  The oldest stage of English before the Norman Conquest is called 'Old English,' which name will be used throughout in this Book, although the name 'Anglo-Saxon' is still often used. There were several dialects of Old English. This book deals only with the West-Saxon dialect in its earliest form. SOUNDS.VOWELS. The vowel-letters in Old English had nearly the same values as in Latin. Long vowels were occasionally marked by (´), short vowels being left unmarked. In this book long vowels are marked by (). The following are the elementary vowels and diphthongs, with examples, and key-words from English, French (F.), and German (G.):—
The diphthongs are pronounced with the stress on the first element.
CONSONANTS. Double consonants must be pronounced double, or long, as in Italian. Thus sunu (son) must be distinguished from sunne (sun) in the same way as penny is distinguished from penknife. So also in (in) must be distinguished from inn (house); noting that in modern English final consonants in accented monosyllables after a short vowel are long, our in and inn both having the pronunciation of Old English inn, not of O.E. in. c and g had each a back (guttural) and a front (palatal) pron., which latter is in this book written c, g. c = k, as in cene (bold), cnawan (know). c = kj, a k formed in the j (English y) position, nearly as in the old-fashioned pron. of sky: cirice (church), stycce (piece), Þencan (think). g initially and in the combination ng was pron. as in 'get': god (good), lang (long); otherwise (that is, medially and finally after vowels and l, r) as in German sagen: dagas (days), burg (city), halga (saint). g initially and in the combination ng was pronounced gj (corresponding to kj): ge (ye), georn (willing), sprengan (scatter); otherwise = j (as in 'you'): dÆg (day), wregan (accuse), hergian (ravage). It is possible that g in ge-boren (born) and other unaccented syllables was already pronounced j. cg = gg: secgan (say), hrycg (back). f had the sound of v everywhere where it was possible:—faran (go), of (of), ofer (over); not, of course, in oft (often), or when doubled, as in offrian (offer). h initially, as in he (he), had the same sound as now. Everywhere else it had that of Scotch and German ch in loch:—heah (high), Wealh (Welshman), riht (right). hw, as in hwÆt (what), hwil (while), had the sound of our wh; and hl, hn, hr differed from l, n, r respectively precisely as wh differs from w, that is, they were these consonants devocalized, hl being nearly the same as Welsh ll:—hlaford (lord), hlud (loud); hnappian (doze), hnutu (nut); hraÞe (quickly), hreod (reed). r was always a strong trill, as in Scotch:—r?ran (to raise), her (here), word (word). s had the sound of z:—secan (seek), swa (so), wis (wise), a·risan (rise); not, of course, in combination with hard consonants, as in stan (stone), fÆst (firm), ricsian (rule), or when double, as in cyssan (kiss). Þ had the sound of our th (= dh) in then:—Þu (thou), Þing (thing), soÞ (true), h?