VERBS

49. A Verb has already been defined as a word stating something about the subject. Verbs are inflected or changed to indicate the time of the action as past, present, or future; as, I talk, I talked, I shall talk, etc. Verbs also vary to indicate completed or incompleted action; as, I have talked, I shall have talked, etc. To these variations, which indicate the time of the action, the name Tense is given.

The full verbal statement may consist of several words; as, He may have gone home. Here the verb is may have gone. The last word of such a verb phrase is called the Principal Verb, and the other words the Auxiliaries. In the sentence above, go (gone) is the principal verb, and may and have are the auxiliaries.

50. In constructing the full form of the verb or verb phrase there are three distinct parts from which all other forms are made. These are called the Principal Parts.

The First Principal Part, since it is the part by which the verb is referred to as a word, may be called the Name-Form. The following are name-forms: do, see, come, walk, pass.

The Second Principal Part is called the Past Tense. It is formed by adding ed to the name-form; as, walked, pushed, passed. These verbs that add ed are called Regular Verbs. The verb form is often entirely changed; as, done (do), saw (see), came (come). These verbs are called Irregular Verbs.

The Third Principal Part is called the Past Participle. It is used mainly in expressing completed action or in the passive voice. In regular verbs the past participle is the same in form as the past tense. In irregular verbs it may differ entirely from both the name-form and the past tense, or it may resemble one or both of them. Examples: done (do, did), seen (see, saw), come (come, came), set (set, set).

51. The name-form, when unaccompanied by auxiliaries, is used with all subjects, except those in the third person singular, to assert action in the present time or present tense; as, I go, We come, You see, Horses run.

The name-form is also used with various auxiliaries (may, might, can, must, will, should, shall, etc.) to assert futurity, determination, possibility, possession, etc. Examples: I may go, We shall come, You can see, Horses should run.

By preceding it with the word to, the name-form is used to form what is called the Present Infinitive; as, I wish to go, I hope to see.

What may be called the s-form of the verb, or the singular form, is usually constructed by adding s or es to the name-form. The s-form is used with singular subjects in the third person; as, He goes, She comes, It runs, The dog trots.

The s-form is found in the third personal singular of the present tense. In other tenses, if present at all, the s-form is in the auxiliary, where the present tense of the auxiliary is used to form some other tense of the principal verb. Examples: He has (present tense), He has gone (perfect tense), He has been seen.

Some verbs have no s-form; as, will, shall, may. The verb be has two irregular s-forms: Is, in the present tense, and was in the past tense. The s-form of have is has.

52. The past tense always stands alone in the predicate; i.e., it should never be used with any auxiliaries. To use it so, however, is one of the most frequent errors in grammar. The following are past tense forms: went, saw, wore, tore. To say, therefore, I have saw, I have went, It was tore, They were wore, would be grossly incorrect.

53. The third principal part, the past participle, on the other hand, can never be used as a predicate verb without an auxiliary. The following are distinctly past participle forms: done, seen, sung, etc. One could not then properly say, I seen, I done, I sung, etc.

The distinction as to use with and without auxiliaries applies, of course, only to irregular verbs. In regular verbs, the past tense and past participle are always the same, and so no error could result from their confusion.

The past participle is used to form the Perfect Infinitives; as, to have gone, to have seen, to have been seen.

54. The following is a list of the principal parts of the most important irregular verbs. The list should be mastered thoroughly. The student should bear in mind always that, the past tense form should never be used with an auxiliary, and that the past participle form should never be used as a predicate verb without an auxiliary.

In some instances verbs have been included in the list below which are always regular in their forms, or which have both regular and irregular forms. These are verbs for whose principal parts incorrect forms are often used.

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS

Name-form	Past Tense	Past Participle
awake	awoke or awaked	awaked
begin	began	begun
beseech	besought	besought
bid (to order or to greet)	bade	bidden or bid
bid (at auction)	bid	bidden or bid
blow	blew	blown
break	broke	broken
burst	burst	burst
choose	chose	chosen
chide	chid	chidden or chid
come	came	come
deal	dealt	dealt
dive	dived	dived
Name-form	Past Tense	Past Participle
do	did	done
draw	drew	drawn
drink	drank	drunk or drank
drive	drove	driven
eat	ate	eaten
fall	fell	fallen
flee	fled	fled
fly	flew	flown
forsake	forsook	forsaken
forget	forgot	forgot or forgotten
freeze	froze	frozen
get	got	got (gotten)
give	gave	given
go	went	gone
hang (clothes)	hung	hung
hang (a man)	hanged	hanged
know	knew	known
lay	laid	laid
lie	lay	lain
mean	meant	meant
plead	pleaded	pleaded
prove	proved	proved
ride	rode	ridden
raise	raised	raised
rise	rose	risen
run	ran	run
see	saw	seen
seek	sought	sought
set	set	set
shake	shook	shaken
shed	shed	shed
shoe	shod	shod
sing	sang	sung
sit	sat	sat
slay	slew	slain
sink	sank	sunk
speak	spoke	spoken
Name-form	Past Tense	Past Participle
steal	stole	stolen
swim	swam	swum
take	took	taken
teach	taught	taught
tear	tore	torn
throw	threw	thrown
tread	trod	trod or trodden
wake	woke or waked	woke or waked
wear	wore	worn
weave	wove	woven
write	wrote	written

Notes.—Ought has no past participle. It may then never be used with an auxiliary. I had ought to go is incorrect. The idea would be amply expressed by I ought to go.

Model conjugations of the verbs to be and to see in all forms are given under §77 at the end of this chapter.

Exercise 29

In the following sentences change the italicized verb so as to use the past tense, and then so as to use the past participle:

Example:	(Original sentence),	The guests begin to go home.
	(Changed to past tense),	The guests began to go home.
	(Changed to past participle),	The guests have begun to go home.

1. Our books lie on the mantel.
2. John comes in and lays his books on the desk.
3. I see the parade.
4. He runs up the road.
5. They set their chairs in a row.
6. The noise wakes me.
7. CÆsar bids him enter.
8. If they prove their innocence, they should be discharged.
9. His friends plead strongly for him.
10. Do you know what they mean by that?
11. I awake early every morning.
12. He begins to think of strange things.
13. The children beseech me to go with them.
14. My mother bids me to say that she will be here at six.
15. Smith bids fifty dollars for the chair.
16. My servants break many dishes.
17. They choose their associates.
18. The box bursts open.
19. His mother chides him for his misbehavior.
20. He comes here every day.
21. I deal there this week.
22. The boys dive beautifully.
23. You do so much more than is necessary.
24. They draw lots for the watch.
25. Jones drinks this wine very seldom.
26. They drive over to Milton once a week.
27. They drive a sorrel horse.
28. The cows eat grass.
29. The Gauls flee before CÆsar.
30. The swallows all fly into the chimney at evening.
31. They forsake the cause without any reason.
32. CÆsar gives them no answer.
33. They get no money for their services.
34. You forget that we have no right to do that.
35. Water freezes at thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit.
36. The ball goes to the opposing team.
37. You hang the rope on the tree.
38. The sheriff hangs the murderer at noon.
39. I know of nothing more worrying.
40. She lays the knife on the table.
41. They lie in bed until eleven.
42. Why they rise so late, I do not know.
43. They raise no objection.
44. John runs very rapidly.
45. You sit very quietly.
46. CÆsar seeks to learn the intention of the enemy.
47. The politician vigorously shakes all hands.
48. The roof sheds water in all storms.
49. The blacksmith shoes horses.
50. The choir sings for each service.
51. You speak too rapidly to be easily understood.
52. Few men steal because they want to.
53. I swim one hundred yards very readily.
54. They teach all the elementary branches there.
55. You take all subscriptions for the concert.
56. Those clothes tear readily.
57. They tread the grapes in making wine.
58. Who throws paper on the floor?
59. I always wear old clothes in which to work.
60. She writes to her mother daily.
61. They weave the best rugs in Philadelphia.

Exercise 30

Write original sentences containing the following verbs, correctly used:

Begun, blew, bidden, bad, chose, broke, come, dealt, dived, drew, driven, flew, forsook, froze, given, give, gave, went, hanged, knew, rode, pleaded, ran, seen, saw, shook, shod, sung, slew, spoke, swum, taken, torn, wore, threw, woven, wrote, written.

