Elementary Principles of Optics—Simple Microscopes—Compound Microscope—Accessory Apparatus—Cover-glasses—Troughs—Condensers—Dissection—Dipping-tubes—Drawing—Measurement.

Before proceeding to deal with the microscope itself, it may be useful to give a short summary of the optical laws upon which its working depends.

To go into the minutiÆ of the matter here would be out of place, but it will be found very helpful, especially in the matter of illumination, to acquire some knowledge of, and facility in applying, these elementary principles. We shall confine our remarks to convex lenses, as being the form to which all the combinations in the microscope may be ultimately reduced.

Every convex lens has one “principal” focus, and an infinite number of “conjugate” foci. The principal focus is the distance at which it brings together in one point the rays which fall upon it parallel to its axis, as shown in Fig.1, in which A is the axis of the lens L, and the rays RR are brought together in the principal focus P. Thus a ready means of finding the focal length of any lens is to see at what distance it forms an image of the sun, or of any other distant object, upon a screen, such as a piece of smooth white cardboard. In the figure this distance will be PL. Conversely, if the source of light be at P, a parallel beam of light will be emitted from the lens.

The focal length may, however, be found in another way. When an object is placed at a distance from a lens equal to twice the principal focal length of the latter, an image of the object is formed at the same distance upon the other side of the lens, inverted in position, but of the same dimensions as the original object. The object and image then occupy the equal conjugate foci of the lens, so that by causing them to assume these relative positions, and halving the distance at which either of them is from the lens, the focal length of the latter is known.

These points will be seen on reference to Fig.2, in which L being the lens, and P the principal focus, as before, rays from the point C are brought together at the conjugate focus C', at the same distance on the other side of L. In this case it manifestly does not matter whether the object be at one or the other of these points.

So far we have been dealing with points on the line of the axis of the lens. The facts mentioned apply equally, however, to rays entering the lens at an angle to the axis, only that in this case they diverge or converge, correspondingly, upon the other side. It is evident, from Fig.1, that no image is formed of a point situated at the distance of the principal focus; but Fig.3, which is really an extension of Fig.2, shows how the rays passing along secondary axes form an inverted image of the same size as the object, when the latter is situated at twice the focal length of the lens from this last. To avoid confusion, the bounding lines only are shown, but similar lines might be drawn from each and every point of the object; and if the lines ALA', BL'B' be supposed to be balanced at L and L' respectively, they will indicate the points at which the corresponding parts of the object and image will be situated along the lines AB, B'A' respectively. Moreover, rays pass from every part of the object to every part of the lens, so that we must imagine the cones LAL', LA'L' to be filled with rays diverging on one side of the lens and converging on the other.

The image so formed is a “real” image,—that is to say, it can be thrown upon a screen.

The microscopic image, on the other hand, is a virtual image, which can be viewed by the eye but cannot be thus projected, for it is formed by an object placed nearer to the lens than the principal focal length of the latter, so that the rays diverge, instead of converging, as they leave the lens, and the eye looks, as it were, back along the path in which the rays appear to travel, and so sees an enlarged image situated in the air, farther away than the object, as shown in Fig.4. In this case, as the diagram shows, the image is upright, not inverted.

Images of the latter class are those formed by simple microscopes, of the kind described in the previous chapter. In the compound microscope the initial image, formed by the object-glass, is further magnified by another set of lenses, forming the eye-piece, by which the diverging rays of the virtual image are brought together to a focus at the eye-point; and when viewed directly, the eye sees an imaginary image, as in a simple microscope, whilst, when the rays are allowed to fall upon a screen, they form a real image of the object, larger or smaller, as the screen is farther from or nearer to the eye-point.

These remarks must suffice for our present purpose. Those who are sufficiently interested in the subject to desire to know more of the delicate corrections to which these broad principles are subjected in practice, that objectives may give images which are clear and free from colour, to say nothing of other faults, will do well to consult some such work as Lommel’s Optics, in the International Science Series.

In following a work such as the present one, the simple microscope, in some form or other, will be found almost indispensable. It will be required for examining raw material, such as leaves or other parts of plants, for gatherings of life in fresh or salt water, for dissections. With such powers as those with which we shall have to deal, it will rarely happen that, for example, a bottle of water in which no life is visible will be worth the carrying-home; whilst, on the other hand, a few months’ practice will render it not only possible, but easy, not only to recognise the presence, but to identify the genus, and often even the species, of the forms of life present. Moreover, these low powers, affording a general view of the object, allow the relation to each other of the details revealed by the power of the compound microscope to be much more easily grasped. A rough example may suffice to illustrate this. A penny is a sufficiently evident object to the naked eye, but it will require a sharp one to follow the details in Britannia’s shield, whilst the minute scratches or the bloom upon the surface would be invisible in detail without optical aid. Conversely, however, it would be rash to conclude from an examination of a portion of the surface with the microscope alone that the portion in view was a sample of the whole surface. The more the surface is magnified, the less are the details grasped as a whole, and for this reason the observer is strongly recommended to make out all that he can of an object with a simple magnifier before resorting to the microscope.