Þen (heathen); except when in combination with hard consonants, where it had that of our th in thin, as in secÞ (seeks). Note hÆfÞ (has) = hÆvdh. w was fully pronounced wherever written:—writan (write), niwe (new), seow (sowed pret.). STRESS. The stress or accent is marked throughout in this book, whenever it is not on the first syllable of a word, by (·) preceding the letter on which the stress begins. Thus for·giefan is pronounced with the same stress as that of forgive, andswaru with that of answer. PHONOLOGY.VOWELS. Different vowels are related to one another in various ways in O.E., the most important of which are mutation (German umlaut) and gradation (G. ablaut). The following changes are mutations:— a .. e:—mann, pl. menn; wand (wound prt.), wendan (to turn). ea (= a) .. ie (= e):—eald (old), ieldra (older); feallan (fall), fielÞ (falls). a .. ?:—blawan (to blow), bl?wÞ (bloweth); hal (sound), h?lan (heal). u .. y:—burg (city), pl. byrig; trum (strong), trymman (to strengthen). o .. y:—gold, gylden (golden); coss (a kiss), cyssan (to kiss). e .. i:—beran (to bear), bireÞ (beareth); cweÞan (speak), cwide (speech). eo (= e) .. ie (= i):—heord (herd), hierde (shepherd); ceorfan (cut), cierfÞ (cuts). u .. o:—curon (they chose), ge·coren (chosen). u .. ?:—cuÞ (known), c?Þan (to make known); ful (foul), a·f?lan (defile). o .. e:—sohte (sought prt.), secan (to seek); foda (food), fedan (to feed). ea .. ie:—heawan (to hew), hiewÞ (hews); team (progeny), tieman (teem). eo .. ie:—steor (rudder), stieran (steer); ge·streon (possession), ges·trienan (gain). Before proceeding to gradation, it will be desirable to describe the other most important vowel-relations. a, Æ, ea. In O.E. original a is preserved before nasals, as in mann, lang, nama (name), and before a single consonant followed by a, u, or o, as in dagas (days), dagum (to days), faran (go), gafol (profit), and in some words when e follows, as in ic fare (I go), faren (gone). Before r, l, h followed by another consonant, and before x it becomes ea, as in heard (hard), eall (all), eald (old), eahta (eight), weaxan (to grow). Not in bÆrst (p. 7). In most other cases it becomes Æ:—dÆg, (day), dÆges (of a day), fÆst (firm), wÆr (wary). e before nasals always becomes i: compare bindan (to bind), pret. band, with beran (to bear), pret. bÆr. e before r (generally followed by a consonant) becomes eo:—eorÞe (earth), heorte (heart). Not in berstan (p. 7). Also in other cases:—seolfor (silver), heofon (heaven). i before r + cons. becomes ie:—bierÞ (beareth) contr. from bireÞ, hierde (shepherd) from heord (herd), wiersa (worse). e before r, or l + cons. often becomes ie:—fierd (army) from faran, bieldo (boldness) from beald, ieldra (elder) from eald. By gradation the vowels are related as follows:— e (i, eo) .. a (Æ, ea) .. u (o):— bindan (inf.), band (pret.), bundon (they bound). beran (inf.), bÆr (pret.), boren (past partic.). ceorfan (cut), cearf (pret.), curfon (they cut), corfen (past partic.). bend (bond) = mutation of band, byr-Þen (burden) of bor-en. a (Æ, ea) .. ?:—sprÆc (spoke), spr?con (they spoke), spr?c (speech). a .. o:—faran (to go), for (pret.), for (journey). ge·fera (companion) mutation of for. i .. a .. i:—writan, wrat, writon, ge·writ (writing, subst.). (be)·lifan (remain), laf (remains), whence by mutation l?fan (leave). eo (u) .. ea .. u (o):—ceosan (choose), ceas, curon, coren. cys-t (choice). (for)·leosan (lose), leas (loose), a·liesan (release), losian (to be lost). bugan (bend), boga (bow). We see that the laws of gradation are most clearly shown in the conjugation of the strong verbs. But they run through the whole language, and a knowledge of the laws of gradation and mutation is the main key to O.E. etymology.