Exercise 31

Insert the proper form of the verb in the following sentences. The verb to be used is in black-faced type at the beginning of each group:

1. Begin. He —— to act at once. The reports —— to disturb him a little. He has —— to feel hurt over them.
2. Bid. The proprietor —— us a pleasant good day. No matter how much he —— the auctioneer will not hear him. We were —— to enter.
3. Blow. The cornetist —— with all his might. The ship was —— about all day. The wind does —— terrifically sometimes. It may —— to-night. The wind —— all last night.
4. Break. He fell and —— his leg. It is well that his neck was not ——.
5. Burst. During the battle the shells frequently —— right over us. Oaken casks have often ——.
6. Chide. He —— us frequently about our actions. He was never —— himself.
7. Choose. They —— him president. They have —— wisely.
8. Come. He —— at nine to-day. He has always —— earlier heretofore. Let him —— when he wishes.
9. Deal. Before explaining the game, he —— out the cards.
10. Dive. Twice last summer he —— off the bridge.
11. Do. Thou canst not say I —— it. He often —— it.
12. Draw. The picture was —— by a famous artist. He formerly —— very well, but I think that now he —— very poorly.
13. Drive. The horse was —— twenty miles. He almost —— it to death.
14. Eat. He —— everything which the others had not ——. How can he —— that?
15. Flee. Since the cashier has ——, they think that a warrant would be useless.
16. Fly. The air-ship —— three hundred miles on its first trip. That it has —— so far is sufficient proof of its success.
17. Forsake. He —— his new friends just as he had —— all the others.
18. Freeze. The man was —— stiff. He evidently —— to death so easily because he had been so long without food.
19. Give. She was not —— as much as her sisters. Her father —— her less because of her extravagance. But, he now —— her enough to make it up.
20. Go. She —— to school to-day. She —— yesterday. She has —— every day this month.
21. Know. He —— that he cannot live. As long as I have —— him, this is the first time I ever —— he was married.
22. Mean. He —— to do right, and has always —— to do so.
23. Ride. They —— as if they had —— a long distance. They say that they —— from Larimer this morning.
24. Plead. The mother —— an hour for her son's life.
25. Prove. They —— him a thief in the eyes of the people, even if he was not —— so to the satisfaction of the jury.
26. Run. John —— the race as though he had —— races all his life. The race was —— very rapidly. Soon after that race, he —— in another race.
27. See. Smith, who has just arrived, says he —— two men skulking along the road. He was not —— by them. That play is the best I ever ——.
28. Seek. The detectives —— all through the slums for him. Now they —— him in the better parts of the city. No criminal was ever more eagerly ——.
29. Shake. During the day his hand was —— five hundred times. He —— hands with all who came.
30. Shoe. The entire army was —— with Blank's shoes.
31. Sing. The choir —— the anthem as they had never —— it before. They always —— it well.
32. Sink. The stone —— as soon as it is in the water. The ship was —— in forty fathoms of water. They —— the ship in 1861.
33. Speak. Though they claimed that they always —— to her, she was really never —— to by any member of the family.
34. Steal. The money was ——; whether or not he —— it I do not know. Everyone believes that he has frequently —— goods from the store.
35. Take. I was —— for him several times that day. No one ever —— me for him before.
36. Teach. John —— school every day. He has —— for ten years. He first —— when he was eighteen years old.
37. Tear. The dog —— at the paper until it was —— entirely to pieces. He —— up everything he finds.
38. Throw. He was —— by a horse which never before —— anyone.
39. Wear. The trousers were —— entirely out in a month, but I —— the coat and vest for six months.
40. Weave. This carpet was —— at Philadelphia. The manufacturers say they never —— a better one, and they —— the best in the country.
41. Write. Although he has —— several times, he has never —— anything about that. He —— to me just last week. He —— at least once a month.

Exercise 32

Correct the errors in the use of verbs in the following sentences:

1. He plead all day to be released.
2. The horse was rode to death.
3. The letter was wrote before he knowed the truth.
4. He was immediately threw out of the room.
5. She run around all day and then was sick the next day.
6. I never seen anything like it.
7. He was very much shook by the news.
8. The matter was took up by the committee.
9. The horse has been stole from the owner.
10. Goliath was slew by David.
11. The words have been spoke in anger.
12. I have went to church every day.
13. Was the river froze enough for skating?
14. He begun to take notice immediately.
15. The umbrella was blew to pieces.
16. I have broke my ruler.
17. Jones was chose as leader of the class.
18. He said he come as soon as he could.
19. I done it.
20. I have never did anything so foolish.
21. I have ate all that was in the lunch-box.
22. The horse was drove ten miles.

Exercise 33

Write sentences in which the following verb forms are properly used:

begun, blew, broke, chose, come, came, done, did, drew, drunk, drove, ate, flew, forsook, froze, forgot, gave, give, went, hang, hung, knew, rode, run, shook, sung, slew, spoke, stole, took, tore, threw, wore, wrote.

55. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. A Transitive Verb is one in which the action of the verb goes over to a receiver; as, He killed the horse, I keep my word. In both these sentences, the verb serves to transfer the action from the subject to the object or receiver of the action. The verbs in these sentences, and all similar verbs, are transitive verbs. All others, in which the action does not go to a receiver, are called Intransitive Verbs.

56. Active and Passive Voice. The Active Voice represents the subject as the doer of the action; as, I tell, I see, He makes chairs. The Passive Voice represents the subject as the receiver of the action; as, I am told, I am seen, I have been seen, Chairs are made by me. Since only transitive verbs can have a receiver of the action, only transitive verbs can have both active and passive voice.

57. There are a few special verbs in which the failure to distinguish between the transitive and the intransitive verbs leads to frequent error. The most important of these verbs are the following: sit, set, awake, wake, lie, lay, rise, arise, raise, fell, and fall. Note again the principal parts of these verbs:

wake (to rouse another)	woke, waked	woke, waked
awake (to cease to sleep)	awoke, awaked	awaked
fell (to strike down)	felled	felled
fall (to topple over)	fell	fallen
lay (to place)	laid	laid
lie (to recline)	lay	lain
raise (to cause to ascend)	raised	raised
(a)rise (to ascend)	(a)rose	(a)risen
set (to place)	set	set
sit (to rest)	sat	sat

The first of each pair of the above verbs is transitive, and the second is intransitive. Only the first, then, of each pair can have an object or can be used in the passive voice.

NOTES.—The following exceptions in the use of sit and set are, by reason of usage, regarded as correct: The sun sets, The moon sets, They sat themselves down to rest, and He set out for Chicago.

Lie, meaning to deceive, has for its principal parts, lie, lied, lied. Lie, however, with this meaning is seldom confused with lie meaning to recline. The present participle of lie is lying.

Compare the following sentences, and note the reasons why the second form in each case is the correct form.

WRONG	RIGHT
Awake me early to-morrow.	Wake me early to-morrow.
He was awoke by the noise.	He was woke (waked) by the noise.
He has fallen a tree.	He has felled a tree.
I have laid down.	I have lain down.
I lay the book down (past tense).	I laid the book down.
The river has raised.	The river has risen.
He raised in bed.	He rose in bed.
I set there.	I sat there.
I sat the chair there.	I set the chair there.

Exercise 34

Form an original sentence showing the proper use of each of the following words:

Lie, lay (to place), sit, set, sat, sitting, setting, lie (to recline), lie (to deceive), lying, laying, rise, arose, raised, raise, fell (to topple over), fallen, felled, awake, wake, awaked, woke, falling, felling, rising, raising, waking, awaking, lain, laid, lied.

Exercise 35

Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:

1. Let sleeping dogs lay.
2. The sun has sat in the golden west.
3. He has laid in bed all morning.
4. He will sit out on his journey this morning.
5. Let him sit there as long as he wishes.
6. He sat the chair by the table.
7. He awoke everybody at daylight.
8. He laid down to sleep.
9. Let him lie there until he wakes.
10. The shower has lain the dust.
11. The curtain raised because it was raised by his orders.
12. The river has risen four feet.
13. Falling trees is his amusement.
14. To have been awaked then would have been sad.
15. To have waked then would have been sad.
16. Waking at dawn, they renewed the journey.
17. He has set there all day.
18. He lay the papers before the judge.
19. The judge laid the papers aside.
20. Lieing in the shade is his most strenuous occupation.