For general purposes, the intending observer cannot do better than supply himself with a common pocket-magnifier, with one, two, or three lenses, preferably the last, as although the absolute performance is not so accurate, the very considerable range of power available by using the lenses singly, or in various combinations, is of great advantage. Such a magnifier may be obtained from Baker for about three-and-sixpence, or, with the addition of a powerful Coddington lens (Fig.5) in the same mount, for nine shillings more. Aplanatic lenses, such as the one shown in section in Fig.6, with a much flatter field of vision, but of one power only each, cost about fifteen shillings, and a simple stand, which adapts them for dissecting purposes, may be obtained of the same maker for half a crown, or may easily be extemporised from a cork sliding stiffly on an iron rod set in a heavy foot, the cork carrying a loop of wire terminating in a ring which carries the lens.

So much may suffice for the simple microscope. We pass on now to the consideration of the instrument which forms the subject of the present work, an instrument which, whilst moderate in price, is yet capable of doing a large amount of useful and valuable work in the hands of a careful owner, and of affording him a vast amount of pleasure and recreation, even if these be his only objects in the purchase, though it is difficult to understand that, an insight being once attained into the revelations effected by the instrument, without a desire being excited in any intelligent mind to pursue the subject as a study as well as a delightful relaxation. The microscope described, and adopted as his text by the author of this work, is still made, and has shared to a very considerable extent in the general improvement of optical apparatus which has taken place during the last thirty years. It is to be obtained from Baker, 244 High Holborn, and is provided with most of the apparatus which will be found indispensable by the beginner, costing, with a case in which to keep it, the modest sum of three guineas.

If this instrument represent the limit of the purchaser’s power of purse, he may very well make it answer his purpose for a considerable time. The same instrument, however, with separate objectives of good quality, together with a bull’s-eye condenser (an almost indispensable adjunct), a plane mirror in addition to a concave one, and a simple but efficient form of substage condenser, may be obtained for £5,12s.6d., and the extra outlay will be well repaid by the advantage in working which is gained by the possession of the additional apparatus.

A still better stand, and one which is good enough for almost any class of work, is that shown in Fig.8, which is known as the “Portable” microscope. In this instrument the body is made up of two tubes, so that the length may be varied at will, and this gives a very considerable range of magnification without changing the object-glass, a great convenience in practice; whilst the legs fold up for convenience of carriage, so that the whole instrument, with all necessary appliances, may be readily packed in a corner of a portmanteau for transport to the country or seaside.

The objectives supplied with the simplest form of microscope above referred to are combinations of three powers in one, and the power is varied by using one, two, or three of these in combination. This form of objective is very good, as far as it goes, though it is impossible to correct such a combination with the accuracy which is possible in manufacturing one of a fixed focal length.

Perhaps the best thing for the beginner to do would be to purchase the combination first, and, later on, to dispose of it and buy separate objectives of, say, one-inch, half-inch, and quarter-inch focal lengths. It may be explained here, that when a lens is spoken of as having a certain focal length, it is meant that the magnification obtained by its use is the same, at a distance of ten inches from the eye, as would be obtained by using a simple sphere of glass of the same focal length at the same distance. This, of course, is simply a matter of theory, for such lenses are never used actually.

Of accessory apparatus, we may mention first the stage forceps (Fig.9, a). These are made to fit into a hole upon the stage, so as to be capable of being turned about in any direction, with an object in their grasp, and for some purposes, especially such as the examination of a thin object, say the edge of a leaf, they are extremely useful.

The live box, in which drops of water or portions of water-plants, or the like, may be examined, will be found of great service. By adjustment of the cap upon the cylinder, with proper attention to the thickness of the cover-glass in the cap, any required amount of pressure, from that merely sufficient to fix a restless object to an amount sufficient to crush a resistent tissue, may easily be applied, whilst the result of the operation is watched through the microscope. This proceeding is greatly facilitated if the cap of the live-box be slotted spirally, with a stud on the cylinder, so that a half-turn of the cap brings the glasses into contact. By this means the pressure may be adjusted with the greatest nicety.

In examining delicate objects, such as large infusoria, which invariably commit suicide when pressure is applied, a good plan is to restrict their movements by placing a few threads of cotton-wool, well pulled out, in the live-box with the drop of water.