CONSONANTS. s becomes r in the preterite plurals and past participles of strong verbs, as in curon, ge·coren from ceosan, w?ron pl. of wÆs (was), and in other formations, such as hryre (fall) from hreosan. Þ becomes d under the same conditions, as in wurdon, ge·worden from weorÞan (become), cwÆÞ (quoth), pl. cw?don, cwide (speech) from cweÞan (infin.). r is often transposed, as in iernan (run) from original *rinnan (cp. the subst. ryne), berstan (burst) from *brestan, bÆrst (burst pret.) from brÆst, hors (horse) from *hross. The combinations cÆ-, gÆ- become cea-, gea-, as in ceaf (chaff) from *cÆf, sceal (shall) from *scÆl, geaf (gave) = *gÆf from giefan (cp. cwÆÞ from cweÞan), geat (gate)—cp. fÆt (vessel). g?- often becomes gea-, as in geafon (they gave), with which compare cw?don (they said). ge- becomes gie, as in giefan, gieldan (pay) from *gefan, *geldan—cp. cweÞan, delfan. Not in the prefix ge- and ge (ye). When g comes before a consonant in inflection, it often becomes h, as in he liehÞ (he lies) from leogan (mentiri). h after a consonant is dropt when a vowel follows, the preceding vowel being lengthened, thus Wealh (Welshman) has plural Wealas. INFLECTIONS.NOUNS. Gender. There are three genders in O.E.—masculine, neuter, and feminine. The gender is partly natural, partly Grammatical gender is known only by the gender of the article and other words connected with the noun, and, to some extent, by its form. Thus all nouns ending in -a, such as se mona (moon), are masculine, seo sunne (sun) being feminine. Those ending in -dom, -had, and -scipe are also masculine:—se wisdom (wisdom), se cildhad (childhood), se freondscipe (friendship). Those in -nes, -o (from adjectives) -r?den, and -ung are feminine:—seo rihtwisnes (righteousness), seo bieldo (boldness) from beald, seo mann-r?den (allegiance), seo scotung (shooting). Compounds follow the gender of their last element, as in ÞÆt burg-geat (city-gate), from seo burg and ÞÆt geat. Hence also se wif-mann (woman) is masculine. The gender of most words can be learnt only by practice, and the student should learn each noun with its proper definite article. Strong and Weak. Weak nouns are those which form their inflections with n, such as se mona, plural monan; seo sunne, genitive sing. Þ?re sunnan. All the others, such as se dÆg, pl. dagas, ÞÆt hus (house), gen. sing. ÞÆs huses, are strong. Cases. There are four cases, nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. The acc. is the same as the nom. in all plurals, in the sing. of all neuter nouns, and of all strong masculines. Masculine and neuter nouns never differ in the plural except in the nom. and acc., and in the singular they differ only in the acc. of weak nouns, which in neuters is the same as the nom. The dative plural of nearly all nouns ends in -um. STRONG MASCULINES. (1) as-plurals.
So also d?l (part), cyning (king), cildhad (childhood). dÆg (day) changes its vowel in the pl. (p. 5):—dÆg, dÆge, dÆges; dagas, dagum, daga. Nouns in -e have nom. and dat. sing. the same:—ende, (end), ende, endes; endas, endum, enda. Nouns in -el, -ol, -um, -en, -on, -er, -or often contract:—engel (angel), engle, engles; englas, englum, engla. So also nÆgel (nail), Þegen (thane), ealdor (prince). Others, such as Æcer (field), do not contract. h after a consonant is dropped in inflection (p. 7), as in feorh (life), feore, feores. So also in Wealh (Welshman), plur. Wealas. There are other classes which are represented only by a few nouns each. (2) e-plurals.
(3) Mutation-plurals.
So also toÞ (tooth). Mann (man), menn, mannes; menn, mannum, manna. (4) u-nouns.
So also wudu (wood). (5) r-nouns (including feminines).
So also broÞor (brother); fÆder (father), dohtor (daughter), have dat. sing. fÆder, dehter. (6) nd-nouns. Formed from the present participle of verbs.
So also feond (enemy). Those in -end inflect thus:—buend (dweller), buend, buendes; buend, buendum, buendra. So also H?lend (saviour). The -ra is an adjectival inflection. STRONG NEUTERS. (1) u-plurals.
So all neuters with short final syllable, such as ge·bed (prayer), ge·writ (writing), geat (gate). FÆt (vessel), fÆte, fÆtes; fatu, fatum, fata (p. 5). Rice (kingdom), rice, rices; ricu, ricum, rica. So also all neuters in e, except eage and eare (p. 13): ge·Þeode (language), stycce (piece). Those in -ol, -en, -or, &c. are generally contracted:—deofol (devil), deofles, deoflu. So also w?pen (weapon), mynster (monastery), wundor (wonder). (2) Unchanged plurals.
So all others with long final syllables (that is, containing a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by more than one consonant), such as bearn (child), folc (nation), wif (woman). Feoh (money) drops its h in inflection and lengthens the eo:—feoh, feo, feos. So also bleoh (colour). STRONG FEMININES. (1) a-plurals.