Exercise 36

In the following sentences fill the blanks with the proper forms of the verbs indicated:

SIT AND SET

1. I —— in that seat all the evening.
2. Please —— here until I return.
3. He was still ——ting there on my return.
4. The sun —— in the west.
5. He —— out for home yesterday.
6. —— down and rest awhile.
7. James —— down and talked to me.
8. He was engaged in ——ting out flowers.
9. I —— the bucket on the rock above the bridge.
10. Last evening we —— at the table for more than an hour.
11. —— here until I call my mother.
12. —— the lamp on the table.
13. He has —— there all day.
14. The chair was —— by the desk.
15. I usually —— up until twelve.
16. She —— the hen on some eggs and she remained —— there.
17. She told me to —— there, and I —— down.
18. By whom has the lamp been —— there?
19. I —— my chair by the window and —— there all the afternoon.
20. How can she —— still for so long?
21. The moon —— at twelve.

LAY AND LIE

1. I —— down this afternoon to rest.
2. I —— in bed until late every morning.
3. I have frequently —— in bed until eleven.
4. He always —— his books on the desk.
5. He just now —— his books on the desk.
6. He has —— them there every morning.
7. His books have sometimes —— there all day.
8. His books have sometimes been ——ing there before I arrive.
9. 9. After he —— down he remembered that he had left a letter on his desk.
10. Will it not be well for you to —— down for a while?
11. I —— on the grass yesterday for an hour or more.
12. I have —— down and feel much better.
13. Now I —— me down to sleep.
14. The scene of the play is —— in rural Pennsylvania.
15. The tramps —— behind the barn waiting for dawn.
16. I had —— down to rest before (set or sit) ting out on my journey.
17. The floor was —— by an expert carpenter.
18. She told me to —— the matter before the teacher.
19. —— down, Fido.
20. When we are weary, we —— down.
21. Who —— that on the table?
22. He has repeatedly —— about the matter.
23. He —— without the slightest hesitation.
24. ——ing down is a good way to rest.
25. ——ing is a sin.
26. He —— to his father, and his father knew it.

RAISE AND RISE (ARISE)

1. I will —— and go unto my father.
2. He has —— early to-day.
3. I do not know why he —— so early.
4. —— your hand if you know.
5. Everyone —— his hand.
6. They have all —— their hands.
7. All their hands were —— at once.
8. The price of meat has ——.
9. The bread would not ——.
10. I —— in order that I might see better.
11. The flag was very carefully ——.
12. He tried to —— himself from the condition into which he had fallen.
13. The curtain is to —— at eight. I myself shall see to ——ing it then.
14. The boy —— and answers.
15. He is —— rapidly to prominence.
16. Will you please —— the window?
17. The safe was —— by means of a rope.
18. It is like trying to —— one's self by one's boot-straps.
19. —— and march to the front of the room.
20. The river —— rapidly.

FELL AND FALL

1. Gladstone, when living, —— a tree each morning for exercise.
2. To —— an ox with one blow of the fist is a feat of wonderful strength.
3. He was —— to the earth by a blow from a club.
4. To —— often is to be expected in learning to skate.
5. ——ing down is a small matter to the young.
6. He has often —— from the roof of the porch.
7. After he —— once, he seemed to try to do so again.
8. I did not see him——.
9. Not a shot is fired but a bird ——.
10. Let the tree be —— across the road.
11. It is hard to avoid ——ing on the ice.

AWAKE AND WAKE

1. Have them —— me very early.
2. He went upstairs and —— his brother.
3. His brother did not wish to be —— so early.
4. This morning I —— at dawn.
5. It is unpleasant to —— so early.
6. You say that you have never —— after nine?
7. Who —— so early, this morning?
8. He would not say who —— him.
9. ——ing in the dead of night is unpleasant.
10. ——ing everybody up by their noise is an every night occurrence.
11. The sun —— me early.
12. The whole country-side seemed to —— at once.
13. He had himself —— at six o'clock.

58. Mode. Mode is that form of the verb which indicates the manner in which the action or state is to be regarded. There are several modes in English, but only between the indicative and subjunctive modes is the distinction important. Generally speaking, the Indicative Mode is used when the statement is regarded as a fact or as truth, and the Subjunctive Mode is used when the statement expresses uncertainty or implies some degree of doubt.

59. Forms of the Subjunctive. The places in which the subjunctive differs from the indicative are in the present and past tenses of the verb be, and in the present tense of active verbs. The following outline will show the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive of be:

INDICATIVE PRESENT OF BE		INDICATIVE PAST OF BE
I am	we are	I was	we were
thou art	you are	thou wert or wast	you were
he (she, it) is	they are	he (she, it) was	they were
SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT OF BE		SUBJUNCTIVE PAST OF BE
If I be	If we be	If I were	If we were
If thou be	If you be	If thou were	If you were
If he (she, it) be	If they be	If he (she, it) were	If they were

If is used only as an example of the conjunctions on which the subjunctive depends. Other conjunctions may be used, or the verb may precede the subject.

Note.—It will be noticed that thou art and thou wast, etc., have been used in the second person singular. Strictly speaking, these are the proper forms to be used here, even though you are and you were, etc., are customarily used in addressing a single person.

In the subjunctive of be, it will be noted that the form be is used throughout the present tense; and the form were throughout the past tense.

In other verbs the subjunctive, instead of having the s-form in the third person singular of the present tense, has the name-form, or the same form as all the other forms of the present tense; as, indicative, he runs, she sees, it seems, he has; subjunctive, if he run, though she see, lest it seem, if he have.

Note.—An examination of the model conjugations under §77 will give a further understanding of the forms of the subjunctive.

60. Use of Indicative and Subjunctive. The indicative mode would be properly used in the following sentence, when the statement is regarded as true: If that evidence is true, then he is a criminal. Similarly: If he is rich, he ought to be charitable. Most directly declarative statements are put in the indicative mode.

But when the sense of the statement shows uncertainty in the speaker's mind, or shows that the condition stated is regarded as contrary to fact or as untrue, the subjunctive is used. Note the two sentences following, in which the conditions are properly in the subjunctive: If those statements be true, then all statements are true, Were I rich, I might be charitable.

The subjunctive is usually preceded by the conjunctions, if, though, lest, although, or the verb precedes the subject. But it must be borne in mind that these do not always indicate the subjunctive mode. The use of the subjunctive depends on whether the condition is regarded as a fact or as contrary to fact, certain or uncertain.

It should be added that the subjunctive is perhaps going out of use; some of the best writers no longer use its forms. This passing of the subjunctive is to be regretted and to be discouraged, since its forms give opportunity for many fine shades of meaning.

Exercise 37

Write five sentences which illustrate the correct use of be in the third person singular without an auxiliary, and five which illustrate the correct use of were in the third person singular.

Exercise 38

Choose the preferable form in the following sentences, and be able to give a definite reason for your choice. In some of the sentences either form may be used correctly:

1. He acts as if it were was possible always to escape death.
2. If it was were near enough, I should walk.
3. If I was were only wealthy!
4. If I were was in his place, I should study medicine.
5. If you are be right, then the book is wrong.
6. If he was were I, he would come.
7. Though he was were very economical, he remained poor.
8. Though she was were an angel, I should dislike her.
9. If he be is there, ask him to pay the bill.
10. If he be is there, he makes no sign of his presence.
11. If this be is wrong, then all love of country is wrong.
12. If it rains rain, I stay at school.
13. Take care lest you are be deceived by appearances.
14. Would that I was were a bird.
15. If it snow snows, I can't come.
16. If your father comes come, bring him to dinner.
17. If your father was were here, you would act differently.
18. Though he were was king over all the earth I should despise him.
19. If he come comes, he will find me at home.
20. Was were it necessary, I should jump.
21. If to-morrow be is pleasant, we shall go driving.
22. If my mother was were here, she would say I might go.
23. If she was were at home, I did not hear of it.
24. If that is be his motive, he is unworthy.
25. Though this seem seems improbable, it is true.
26. If a speech is be praised by none but literary men, it is bad.
27. If the father pays pay the debt, he will be released.
28. Though Mary be is young, she is a writer of note.
29. Unless he takes take better care of his health, he will die.
30. If he be is honest, he has not shown it.
31. If he be is honest, he will insist on paying me.
32. If he ever tell tells the truth, he conceals the fact.

