected man.
10. It all happened unbeknownst to them.
11. His vote was nowhere near so large as usual.

41. Errors in comparison are frequently made. Observe carefully the following rules:

1. The superlative should not be used in comparing only two things. One should say, He is the larger of the two, not He is the largest of the two. But, He is the largest of the three, is right.

2. A comparison should not be attempted by adjectives that express absolute quality—adjectives that cannot be compared; as, round, perfect, equally, universal. A thing may be round or perfect, but it cannot be more round or most round, more perfect or most perfect.

3. When two objects are used in the comparative, one must not be included in the other; but, when two objects are used in the superlative, one must be included in the other. It is wrong to say, The discovery of America was more important than any geographical discovery, for that is saying that the discovery of America was more important than itself—an absurdity. But it would be right to say, The discovery of America was more important than any other geographical discovery. One should not say, He is the most honest of his fellow-workmen, for he is not one of his fellow-workmen. One should say, He is more honest than any of his fellow-workmen, or, He is the most honest of all the workmen. To say, This machine is better than any machine, is incorrect, but to say, This machine is better than any other machine, is correct. To say, This machine is the best of any machine (or any other machine), is wrong, because all machines are meant, not one machine or some machines. To say, This machine is the best of machines (or the best of all machines), is correct.

Note the following rules in regard to the use of other in comparisons:

a. After comparatives followed by than the words any and all should be followed by other.

b. After superlatives followed by of, any and other should not be used.

4. Avoid mixed comparisons. John is as good, if not better than she. If the clause, if not better, were left out, this sentence would read, John is as good than she. It could be corrected to read, John is as good as, if not better than she. Similarly, it is wrong to say, He is one of the greatest, if not the greatest, man in history.

Exercise 22

Choose the correct word from those italicized:

1. The older oldest of the three boys was sick.
2. Of Smith and Jones, Smith is the wealthiest wealthier.
3. Of two burdens choose the less least.
4. Which can run the fastest faster, John or Henry?
5. Of the two men, Smith and Jones, the first former is the better best known.
6. Which is the larger largest of the two?
7. Which is the best better of the six?
8. Which is the larger largest number, six or seven
9. Which is the more most desirable, health or wealth?
10. My mother is the oldest older of four sisters.
11. The prettier prettiest of the twins is the brighter brightest.
12. This is the duller dullest season of the year.
13. The other is the worse worst behaved of the two.
14. Which was the hotter hottest, yesterday or to-day?
15. That is the cleaner cleanest of the three streets.

Exercise 23

Correct any of the following sentences that may be wrong. Give a valid reason for each correction:

1. He was the most active of all his friends.
2. He is the brightest of all his brothers.
3. Of all the other American Colleges, this is the largest.
4. Philadelphia is larger than any city in Pennsylvania.
5. Philadelphia is the largest of all other cities in Pennsylvania.
6. No city in Pennsylvania is so large as Philadelphia.
7. That theory is more universally adopted.
8. He was, of all others, the most clever.
9. This apple is more perfect than that.
10. No fruit is so good as the orange.
11. The orange is better than any fruit.
12. Of all other fruits the orange is the best.
13. The orange is the best of all the fruits.
14. The orange is better than any other fruit.
15. That is the most principal thing in the lesson.
16. Which has been of most importance, steam or electricity?
17. He was more active than any other of his companions.
18. This apple is rounder than that.
19. This apple is more nearly round than that.
20. Paris is the most famous of any other European city.
21. Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of her sister states.
22. No state is so wealthy as Pennsylvania.
23. Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of any of the States.
24. Pennsylvania is wealthier than any of her other sister states.
25. New York is one of the largest, if not the largest city in the world.
26. That book is as good if not better than mine.
27. John is taller than any other boy in his classes.
28. John is taller than any boy in his class.
29. Iron is the most useful of all other metals.
30. Iron is the more useful of the metals.
31. Iron is the most useful of the metals.
32. Of iron and lead, lead is the heaviest.
33. Iron is among the most useful, if not the most useful metal.
34. He is among the oldest if not the oldest of the men in the Senate.
35. That picture is more beautiful than all the pictures.