So also lufu (love), scamu (shame). Duru (door) is an u-noun: it has acc. duru, d., g. dura, g. pl. dura. Observe that all these nouns have a short syllable before the final vowel. When it is long, the u is dropped, and the noun falls under (b).
So also str?t (street), sorg (sorrow). Some have the acc. sing. the same as the nom., such as d?d, hand, miht. Those in -ol, -er, -or, &c. contract:—sawol (soul), sawle, sawla, sawlum. So also ceaster (city), hl?dder (ladder). Some in -en double the n in inflection:—byrÞen (burden), byrÞenne. So also those in -r?den, such as hierdr?den (guardianship). Those in -nes also double the s in inflection: godnes (goodness), godnesse. (2) Mutation-plurals.
Burg (city), byrig, burge; byrig, burgum, burga. (3) Indeclinable.
So also ieldo (age). For r-nouns, see under Masculines. WEAK MASCULINES.
So also all nouns in -a:—ge·fera (companion), guma (man), ge·leafa (belief). Ieldran (elders) occurs only in the plural. Ge·fea (joy) is contracted throughout:—gefea, gefean. WEAK NEUTERS.
So also eare 'ear.' WEAK FEMININES.
So also cirice (church), f?mne (virgin), heorte (heart). Leo (lion) has acc., &c. leon. PROPER NAMES. Native names of persons are declined like other nouns:—Ælfred, gen. Ælfredes, dat. Ælfrede; Ead-burg (fem.), gen. Eadburge, &c. Foreign names of persons sometimes follow the analogy of native names, thus Crist, Salomon have gen. Cristes, Salomones, dat. Criste, Salomone. Sometimes they are declined as in Latin, especially those in -us, but often with a mixture of English endings, and the Latin endings are used Almost the only names of countries and districts in Old English are those taken from Latin, such as Breten (Britain), Cent (Kent), Germania (Germany), and those formed by composition, generally with land, such as Engla-land (land of the English, England), Isr·ahela-Þeod (Israel). In both of these cases the first element is in the gen. pl., but ordinary compounds, such as Scot-land, also occur. In other cases the name of the inhabitants of a country is used for the country itself:—on East-englum = in East-anglia, lit. 'among the East-anglians.' So also on Angel-cynne = in England, lit. 'among the English race,' more accurately expressed by Angelcynnes land. Uncompounded names of countries are sometimes undeclined. Thus we find on Cent, to Hierusalem. Germania, Asia, and other foreign names in -a take -e in the oblique cases, thus gen. Germanie. ADJECTIVES.Adjectives have three genders, and the same cases as nouns, though with partly different endings, together with strong and weak inflection. In the masc. and neut. sing. they have an instrumental case, for which in the fem. and plur., and in the weak inflection the dative is used. STRONG ADJECTIVES. Adjectives with a short syllable before the endings take -u in the fem. sing. nom. and neut. pl. nom., those with a long one drop it.
So also sum (some), f?rlic (dangerous). Those with Æ, such as glÆd (glad), change it to a in dat. gladum, &c. Those in -e, such as bliÞe (glad), drop it in all inflections:—bliÞne, bliÞu, bliÞre. Those in -ig, -el, -ol, -en, -er, -or often contract before inflections beginning with a vowel, as in halig (holy), halges, halgum; micel (great), miclu, micle. Not, of course, before consonants:—haligne, micelne, micelra. Those in -u, such as gearu (ready), change the u into a w before vowels:—gearwes, gearwe. Adjectives with long syllable before the endings drop the u of the fem. and neuter:—
Fea (few) has only the plural inflections, dat. feam, gen. feara. Heah (high) drops its second h in inflection and contracts:—heare, nom. pl. hea, dat. heam, acc. sing. masc. heanne. Fela (many) is indeclinable. WEAK ADJECTIVES. The weak inflections of adjectives agree exactly with the noun ones:-
The vowel- and consonant-changes are as in the strong declension. COMPARISON. The comparative is formed by adding -ra, and is declined like a weak adjective:—leof (dear), leofra masc., leofre fem., leofran plur., etc.; m?re (famous), m?rra. The superlative is formed by adding -ost, and may be either weak or strong:—leofost (dearest). The following form their comparisons with mutation, with superlative in -est (the forms in parentheses are adverbs):—
The following show different roots:—
The following are defective as well as irregular, being formed from adverbs:—
NUMERALS.