61. Agreement of Verb with its Subject. The verb should agree with its subject in person and number. The most frequent error is the failure of the verb to agree in number with its subject. Singular subjects are used with plural verbs, and plural subjects with singular verbs. These errors arise chiefly from a misapprehension of the true number of the subject.

The s-form of the verb is the only distinct singular form, and occurs only in the third person, singular, present indicative; as, He runs, she goes, it moves. Is, was, and has are the singular forms of the auxiliaries. Am is used only with a subject in the first person, and is not a source of confusion. The other auxiliaries have no singular forms.

Failure of the verb and its subject to agree in person seldom occurs, and so can cause little confusion.

Examine the following correct forms of agreement of verb and subject:

A barrel of clothes was shipped (not were shipped).

A man and a woman have been here (not has been here).

Boxes are scarce (not is scarce).

When were the brothers here (not when was)?

62. Agreement of Subject and Verb in Number. The general rule to be borne in mind in regard to number, is that it is the meaning and not the form of the subject that determines whether to use the singular or the plural form of the verb. This rule also applies to the use of singular or plural pronouns.

Many nouns plural in form are singular in meaning; as, politics, measles, news, etc.

Many, also, are treated as plurals, though in meaning they are singular; as, forceps, tongs, trousers.

Some nouns, singular in form, are, according to the sense in which, they are used, either singular or plural in meaning; as, committee, family, pair, jury, assembly, means. The following sentences are all correct: The assembly has closed its meeting, The assembly are all total abstainers, The whole family is a famous one, The whole family are sick.

In the use of the adjective pronouns, some, each, etc., the noun is often omitted. When this is done, error is often made by using the wrong number of the verb. Each, either, neither, this, that, and one, when used alone as subjects, require singular verbs. All, those, these, few, many, always require plural verbs. Any, none, and some may take either singular or plural verbs. In most of these cases, as is true throughout the subject of agreement in number, reason will determine the form to be used.

Some nouns in a plural form express quantity rather than number. When quantity is plainly intended the singular verb should be used. Examine the following sentences; each is correct: Three drops of medicine is a dose, Ten thousand tons of coal was purchased by the firm, Two hundred dollars was the amount of the collection, Two hundred silver dollars were in the collection.

Exercise 39

In each of the following sentences, by giving a reason, justify the correctness of the agreement in number of the verb and the noun:

1. The jury have agreed.
2. The jury has been sent out to reconsider its verdict.
3. The committee has presented its report, but they have differed in regard to one matter.
4. The whole tribe was destroyed.
5. The tribe were scattered through the different states.
6. The regiment were almost all sick.
7. A variety of persons was there.
8. The society meets each month.
9. The society is divided in its opinion.
10. A number were unable to be present.
11. A great number was present.
12. The number present was great.
13. What means were used to gain his vote?
14. That means of gaining votes is corrupt.
15. Seventeen pounds was the cat's weight.
16. Twenty years of his life was spent in prison.
17. Two hundred pounds was his weight.
18. The family are all at home.
19. The family is large.
20. A pair of gloves has been lost.
21. A pair of twins were sitting in the doorway.
22. The army was defeated.

Exercise 40

Construct sentences in which each of the words named below is used correctly as the subject of some one of the verbs, is, was, has, have, are, was, have, go, goes, run, runs, come, comes:

One, none, nobody, everybody, this, that, these, those, former, latter, few, some, many, other, any, all, such, news, pains, measles, gallows, ashes, dregs, goods, pincers, thanks, victuals, vitals, mumps, flock, crowd, fleet, group, choir, class, army, mob, tribe, herd, committee, tons, dollars, bushels, carloads, gallons, days, months.

Exercise 41

Go over each of the above sentences and determine whether it or they should be used in referring to the subject.

63. The following rules govern the agreement of the verb with a compound subject:

1. When a singular noun is modified by two adjectives so as to mean two distinct things, the verb should be in the plural; as, French and German literature are studied.

2. When the verb applies to the different parts of the compound subject, the plural form of the verb should be used; as, John and Harry are still to come.

3. When the verb applies to one subject and not to the others, it should agree with that subject to which it applies; as, The employee, and not the employers, was to blame, The employers, and not the employee, were to blame, The boy, as well as his sisters, deserves praise.

4. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, each in the singular, the verb should be singular; as, Each book and each paper was in its place, No help and no hope is found for him, Either one or the other is he, Neither one nor the other is he.

5. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, some of which are singular and some plural, it should agree with the subject nearest to it; as, Neither the boy, nor his sisters deserve praise, Neither the sisters nor the boy deserves praise.

6. When a verb separates its subjects, it should agree with the first; as, The leader was slain and all his men, The men were slain, and also the leader.

Exercise 42

Choose the proper form of the verb in the following sentences:

1. Hard and soft coal is are used.
2. The boy and the girl have has come.
3. Neither James nor I are is to go.
4. Neither James nor they are is to go.
5. Henry, and not his sister, is are sure to be invited.
6. The children and their father was were on the train.
7. Each man and each woman was were present.
8. Either Tennyson or Wordsworth was were the author of that poem.
9. Either the man or his children was were lost.
10. Either the children or their father was were lost.
11. Bread and milk are is frugal but wholesome fare.
12. The teacher was were cut off by the fire, and also her pupils.
13. The pupils was were cut off by the fire, and also the teacher.
14. Dogs and cats is are useless animals.
15. Neither the daughters nor their mother is are at home.
16. Either the soldier or his officers is are mistaken.
17. The cat and all her kittens was were at the door.
18. Tennyson, not Wordsworth, were was the author.
19. Each of the trustees has have a vote.
20. Our success or our failure is are due solely to ourselves.
21. Neither sincerity nor cordiality characterize characterizes him.
22. Everyone of these chairs is are mine.
23. Each day and each hour bring brings new questions.
24. The car and all its passengers was were blown up.
25. The ambition and activity of the man has have been the cause causes of his success.
26. Old and new hay is are equally good for horses.
27. Matthew or Paul are is responsible for that belief.
28. A man, a woman, and a child is are comprised in the group.
29. The pupils and also the teacher were was embarrassed.
30. The teacher and also the pupils were was embarrassed.
31. Neither he nor I are is am going.
32. Book after book was were taken from the shelves.
33. Either Aunt Mary or her daughters is are coming.
34. Either the daughters or Aunt Mary is are coming.
35. Aunt Mary, but not her daughters, is are coming.
36. The daughters, but not Aunt Mary, is are coming.
37. Both Aunt Mary and her daughter is are coming.
38. Mary, and not her mother, is are coming.
39. No preacher and no woman is are allowed to enter.
40. Every adult man and woman has have a vote.
41. Money, if not culture, gains gain a way.
42. Brain power, as well as money, talk talks.
43. Each boy and girl bring brings books.

64. Some miscellaneous cautions in regard to agreement in number:

1. Do not use a plural verb after a singular subject modified by an adjective phrase; as, The thief, with all his booty, was captured.

2. Do not use a singular form of the verb after you and they. Say: You were, they are, they were, etc., not, you was, they was, etc.

3. Do not mistake a noun modifier for the noun subject. In the sentence, The sale of boxes was increased, sale, not boxes, is the subject of the verb.

4. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the number and the person of the antecedent determine the number and the person of the verb. Both of the following sentences are correct: He is the only one of the men that is to be trusted, He is one of those men that are to be trusted. It is to be remembered that the singulars and the plurals of the relative pronouns are alike in form; that, who, etc., may refer to one or more than one.