42. Singular and Plural Adjectives. Some adjectives can be used only with singular nouns and some only with plural nouns. Such adjectives as one, each, every, etc., can be used only with singular nouns. Such adjectives as several, various, many, sundry, two, etc., can be used only with plural nouns. In many cases, the noun which the adjective modifies is omitted, and the adjective thus acquires the force of a pronoun; as, Few are seen, Several have come.

The adjective pronouns this and that have plural forms, these and those. The plurals must be used with plural nouns. To say those kind is then incorrect. It should be those kinds. Those sort of men should be that sort of men or those sorts of men.

43. Either and neither are used to designate one of two objects only. If more than two are referred to, use any, none, any one, no one. Note the following correct sentences:

Neither John nor Henry may go.

Any one of the three boys may go.

44. Each other should be used when referring to two; one another when referring to more than two. Note the following correct sentences:

The two brothers love each other.

The four brothers love one another.

Exercise 24

Correct such of the following sentences as are incorrect. Be able to give reasons:

1. He is six foot tall.
2. I like those kind of fruit.
3. He lost several pound.
4. I have not seen him this twenty year.
5. Have you heard these news?
6. Are they those kind of people?
7. He rode ten mile.
8. There were fifteen car-load of people.
9. These kind of books are interesting.
10. Several phenomenon marked his character.
11. There are a few crisis in every man's career.
12. Each strata of the rock lies at an angle.
13. The poem has six verse in it.
14. Either of the five will do.
15. Little children should love each other.
16. Neither of the large cities in the United States is so large as London.
17. You will be able to find it in either one of those three books.
18. Those two brothers treat one another very coldly.
19. Neither of the many newspapers published an account of it.
20. Either law or medicine is his profession.
21. Some ten box of shoes were on the train.
22. Those two statements contradict one another.
23. The Sahara Desert has several oasis.
24. How can he associate with those sort of men?

45. Placing of Adverbs and Adjectives. In the placing of adjective elements and adverbial elements in the sentence, one should so arrange them as to leave no doubt as to what they are intended to modify.

Wrong: A man was riding on a horse wearing gray trousers.

Right: A man wearing gray trousers was riding on a horse.

The adverb only requires especial attention. Generally only should come before the word it is intended to modify. Compare the following correct sentences, and note the differences in meaning.

Only he found the book.

He only found the book.

He found only the book.

He found the book only.

The placing of the words, almost, ever, hardly, scarcely, merely, and quite, also requires care and thought.

Exercise 25

Correct the errors in the location of adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences:

1. I only paid five dollars.
2. I have only done six problems.
3. The clothing business is only profitable in large towns.
4. The school is only open in the evening.
5. I only need ten minutes in which to do it.
6. He had almost climbed to the top when the ladder broke.
7. I never expect to see the like again.
8. A black base-ball player's suit was found.
9. Do you ever remember to have seen the man before?
10. The building was trimmed with granite carved corners.
11. People ceased to wonder gradually.
12. The captain only escaped by hiding in a ditch.
13. I never wish to think of it again.
14. On the trip in that direction he almost went to Philadelphia.
15. Acetylene lamps are only used now in the country.
16. He only spoke of history, not of art.
17. I know hardly what to say.
18. I was merely talking of grammar, not of English literature.
19. The girls were nearly dressed in the same color.
20. He merely wanted to see you.

46. Double Negatives. I am here is called an affirmative statement. A denial of that, I am not here, is called a negative statement. The words, not, neither, never, none, nothing, etc., are all negative words; that is, they serve to make denials of statements.

Two negatives should never be used in the same sentence, since the effect is then to deny the negative you wish to assert, and an affirmative is made where a negative is intended. We haven't no books, means that we have some books. The proper negative form would be, We have no books, or We haven't any books. The mistake occurs usually where such forms as isn't, don't, haven't, etc., are used. Examine the following sentences:

Wrong: It isn't no use.

Wrong: There don't none of them believe it.

Wrong: We didn't do nothing.

Hardly, scarcely, only, and but (in the sense of only) are often incorrectly used with a negative. Compare the following right and wrong forms:

Wrong: It was so dark that we couldn't hardly see.