A variety of instruments has been invented for the same purpose, of which Beck’s parallel compressorium may be mentioned as the most efficient, though it is somewhat complicated, and consequently expensive, costing about twenty-five shillings.

A few glass slips and cover-glasses will also be required. The latter had better be those known as “No. 2,” since the beginner will find it almost impossible to clean the thinner ones satisfactorily without a large percentage of fractures. The safest way is to boil the thin glass circles in dilute nitric acid (half acid, half water) for a few minutes, wash well in several waters, first tap-water and then distilled, and finally to place the covers in methylated spirit. When required for use, the spirit may be burnt off by applying a light, the cover-glass, held in a pair of forceps, being in no way injured by the process.

In addition to the glass slides, the observer will find it advisable to be provided with a few glass troughs, of various thicknesses, in which portions of water-plants, having organisms attached to them, may be examined. Confined in the live-box, many of the organisms ordinarily found under such circumstances can rarely be induced to unfold their beauties, whilst in the comparative freedom of the trough they do so readily. The troughs may be purchased, or may be made of any desired shape or size by cutting strips of glass of a thickness corresponding to the depth desired, cementing these to a glass slide somewhat larger than the ordinary one, and cementing over the frame so formed a piece of thin glass, No. 3; the best material to use as cement being marine glue of the best quality, or, failing this, Prout’s elastic glue, which is much cheaper, but also less satisfactory. The glass surface must be made, in either case, sufficiently hot to ensure thorough adhesion of the cement, as the use of any solvent entails long waiting, and considerable risk of poisoning the organisms. A useful practical hint in the use of these troughs is that the corners, at the top, should be greased slightly, otherwise the water finds its way out by capillary attraction, to the detriment of the stage of the microscope.

Of optical accessories, the bull’s-eye is almost the most valuable. So much may be effected by its means alone, in practised hands, that it is well worth the while of the beginner to master its use thoroughly, and the methods of doing so will be explained in the succeeding chapter.

The substage condenser, too, even in its most simple form, is an invaluable adjunct, even though it be only a hemisphere of glass, half an inch or so in diameter, mounted in a rough sliding jacket to fit underneath the stage. Such an instrument, properly fitted, will cost about fifteen shillings, but the ingenious worker will easily extemporise one for himself.

Many plants and animals require to be dissected to a certain extent before the details of their structure can be made out, and for this purpose the naked eye alone will rarely serve. The ordinary pocket magnifier, however, if mounted as described in a preceding chapter, will greatly facilitate matters, and the light may be focused upon the object by means of the bull’s-eye condenser, as shown in Fig.11. In the figure the latter is represented as used in conjunction with the lamp, but daylight is preferable if it be available, the strain upon the eyes being very much less than with artificial light. Two blocks of wood, about four inches high, will form convenient rests for the hands, a plate of glass being placed upon the blocks to support the dish, and a mirror being put in the interspace at an angle of 45° or so if required. A piece of black paper may be laid upon the mirror if reflected light alone is to be used.

As all delicate structures are dissected under fluid, a shallow dish is required. For this purpose nothing is better than one of the dishes used for developing photographic negatives. The bottom of the dish is occupied by a flat cork, to which a piece of flat lead is attached below, and the object having been pinned on to the cork in the required position, the fluid is carefully run in. This fluid will naturally vary according to the results desired to be obtained, but it must not be plain water, which so alters all cellular structures as to practically make them unrecognisable under the microscope. Nothing could be better than a 5 per cent. solution of formalin, were it not for the somewhat irritating odour of this fluid, since it at once fixes the cells and preserves the figure. For many purposes a solution of salt, in the proportion of a saltspoonful of the latter to a pint of water, will answer well for short dissections. For more prolonged ones, a mixture of spirit-and-water, one part of the former to two of the latter, answers well, especially for vegetable structures. When the dilution is first made, the fluid becomes milky, unless pure spirit be used, but with a little trouble the Revenue authorities may be induced to give permission for the use of pure methylated spirit, which answers every purpose. The trouble then is that not less than five gallons can be purchased, an embarras de richesses for the average microscopist, but, after all, the spirit is extremely cheap, and does not deteriorate by keeping.

When the dissection in either of these media is completed, spirit should be gradually added to bring the strength up to 50 per cent., in which the preparation may remain for a day or two, after which it is gradually brought into pure spirit, or into water again, according to the medium in which it is to be mounted.