5. Do not use incorrect contractions of the verb with not. Don't cannot be used with he or she or it, or with any other singular subject in the third person. One should say, He doesn't, not he don't; it doesn't, not it don't; man doesn't, not man don't. The proper form of the verb that is being contracted in these instances is does, not do. Ain't and hain't are always wrong; no such contractions are recognized. Such colloquial contractions as don't, can't, etc., should not be used at all in formal composition.

Exercise 43

Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:

1. The ship, with all her crew, were lost.
2. You was there, John, was you not?
3. They was never known to do that before.
4. A barrel of apples were sold
5. How many were there who was there?
6. This is one of the books that is always read.
7. He don't know his own relatives.
8. I ain't coming to-night.
9. The art gallery, with all its pictures, was destroyed.
10. John, when was you in the city?
11. The book, with all its errors, is valuable.
12. Who they was, I couldn't tell.
13. This is one of the mountains which are called "The Triplets."
14. This is one of the eleven pictures that has gained prizes.
15. The hands of the clock is wrong.
16. The gallery of pictures are splendid.
17. This is one of those four metals that is valuable.
18. This is the one of those four metals that are valuable.
19. That answer, as you will see, hain't right.
20. The whole box of books were shipped.

Exercise 44

In the following sentences correct such as are wrong:

1. "Cows" are a common noun.
2. Such crises seldom occurs.
3. Fifty dollars were given him as a present.
4. There were four men, each of which were sent by a different bank.
5. At that time the morals of men were very low.
6. Mathematics are my most interesting study.
7. There was once two boys who was imprisoned in the Tower.
8. The jury is delivering its verdict.
9. The "Virginians" is a famous book.
10. Ten minutes were given him in which to answer.
11. Everyone of these farms are mine.
12. Lee, with his whole army, surrender.
13. Farm after farm were passed by the train.
14. He is one of the greatest men that has ever been president.
15. Three hundred miles of wires were cut down.
16. Three fourths of his time are wasted.
17. Three quarts of oats is all that is needed.
18. A variety of sounds charms the ear.
19. A variety of recitations were given.
20. The committee have adjourned.
21. Washington was one of the greatest generals that has ever lived.
22. Take one of the books that is lying on the table.
23. The house is one of those that overlooks the bay.
24. Question after question were propounded to him.
25. He was one of the best orators that has been produced by the school.
26. He is one of those persons who are quick to learn.
27. A black and white horse were in the ring.
28. A black and a white horse was in the ring.
29. The committee disagree on some points.
30. Mary, where was you yesterday?
31. The end and aim of his life are to get money.
32. All the crop were lost.
33. One of them are gone.
34. There comes the children.
35. Were either of these men elected?
36. The alumni of this school is not very loyal.
37. There seem to be few here.
38. There seems to be a few here.
39. Neither of the letters were received.
40. In all those songs there are a sprightliness and charm.
41. The Association of Engineers are still flourishing.
42. Neither John nor Henry have come.
43. Either this book or that are wrong.
44. This book and that is wrong.
45. This book, not that, is wrong.
46. Either this book or those students is wrong.
47. Either those students, or this book is wrong.
48. This chemical with its compounds were the agents used in tanning.

65. Use of Shall and Will. The use of the auxiliaries, shall and will, with their past tenses, is a source of very many errors. The following outline will show the correct use of shall and will, except in dependent clauses and questions:

To indicate simple futurity or probability:

Use shall with I and we; use will with all other subjects.

To indicate promise, determination, threat, or command on the part of the speaker; i.e., action which the speaker means to control;

Use will with I and we; use shall with all other subjects.

Examine the following examples of the correct use of shall and will:

Statements as to probable future events:

We shall probably be there.
I think you will want to be there.
It will rain before night.

Statements of determination on the part of the speaker:

I will come in spite of his command.
You shall go home.
It shall not happen again, I promise you.

66. Shall and Will in Questions. In interrogative sentences shall should always be used with the first person. In the second and third persons that auxiliary should be used which is logically expected in the answer.

Examine the agreement in the use of shall and will in the following questions and answers:

QUESTIONS.	ANSWERS.
Shall I miss the car?	You will miss it.
Shall you be there?	I think I shall (probability).
Will he do it?	I think he will (assertion).
Shall your son obey the teacher?	He shall (determination).
Will you promise to come?	We will come (promise).

67. Shall and Will in Dependent Clauses. In dependent clauses which are introduced by that, expressed or understood, the auxiliary should be used which would be proper if the dependent clause were a principal clause. The sentence, They assure us that they shall come, is wrong. The direct assurance would be, We will come. The auxiliary, then, in a principal clause would be will. Will should, therefore, be the auxiliary in the dependent construction, and the sentence should read, They assure us that they will come. Further examples:

I suppose we shall have to pay.
He thinks that you will be able to do it.
He has decided that John shall replace the book.

In all dependent clauses expressing a condition or contingency use shall with all subjects. Examples;

If he shall go to Europe, it will be his tenth trip abroad.
If you shall go away, who will run the farm?
If I shall die, I shall die as an honest man.

Exercise 45

Justify the correct use of shall and will in the following sentences:

1. I will go if you wish.
2. I shall probably go if you wish.
3. I will have it in spite of all you can do.
4. We shall return by way of Dover.
5. We will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer.
6. I feel that I shall not live long.
7. We think we shall come to-morrow.
8. I promise you, the money shall be raised.
9. You will then go to Philadelphia.
10. You shall never hear from me again.
11. He will surely come to-morrow.
12. How shall you answer him?
13. I think I shall ride.
14. He is sure they will come.
15. He is sure that I will come.
16. Shall you be there?
17. Will he who fails be allowed to have a reexamination?
18. Will you be there?
19. Will all be there?
20. He says he shall be there.
21. He has promised that he will be there.
22. I fear that he will fail to pass.
23. We think she will soon be well.
24. We are determined that they shall pay.
25. We expect that they will bring their books.
26. I doubt that he will pay.
27. We have promised that we will do it.
28. If he shall ask, shall I refer him to you?

Exercise 46

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with shall or will:

1. I think I —— find the work easy.
2. I —— probably be refused, but I —— go anyway.
3. —— you be busy to-night? Yes, I —— be in class until ten.
4. I —— probably fail to pass the examination.
5. If no one assists me, I —— drown.
6. No. I —— never sell my library.
7. If I fail I —— be obliged to take an examination.
8. —— my men begin work to-day?
9. —— you stop at Chicago on your way West? No, I don't, think I ——.
10. —— you promise me to sing at the concert to-night? Yes, I —— sing to-night.
11. —— I put more wood on the fire?
12. I —— be lost; no one —— help me.
13. It —— be there when you need it.
14. It is demanded that the pupils —— be orderly and attentive.
15. I think it —— rain soon.
16. We —— be disappointed.
17. —— we be permitted to go?
18. We —— do it for you.
19. —— I go or remain at home?
20. I —— be very grateful to you if you —— do this.
21. If you —— ask her, she —— go with you.
22. If you —— stop, I —— go with you.
23. Where —— we join you?
24. I think we —— be there in time.
25. I —— go to the river for a boat ride.
26. When —— you be twenty years of age?
27. —— we ever see you again?
28. Perhaps we —— return next year.
29. We promise, we —— return.
30. You —— probably suffer for it.
31. I —— not impose on you in that way.
32. —— I ask for your mail?
33. I hope that we —— be there before the curtain rises.
34. —— they probably be there?
35. —— you please fetch me a paper?
36. —— we stop for you on our way downtown?
37. When —— I find you in your office?
38. They —— never do it if I can help.
39. You —— do as I say.
40. I —— never, never, go there again.
41. We —— decide what to do about that at our next meeting which —— be in October.
42. —— it make any difference to you?
43. —— I go with you?
44. No, you —— please stay here.
45. He —— never enter this house again.
46. It is believed that they —— probably be present.
47. He fears that he —— die.
48. He requests that you —— come to-day at seven o'clock.
49. She asks that it —— be sent at once.
50. It is thought that his death —— not seriously change things.
51. It is believed that the emperor —— have to retract.
52. A story is told that —— gain little credence.
53. I fear that I —— take cold.
54. She says that I —— take cold.
55. They say that they —— do it in spite of anything done to prevent.
56. He is determined that he —— go away.
57. She is determined that he —— go to school.
58. They say they —— probably not go.
59. John thinks he —— probably live to be past sixty.
60. He tells me that he thinks that he —— be elected.
61. They say that they —— meet you.
62. They assure us that we —— find good stores in Berlin.
63. He says he fears he —— miss his train.
64. Wright says his father —— become famous.
65. He writes that he —— be here to-day.
66. Do you say that you —— be present?
67. The book says that —— be wrong.
68. Does she say that she —— come?
69. I told you that I —— not come.
70. I tell you that she —— not come.
71. He says that he —— go as a matter of duty.
72. John says that —— not happen anyway.
73. Does he say that he —— surely come?
74. Does John write what he —— promise to do in the matter?
75. —— you be sure to be there?