Right: It was so dark that we could hardly see.

Wrong: There wasn't only one person present.

Right: There was only one person present.

Exercise 26

Correct the following sentences:

1. I can't find it nowhere.
2. For a time I couldn't scarcely tell where I was.
3. They are not allowed to go only on holidays.
4. There isn't but one person that can make the speech.
5. They didn't find no treasure.
6. It won't take but a few minutes to read it all.
7. I haven't seen but two men there.
8. There isn't no one here who knows it.
9. I didn't see no fire; my opinion is that there wasn't no fire.
10. I can't hardly prove that statement.
11. I didn't feel hardly able to go.
12. She couldn't stay only a week.
13. I hadn't scarcely reached shelter when the storm began.
14. You wouldn't scarcely believe that it could be done.
15. He said that he wouldn't bring only his wife.
16. There isn't nothing in the story.
17. He doesn't do nothing.
18. I can't think of nothing but that.
19. He can't hardly mean that.
20. He isn't nowhere near so bright as I.
21. He can't hardly come to-night.
22. It is better to not think nothing about it.
23. She can't only do that.
24. There isn't no use of his objecting to it.
25. There shan't none of them go along with us.
26. Don't never do that again.
27. We could not find but three specimens of the plant.
28. He wasn't scarcely able to walk.
29. He hasn't none of his work prepared.

47. The Articles. A, an, and the, are called Articles. A and an are called the Indefinite Articles, because they are used to limit the noun to any one thing of a class; as, a book, a chair. But a or an is not used to denote the whole of that class; as, Silence is golden, or, He was elected to the office of President.

The is called the Definite Article because it picks out some one definite individual from a class.

In the sentence, On the street are a brick and a stone house, the article is repeated before each adjective; the effect of this repetition is to make the sentence mean two houses. But, in the sentence, On the street is a brick and stone house, since the article is used only before the first of the two adjectives, the sentence means that there is only one house and that it is constructed of brick and stone.

Where two nouns refer to the same object, the article need appear only before the first of the two; as, God, the author and creator of the universe. But where the nouns refer to two different objects, regarded as distinct from each other, the article should appear before each; as, He bought a horse and a cow.

A is used before all words except those beginning with a vowel sound. Before those beginning with a vowel sound an is used. If, in a succession of words, one of these forms could not be used before all of the words, then the article must be repeated before each. Thus, one should say, An ax, a saw, and an adze (not An ax, saw and adze), made up his outfit. Generally it is better to repeat the article in each case, whether or not it be the same.

Do not say, kind of a house. Since a house is singular, it can have but one kind. Say instead, a kind of house, a sort of man, etc.

Exercise 27

Correct the following where you think correction is needed:

1. Where did you get that kind of a notion?
2. She is an eager and an ambitious girl.
3. He received the degree of a Master of Arts.
4. The boy and girl came yesterday.
5. Neither the man nor woman was here.
6. He was accompanied by a large and small man.
7. He planted an oak, maple and ash.
8. The third of the team were hurt.
9. The noun and verb will be discussed later.
10. I read a Pittsburg and Philadelphia paper.
11. Read the third and sixth sentence.
12. Read the comments in a monthly and weekly periodical.
13. He is dying from the typhoid fever.
14. He was elected the secretary and the treasurer of the association.
15. What sort of a student are you?
16. He is a funny kind of a fellow.
17. Bring me a new and old chair.
18. That is a sort of a peculiar idea.
19. He was operated upon for the appendicitis.
20. Lock the cat and dog up.

48. No adverb necessary to the sense should be omitted from the sentence. Such improper omission is frequently made when very or too are used with past participles that are not also recognized as adjectives; as,

Poor: I am very insulted. He was too wrapped in thought to notice the mistake.

Right: I am very much insulted. He was too much wrapped in thought to notice the mistake.

Exercise 28

Write sentences containing the following adjectives and adverbs. Be sure that they are used correctly.

Both, each, every, only, evidently, hard, latest, awful, terribly, charming, charmingly, lovely, brave, perfect, straight, extreme, very, either, neither, larger, oldest, one, none, hardly, scarcely, only, but, finally, almost, ever, never, new, newly, very.