An is declined like other adjectives. Twa is declined thus:—
So also begen (both), ba, b?m, begra. Þreo is declined thus:—
The others up to twentig are generally indeclinable. Those in -tig are sometimes declined like neuter nouns, sometimes like adjectives, and are often left undeclined. When not made into adjectives they govern the genitive. Hund and Þusend are either declined as neuters or left undeclined, always taking a genitive:—eahta hund mila (eight hundred miles), feower Þusend wera (four thousand men). Units are always put before tens:—an and twentig (twenty-one). The ordinals are always weak, except oÞer, which is always strong. PERSONAL.
There are no reflexive pronouns in O.E., and the ordinary POSSESSIVE. Min (my), Þin (thy), ure (our), eower (your), and the dual uncer and incer are declined like other adjectives. The genitives his (his, its), hiere (her), hiera (their) are used as indeclinable possessives. INTERROGATIVE.
Hwelc (which) is declined like a strong adjective: it is used both as a noun and an adjective. DEMONSTRATIVE.
Se is both a demonstrative and a definite article. It is also used as a personal pronoun:—he ge·hierÞ min word, and wyrcÞ Þa (he hears my words, and does them). Se as a demonstrative and pers. pronoun has its vowel long.
Other demonstratives, which are used both as nouns and as adjectives, are se ilca (same), which is always weak, swelc (such), which is always strong. RELATIVE. The regular relative is the indeclinable Þe, as in ?lc Þara Þe Þas min word ge·hierÞ (each of those who hears these my words). It is often combined with se, which is declined:—se Þe = who, masc., seo Þe, fem., &c. Se alone is also used as a relative:—her is min cnapa, Þone ic ge·ceas (here is my servant, whom I have chosen); sometimes in the sense of 'he who':—her Þu hÆfst ÞÆt Þin is (here thou hast that which is thine). INDEFINITE. Indefinites are formed with swa and the interrogative pronouns, thus:—swa hwa swa, swa hwelc swa (whoever), swa hwÆt swa (whatever). An and sum (some) are used in an indefinite sense:—an mann, sum mann = 'a certain man,' hence 'a man.' But the indefinite article is generally not expressed. ?lc (each), ?nig (any), n?nig (no, none), are declined like other adjectives. OÞer (other) is always strong:—Þa oÞre menn. Man, another form of mann, is often used in the indefinite sense of 'one,' French on:—his broÞor Horsan man of·slog (they killed his brother Horsa). VERBS.There are two classes of verbs in O.E., strong and weak. The conjugation of strong verbs is effected mainly by means of vowel-gradation, that of weak verbs by the addition of d (-ode, -ede, -de) to the root-syllable. The following is the conjugation of the strong verb bindan (bind), which will serve to show the endings which are common to all verbs:—
For the plural bindaÞ, both indicative and imperative, binde is used when the personal pronoun follows immediately after The present participle may be declined like an adjective. Its declension when used as a noun is given above, p. 10. The past participle generally prefixes ge-, as in ge·bunden, ge·numen from niman (take), unless the other parts of the verbs have it already, as in ge·hieran (hear), ge·hiered. It is sometimes prefixed to other parts of the verb as well. No ge is added if the verb has another prefix, such as a-, be-, for-; thus for·giefan (forgive) has the past participle for·giefen. The past participle may be declined like an adjective. Traces of an older passive voice are preserved in the form hat-te from hatan (call, name), which is both present 'is called,' and preterite 'was called':—se munuc hatte Abbo (the monk's name was Abbo). STRONG VERBS. In the strong verbs the plural of the pret. indic. generally has a different vowel from that of the sing. (ic band, we bundon). The 2nd sing. pret. indic. and the whole pret. subj. always have the vowel of the preterite plural indicative (Þu bunde, ic bunde, we bunden.) The 2nd and 3rd persons sing. of the pres. indic. often mutate the root-vowel, thus:—