Exercise 47

Write five sentences in which shall is used in an independent clause, and five in which shall is used in a dependent clause.

Write five sentences in which will is used in an independent clause, and five in which will is used in a dependent clause.

Write five interrogative sentences in which shall is used and five in which will is used.

68. Should and Would. Should and would are the past tenses of shall and will, and have corresponding uses. Should is used with I and we, and would with other subjects, to express mere futurity or probability. Would is used with I and we, and should with other subjects, to express conditional promise or determination on the part of the speaker. Examples:

Futurity:

I should be sorry to lose this book.
If we should be afraid of the storm, we should be foolish.
It was expected that they would be here.

Volition or determination:

If it should occur, we would not come.
It was promised that it should not occur again.
He decided that it should be done.

Should is sometimes used in the sense of ought, to imply duty; as, He should have gone to her aid.

Would is often used to indicate habitual action; as, This would often occur when he was preaching.

Exercise 48

Justify the correct use of should and would in the following sentences:

1. I feared that they would not come.
2. He should know his duty better than that.
3. I should be displeased if he would act that way.
4. We should be ruined if we did that.
5. You should have seen his face.
6. We would often take that road.
7. He said that he would come at once.
8. If that should happen, we should not come.
9. If you were I, what should you do?
10. I should see the president of the class.
11. We should have been at the meeting.
12. He said that we should have been at the meeting.
13. He promised that he would be at the meeting.
14. If I should say so, he would dislike me.
15. Should he come, I would go with him.
16. They would usually stop at the new hotel.
17. What would they do in the city?
18. She asked if she should write the letter.
19. She said they would write the letter.
20. She agreed that it would be right.
21. She assured us that she would attend to it.

Exercise 49

Fill in the blanks with should or would in the following sentences:

1. I fear I —— be drowned if I —— go swimming.
2. I —— be much pleased to meet him.
3. It was feared that they —— not accept.
4. If it —— storm, we —— not start.
5. She —— often come to class with no books.
6. I believed that he —— come late.
7. He —— never have been invited.
8. If that had become known, we —— surely have been ruined.
9. To think that he —— do such a thing!
10. I —— like to see the game.
11. You —— not enjoy it.
12. —— you like to see the game?
13. —— I bring my opera glasses?
14. Mary —— never have known it.
15. He —— have easily deceived her.
16. They were anxious that we —— not miss the train.
17. If we —— come late, —— it make any difference?
18. If they had proposed it, we —— have voted it down.
19. On what date —— that come?
20. I suppose I —— have done it; but, it —— have inconvenienced me.
21. Had Lee known that, he —— never have surrendered.
22. I —— never have believed she —— do such a thing.
23. We —— never have come.
24. —— you think him capable of such a trick?
25. I knew I —— not be here on time.
26. —— they dare to attempt opposition?
27. How —— you go about it?
28. Lincoln, under those circumstances, —— probable not have been elected.
29. It —— have changed our whole history.
30. He said that it —— have changed our whole history.
31. He said he —— come.
32. She thinks they —— not do it.
33. We believe that we —— like to go at once.
34. They say it —— be done now.
35. I think I —— like to go.

Exercise 50

Write five sentences in which should is used independently, and five in which should is used dependently.

Write five sentences in which would is used independently, and five in which would is used dependently.

Write five sentences in which should is used in questions, and five in which would is used in questions.

69. Use of May and Might, Can and Could. May, with its past tense, might, is properly used to denote permission. Can, with its past tense, could, refers to the ability or possibility to do a thing. These two words are often confused.

Exercise 51

Fill the blanks in the following sentences:

1. —— I go home?
2. —— we get tickets at that store?
3. —— the mountain be climbed?
4. —— we come into your office?
5. You —— stay as long as you wish.
6. —— you finish the work in an hour?
7. How —— you say such a thing?
8. Several people —— use the same book.
9. We —— afford to delay a while.
10. —— John go with me?
11. You —— often hear the noise.
12. What —— not be done in a week?
13. That —— be true, but it —— not be relied on.
14. What —— he do to prevent it?
15. When —— we hand in the work?

70. Participles and Gerunds. The past participle has already been mentioned as one of the principal parts of the verb. Generally, the participles are those forms of the verb that are used adjectively; as, seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen, seen, playing, having played, etc. In the following sentences note that the verb form in each case modifies a substantive: He, having been invited to dine, came early, John, being sick, could not come. The verb form in all these cases is called a participle, and must be used in connection with either a nominative or objective case of a noun or pronoun.

The Gerund is the same as the participle in its forms, but differs in that, while the participle is always used adjectively, the gerund is always used substantively; as, I told of his winning the race, After his asserting it, I believe the statement.

71. Misuses of Participles and Gerunds.

1. A participle should not be used unless it stands in a grammatical and logical relation to some substantive that is present in the sentence. Failure to follow this rule leads to the error known as the "dangling participle." It is wrong to say, The dish was broken, resulting from its fall, because resulting does not stand in grammatical relation to any word in the sentence. But it would be right to say, The dish was broken as a result of its fall. Examine, also, the following examples:

Wrong: I spent a week in Virginia, followed by a week at Atlantic City.

Right: I spent a week in Virginia, following it by a week at Atlantic City.

Right: I spent a week in Virginia, and then a week at Atlantic City.

2. A participle should not stand at the beginning of a sentence or principal clause unless it belongs to the subject of that sentence or clause. Compare the following:

Wrong: Having been sick, it was decided to remain at home.

Right: Having been sick, I decided to remain at home.

3. A participle preceded by thus should not be used unless it modifies the subject of the preceding verb. Compare the following:

Wrong: He had to rewrite several pages, thus causing him a great deal of trouble.

Right: He had to rewrite several pages, and was thus caused a great deal of trouble.

Right: He had to rewrite several pages, thus experiencing a great deal of trouble.

4. The gerund is often used as the object of a preposition, and frequently has a noun or pronoun modifier. Owing to confusion between the gerund and the participle, and to the failure to realize that the gerund can only be used substantively, the objective case of a modifying noun or pronoun is often wrongly used before the gerund. A substantive used with the gerund should always be in the possessive case. Say, I heard of John's coming, not, I heard of John coming.

5. When a gerund and a preposition are used, the phrase should be in logical and immediate connection with the substantive it modifies, and the phrase should never introduce a sentence unless it logically belongs to the subject of that sentence. Exception: When the gerund phrase denotes a general action, it may be used without grammatical connection to the sentence; as, In traveling, good drinking water is essential. Compare the following wrong and right forms:

Wrong: After seeing his mistake, a new start was made.

Right: After seeing his mistake, he made a new start.

Wrong: By writing rapidly, the work can be finished.

Right: By writing rapidly, you can finish the work.

Wrong: In copying the exercise, a mistake was made.

Right: In copying the exercise, I made a mistake.

Exercise 52

In the following sentences, choose the proper form of the substantive from those italicized:

1. He spoke of John John's coming down.
2. The idea of his him singing is absurd.
3. Do you remember me my speaking about it?
4. What is the use of you your reading that?
5. He his him being arrested was a sufficient disgrace.
6. He him his being now of age, sold the farm.
7. He him his selling it was very unexpected.
8. You should have heard him his telling the story.
9. You should have heard his him telling of the story.
10. To think of them they their having been seen there!
11. What is the object of Mary Mary's studying French?
12. It its being John was a great surprise.
13. What is the use of them they their talking so much?
14. John John's going to school takes all his evenings.
15. The beauty of James James's writing got him the position.
16. He had heard about me my coming to-day.
17. John John's coming was a surprise.