As to the tools required, they are neither numerous nor expensive. Fine-pointed but strong forceps (Fig.9, c), curved and straight; a couple of pairs of scissors, one strong and straight, the other more delicate, and having curved blades, and a few needles of various thicknesses and curves, are the chief ones. The latter may be made by inserting ordinary needles, for three-fourths of their length, into sticks of straight-grained deal (ordinary firewood answers best), and thereafter bending them as required. A better plan, however, is to be provided with a few of the needle-holders shown in Fig.9, b. These are very simple and inexpensive, and in them broken needles are readily replaced by others. Dipping-tubes, such as are shown in Fig.12, will also be extremely useful for many purposes. These are very easily made by heating the centre of a piece of soft glass tubing of the required size, and, when it is quite red-hot, drawing the ends apart. The fine tube in the centre should now be divided by scratching it with a fine triangular file, and the scratch may of course be made at such a point as to afford a tube of the required fineness. The edges should be smoothed by holding them in the flame until they just run (not melt, or the tube will close). These tubes can often be made to supply the place of a glass syringe. They may be used either for sucking up fluid or for transferring it, placing the finger over the wide end, allowing the tube to fill by displacement of air, and then re-closing it with the finger. This last method is especially useful for transferring small objects from one receptacle to another. In speaking of the dissection of objects, it should have been mentioned that the microscope itself may, under careful handling, be made to serve very well, only, as the image is reversed, it is almost impossible to work without using a prism to re-erect the image. Such a prism is shown in Fig.13. The microscope is placed vertically, and the observer, looking straight into the prism, sees all the parts of the image in their natural positions. This appliance is extremely useful for the purpose of selecting small objects, and arranging them on slides in any desired manner. A few words may be added as to the reproduction of the images of objects.

The beginner is strongly recommended to practise himself in this from the outset. Even a rough sketch is worth pages of description, especially if the magnification used be appended; and even though the worker may be devoid of artistic talent, he will find that with practice he will acquire a very considerable amount of facility in giving truthful outlines at least of the objects which he views. Various aids have been devised for the purpose of assisting in the process. The simplest and cheapest of these consists of a cork cut so as to fit round the eye-piece. Into the cork are stuck two pins, at an angle of 45° to the plane of the cork, and, the microscope being placed horizontally, a thin cover-glass is placed upon the two pins, the light being arranged and the object focused after the microscope is inclined. On looking vertically down upon the cover-glass, a bright spot of light will be seen, and as the eye is brought down into close proximity with it the spot will expand and allow the observer to see the whole of the image without looking into the microscope. If a sheet of paper be now placed upon the table at the place occupied by the image so projected, the whole of the details will be clearly seen, as will also the point of a pencil placed upon the paper in the centre of the field of view; and, after a little practice, it will be found easy to trace round the chief details of the object. Two points require attention. The first is that if the light upon the paper be stronger than that in the apparent field of the microscope, the image will not be well seen, or if the paper be too feebly lighted, it will be difficult to keep the point of the pencil in view. The light from the microscope is thrown into the eye, and the view of the image upon the paper is the effect of a mental act, the eye looking out in the direction from which the rays appear to come. The paper has therefore to be illuminated independently, and half the battle lies in the adjustment of the relative brightness of image and paper. The second point is, that it is essential to fix one particular point in the image as the starting-point of the drawing, and this being first depicted, the image and drawing of this point must be kept always coincident, or the drawing will be distorted, since the smallest movement of the eye alters the relations of the whole. The reflector must be placed at an angle of 45°, or the field will be oval instead of circular. The simple form of apparatus just described has one drawback, inasmuch as the reflection is double, the front and back of the cover-glass both acting as reflectors. The image from the latter being much the more feeble of the two, care in illumination will do much to eliminate this difficulty; but there are various other forms in which the defect in question is got rid of. The present writer has worked with all of them, from the simple neutral tint reflector of Beale to the elaborate and costly apparatus of Zeiss, and, upon the whole, thinks that he prefers the cover-glass to them all.

A very simple plan, not so mechanical as the last-named, consists in the use of “drawing-squares,” which are delicate lines ruled upon a piece of thin glass, and dropped into the eye-piece so that the lines rest upon the diaphragm of the eye-piece, and therefore are in focus at the same time as the object. By the use of these, in combination with paper similarly ruled, a diagram of any required size can be drawn with very great facility. The squares, if compared with a micrometer, will furnish an exact standard of magnitude for each object-glass employed. The micrometer is a piece of thin glass upon which are ruled minute divisions of an inch or a millimeter. Suppose the micrometer to be placed under the microscope when the squares are in the eye-piece, and it be found that each division corresponds with one square of the latter, then, if the micrometric division be one one-hundredth of an inch, and the squares upon the paper measure one inch, it is clear that the drawing will represent the object magnified a hundred “diameters”; if two divisions of the micrometer correspond to three squares, the amplification will be a hundred and fifty diameters; if three divisions correspond to two squares, sixty-six diameters, and so on. If a draw-tube be used, it will be necessary to know the value of the squares at each inch of the length, if they are to be used for measuring magnification.

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