Exercise 53

Wherever participles or gerunds are improperly used in the following sentences, correct the sentences so as to avoid such impropriety. See §107 for rule as to punctuation:

1. Having assented to your plan, you try to hold me responsible.
2. He asked him to make the plans, owing to the need of an experienced architect.
3. It was decided to send his son abroad being anxious for his health.
4. On hearing that, a new plan was made.
5. Moving slowly past our window, we saw a great load of lumber.
6. Intending to go to the theater, the whole afternoon was spent in town.
7. He was taken into the firm, thus gaining an increased income.
8. Not having the lesson prepared, he told John to stay after class.
9. No letter was written for more than a week, causing considerable anxiety.
10. Expecting us to come, we disappointed him.
11. After telling me the story, I left him.
12. By reading aloud to the class, they do not gain much.
13. He had to wait several hours for the train, thus causing him to lose a great deal of valuable time.
14. After listening to his lecture for an hour he became tiresome.
15. We listened attentively to his lecture, thus showing our interest.

72. Infinitives. The Infinitives are formed by the word to and some part of the verb or of the verb and auxiliary. For see and play as model verbs, the infinitives are as follows:

PRESENT ACTIVE	PRESENT PASSIVE
to see	to be seen
to play	to be played
PRESENT PERFECT ACTIVE	PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE
to have seen	to have been seen
to have played	to have been played

The word to is frequently omitted. In general, other verbs follow the same endings and forms as do the infinitives above.

It is necessary to know the difference between the two tenses, since the misuse of tenses leads to a certain class of errors.

73. Sequence of Infinitive Tenses. The wrong tense of the infinitive is frequently used. The following rules should be observed:

1. If the action referred to by the infinitive is of the same time or of later time than that indicated by the predicate verb, the present infinitive should be used.

2. When the action referred to by the infinitive is regarded as completed at the time indicated by the predicate verb, the perfect infinitive should be used.

Examine the following examples:

Wrong: I should have liked to have gone.

Right: I should have liked to go (same or later time).

Right: I should like to have gone (earlier time).

Wrong: It was bad to have been discovered.

Right: It is bad to have been discovered (earlier time).

Right: It was bad to be discovered (same or later time).

Right: She did not believe her son to have committed the crime (earlier time).

Right: When he died, he believed himself to have been defeated for the office (earlier time.)

Exercise 54

In the following sentences choose the proper form from those italicized:

1. I was sorry to have heard to hear of John's death.
2. Should you have been willing to go to have gone with us?
3. The game was intended to be played to have been played yesterday.
4. I intended to write to have written long ago.
5. He wished to have met to meet you.
6. I should have liked to meet to have met you.
7. Mary was eager to have gone to go.
8. Nero was seen to have fiddled to fiddle while Rome burned.
9. Nero is said to have fiddled to fiddle while Rome burned.
10. This was to be done to have been done yesterday.
11. They agreed to finish to have finished it yesterday.
12. He was willing to sing to have sung alone.
13. He expected to have spoken to speak here to-morrow.
14. The Civil War is said to cause to have caused more loss of life than any other war.
15. Blackstone is said to have failed to fail at the practice of law.
16. It would have been hard to accomplish to have accomplished that result.
17. He was foolish enough to have spoiled to spoil six negatives.
18. I wanted to have attended to attend the convention.
19. It would be terrible to be lost to have been lost in the forest.
20. We were asked to have waited to wait.
21. I am eager to have seen to see it.
22. I am pleased to meet to have met you.

74. Split Infinitives. In the sentence, care should be taken to avoid as much as possible the inserting of an adverb or an adverbial modifier between the parts of the infinitive. This error is called the "split infinitive." Compare the following:

Bad: He seemed to easily learn.

Good: He seemed to learn easily.

Bad: He is said to have rapidly run along the street.

Good: He is said to have run rapidly along the street.

Exercise 55

Correct the following split infinitives:

1. She is known to have hurriedly read the note.
2. Mary tried to quickly call help.
3. He was asked to slowly read the next paragraph.
4. John attempted to rudely break into the conversation.
5. The plan was to secretly destroy the documents.
6. His policy was to never offend.
7. He wished to in this way gain friends.
8. He proposed to greatly decrease his son's allowance.

75. Agreement of Verb in Clauses. In a compound predicate, the parts of the predicate should agree in tense; past tense should follow past tense, and perfect tense follow perfect tense. Examine the following:

Wrong: He has tried to do, and really did everything possible to stop his son.

Right: He has tried to do, and really has done everything possible to stop his son.

Right: He tried to do, and really did everything possible to stop his son.

Wrong: I hoped and have worked to gain this recognition.

Right: I hoped and worked to gain this recognition.

Right: I have hoped and have worked to gain this recognition.

Exercise 56

Correct the following sentences:

1. I went last week and have gone again this week.
2. I have heard of his being here, but not saw him.
3. I saw John, but I have not seen Henry.
4. He desired to see John, but has not wished to see Henry.
5. John was sent for, but has not yet arrived.
6. I endeavored to find a way of avoiding that, but have not succeeded.
7. I have never seen its superior, and, in fact, never saw its equal.
8. She has succeeded in getting his promise, but did not succeed in getting his money.
9. I hoped and have prayed for your coming.
10. I have believed and usually taught that theory.
11. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work.
12. No one has wished to see so much and saw so little of the world as I.
13. He has gained the favor of the king and was sent to Italy.
14. We have needed you and did our best to find you.

76. Omission of the Verb or Parts of the Verb. The verb or some of its parts are often omitted. This omission sometimes makes the sentence ungrammatical or doubtful in its meaning.

I like him better than John. This sentence may have the meaning shown in either of its following corrected forms: I like him better than John does, or I like him better than I like John.

As a matter of good usage, the verb or any other part of speech should be repeated wherever its omission either makes the sentence ambiguous or gives it an incomplete sound.

Bad: He was told to go where he ought not.

Good: He was told to go where he ought not to go.

Good: He was told to go where he should not go.

Exercise 57

Correct the following sentences:

1. I admire Mary more than John.
2. I think she is older than John.
3. He should have succeeded in gaining the end he tried.
4. I asked him to do what I should not have.
5. I did what I ought not.
6. We wish him better luck than Mary.
7. We want to see him more than Henry.
8. I should hate him worse than you.
9. He wanted me to do what I didn't care to.
10. You may, as you please, do it or not.
11. She may go if she wishes or not.
12. We think of you oftener than mother.

77. Model Conjugations of the Verbs To Be and To See.

CONJUGATION OF TO BE

Principal Parts: AM, WAS, BEEN

INDICATIVE MODE

Present Tense

Person Singular Number	Plural Number
1. I am	We are
2. [*]Thou art (you are)	You are
3. He is	They are

[Footnote *: The forms, thou art, thou wast, thou hast, etc., are the proper forms in the second person singular, but customarily the forms of the second person plural, you are, you were, you have, etc., are used also in the second person singular. These distinct second person singular forms will be used throughout the model conjugations.]

Past Tense

1. I was	We were
2. Thou wast or wert	You were
3. He was	They were

Present Perfect Tense

(Have with the past participle, been.)

1. I have been	We have been
2. Thou hast been	You have been
3. He has been	They have been

Past Perfect Tense

(Had with the past participle, been.)

1. I had been	We had been
2. Thou hadst been	You had been
3. He had been	They had been

Future Tense

(Shall or will with the present infinitive, be.[*])

Person Singular Number	Plural Number
1. I shall be	We shall be
2. Thou shalt be	You shall be
3. He shall be	They shall be

[Footnote *: To determine when to use shall and when to use will in the future and future perfect tenses, see §§ 65, 66, and 67. In these model conjugations the forms of shall are given with the future and the forms of will with the future perfect.]

Future Perfect Tense

(Shall or will with the perfect infinitive, have been.[*])

1. I will have been	We will have been
2. Thou wilt have been	You will have been
3. He will have been	They will have been

[Footnote *: See Note under Future Tense.]

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

(Generally follows if, though, lest, although, etc. See §59.)

Present Tense

1. (If) I be	(If) we be
2. (If) thou be	(If) you be
3. (If) he be	(If) they be

Past Tense

1. (If) I were	(If) we were
2. (If) thou were	(If) you were
3. (If) he were	(If) they were

Present Perfect Tense

(Have, unchanged, with the past participle, been.)

1. (If) I have been	(If) we have been
2. (If) thou have been	(If) you have been
3. (If) he have been	(If) they have been

Past Perfect Tense

(Had, unchanged, with the past participle, been.)

Person Singular Number	Plural Number
1. (If) I had been	(If) we had been
2. (If) thou had been	(If) you had been
3. (If) he had been	(If) they had been

Future Tense

(Shall or will, unchanged, with present infinitive be.[*])

[Footnote *: See Note to Future Indicative.]

1. (If) I shall be	(If) we shall be
2. (If) thou shall be	(If) you shall be
3. (If) he shall be	(If) they shall be

Future Perfect tense

(Shall or will, unchanged, with the perfect infinitive, have been.*)

1. (If) I shall have been	(If) we shall have been
2. (If) thou shall have been	(If) you shall have been
3. (If) he shall have been	(If) they shall have been

POTENTIAL MODE[*]

[Footnote *: The distinct potential mode is no longer used by many authorities on grammar, and the potential forms are regarded as of the indicative mode. It has, however, been thought best to use it in these model conjugations.

As to when to use the different auxiliaries of the potential mode see §§ 68 and 69. The conjugation with must (or ought to) is sometimes called the OBLIGATIVE MODE. The conjugation with should or would is sometimes called the CONDITIONAL MODE.]

Present Tense

(May, can, or must, with the present infinitive, be.)

1. I may, can, or must be	We may, can, or must be
2. Thou mayst, canst, or must be	You may, can, or must be
3. He may, can, or must be	They may, can, or must be

Past Tense

(Might, could, would, or should, with the present infinitive, be.)

Person Singular Number	Plural Number
1. I might, could, would, or should be	We might, could, would, or should be
2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be	You might, could, would, or should be
3. He might, could, would, or should be	They might, could, would, or should be

Present Perfect Tense

(May, can, or must, with the perfect infinitive, have been. For forms substitute have been for be in the present potential.)

Past Perfect Tense

(Might, could, would, or should, with the perfect infinitive have been. For forms substitute have been for be in the past potential.)

IMPERATIVE MODE[*]

[Footnote *: The imperative is the same in both singular and plural.]

Be

INFINITIVE MODE

Present Tense	Present Perfect Tense
To be	To have been

PARTICIPLES

Present Tense	Perfect Tense
Being	Having been

GERUNDS

(Same as participles)

CONJUGATION OF TO SEE

Principal Parts: SEE, SAW, SEEN

INDICATIVE MODE

Present Tense—Active Voice

Simple

1. I am seeing	We are seeing
2. Thou art seeing	You are seeing
3. He is seeing	They are seeing

Emphatic

1. I do see	We do see
2. Thou dost see	You do see
3. He does see	They do see

Progressive

1. I am seeing	We are seeing
2. Thou art seeing	You are seeing
3. He is seeing	They are seeing

Present Tense—Passive Voice

Simple

1. I am seen	We are seen
2. Thou art seen	You are seen
3. He is seen	They are seen

Progressive

1. I am being seen	We are being seen
2. Thou art being seen	You are being seen
3. He is being seen	They are being seen

Past Tense—Active Voice

Simple

1. I saw	We saw
2. Thou sawest	You saw
3. He saw	They saw

Emphatic

Person Singular Number	Plural Number
1. I did see	We did see
2. Thou didst see	You did see
3. He did see	They did see

Progressive

1. I was seeing	We were seeing
2. Thou wast or wert seeing	You were seeing
3. He was seeing	They were seeing

Past Tense—Passive Voice

Simple

1. I was seen	We were seen
2. Thou wast or wert seen	You were seen
3. He was seen	They were seen

Progressive

1. I was being seen	We were being seen
2. Thou wert or wast being seen	You were being seen
3. He was being seen	They were being seen

Present Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute seen for been in the present perfect indicative of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute been seeing for been in the present perfect indicative of to be.)

Present Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute been seen for been in the present perfect indicative of to be.)

Past Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute seen for been in the past perfect indicative of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute been seeing for been in the past perfect indicative of to be.)

Past Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute been seen for been in the past perfect indicative of to be.)

Future Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute see for be in the future indicative of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute be seeing for be in the future indicative of to be.)

Future Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute be seen for be in the future indicative of to be.)

Future Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute have seen for have been in the future perfect indicative of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute have been seeing for have been in the future perfect indicative of to be.)

Future Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute have been seen for have been in the future perfect indicative of to be.)

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

Present Tense—Active Voice

Simple

Person Singular Number	Plural Number
1. (If) I see	(If) we see
2. (If) thou see	(If) you see
3. (If) he see	(If) they see

Emphatic

Person Singular Number	Plural Number
1. (If) I do see	(If) we do see
2. (If) thou do see	(If) you do see
3. (If) he do see	(If) they do see

Progressive

1. (If) I be seeing	(If) we be seeing
2. (If) thou be seeing	(If) you be seeing
3. (If) he be seeing	(If) they be seeing

Present Tense—Passive Voice

1. (If) I be seen	(If) we be seen
2. (If) thou be seen	(If) you be seen
3. (If) he be seen	(If) they be seen

Past Tense—Active Voice

Simple

1. (If) I saw	(If) we saw
2. (If) thou saw	(If) you saw
3. (If) he saw	(If) they saw

Emphatic

1. (If) I did see	(If) we did see
2. (If) thou did see	(If) you did see
3. (If) he did see	(If) they did see

Progressive

1. (If) I were seeing	(If) we were seeing
2. (If) thou were seeing	(If) you were seeing
3. (If) he were seeing	(If) they were seeing

Past Tense—Passive Voice

1. (If) I were seen	(If) we were seen
2. (If) thou were seen	(If) you were seen
3. (If) he were seen	(If) they were seen

Present Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute seen for been in the present perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute been seeing for been in the present perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Present Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute been seen for been in the present perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Past Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute seen for been in the past perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute been seeing for been in the past perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Past Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute been seen for been in the past perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Future Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute see for be in the future subjunctive of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute be seeing for be in the future subjunctive of to be.)

Future Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute be seen for be in the future subjunctive of to be.)

Future Perfect—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute seen for been in the future perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute been seeing for been in the future perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Future Perfect—Passive Voice

(Substitute been seen for the future perfect subjunctive of to be.)

POTENTIAL MODE

Present Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute see for be in the present potential of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute be seeing for be in the present potential of to be.)

Present Tense—Passive Voice

Simple

(Substitute be seen for be in the present potential of to be.)

Past Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute see for be in the past potential of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute be seeing for be in the past potential of to be.)

Past Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute be seen for be in the past potential of to be.)

Present Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute have seen for be in the present potential of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute have been seeing for be in the present potential of to be.)

Present Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute have been seen for be in the present potential of to be.)

Past Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute have seen for be in the past potential of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute have been seeing for be in the past potential of to be.)

Past Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute have been seen for be in the past potential of to be.)

IMPERATIVE MODE

Active Voice

Simple

see.

Emphatic

do see.

Progressive

be seeing.

Passive Voice

be seen

INFINITIVE MODE

Present Tense—Active Voice

Simple

to see.

Progressive

to be seeing.

Present Tense—Passive Voice

Simple

to be seen

Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

to have seen.

Progressive

to have been seeing.

Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

Simple

to have been seen.

PARTICIPLES

Present Tense—Active Voice

seeing

Present Tense—Passive Voice

being seen

Past Tense—Passive Voice[*]

seen

[Footnote *: There is no past participle in the active voice.]

Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

having seen

Progressive

having been seeing

Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

having been seen

GERUNDS

Present Tense—Active Voice

seeing

Present Tense—Passive Voice

being seen

Perfect Tense—Active Voice

having seen

Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

having been seen