The full ending of the 3rd pers. sing. pres. indic. is -eÞ, which is generally contracted, with the following consonant-changes:—
Double consonants become single, as in he fielÞ from feallan. Before the -st of the 2nd pers. consonants are often dropt, as in Þu cwist from cweÞan, Þu ciest from ceosan; and d becomes t, as in Þu bintst from bindan. For the changes between s and r, Þ and d, g and h, see p. 7. Some verbs, such as seon (see), drop the h and contract before most inflections beginning with a vowel:—ic seo, we seoÞ, to seonne; but he sihÞ. There are seven conjugations of strong verbs, distinguished mainly by the different formation of their preterites. The following lists comprise all the strong verbs that occur in the texts given in this book, together with several others of the commoner ones. I. 'Fall'-conjugation. The pret. sing. and pl. has eo or e, and the past partic. retains the original vowel of the infinitive.
II. 'Shake'-conjugation. Verbs in a (ea) and e (ie). O in pret. sing, and pl., a (Æ) in partic. pret. Standan drops its n in the pret. The partic. pret. of swerian is irregular.
The presents of these verbs are inflected weak, so that their imperative sing. is hefe and swere, like that of wenian (p. 32). Swerian has indic. swerige, swerest, like wenian; hebban has hebbe, hefst, &c. like hieran (p. 30). III. 'Bind'-conjugation. I (ie, e, eo) followed by two consonants, one or both of which is nearly always a liquid (l, r) or nasal (m, n) in the infin., a (Æ, ea) in pret. sing., u in pret. pl., u (o) in ptc. pret. Findan has a weak preterite.
IV. 'Bear'-conjugation. Verbs in e (i), followed by a single consonant, generally a liquid or nasal; in brecan the liquid precedes the vowel. A (Æ) in pret. sing., ? (a) in pret. pl., o (u) in ptc. pret. Cuman is irregular.
V. 'Give'-conjugation. Verbs in e (i, eo, ie) followed by single consonants, which are not liquids or nasals. This class differs from the last only in the ptc. pret. which keeps the vowel of the infinitive.
VI. 'Shine'-conjugation. Verbs in i, with pret. sing, in a, pl. i, ptc. pret. i.
VII. 'Choose'-conjugation. Verbs in eo and u, with pret. sing. ea, pl. u, ptc. pret. o. Fleon and teon contract.
WEAK VERBS. There are three conjugations of weak verbs—(1) in -an, pret. -de (hieran, hierde, 'hear'); (2) in -ian, pret. -ede (wenian, wenede, 'wean'); (3) in -ian, pret. -ode (lufian, lufode, 'love'). The verbs of the first two conjugations nearly all have a mutated vowel in the present and infinitive, which those of the third conjugation very seldom have. I. an-verbs. This class of weak verbs has the same endings as the strong verbs, except in the pret. and past partic., which are formed by adding -de and -ed respectively, with the following consonant changes.
The past partic. is generally contracted in the same way:—send, mett, t?ht, but some of them often retain the uncontracted forms:—fylled, dypped. When declined like adjectives they drop their e where practicable:—fylled, plur. fylde; hiered, hierde. The 2nd and 3rd pres. sing. ind. are contracted as in the strong verbs. (a) 'Hear'-class.
Further examples of this class are:—
(b) 'Seek'-class. In this class the mutated vowels lose their mutation in the preterite and past partic., besides undergoing other changes in some verbs. Those in double consonants (and cg) simplify them in the contracted 2nd and 3rd sing. pres. indic.:—selle, selst, selÞ; sec[,g]e, segst, segÞ; also in the imperative, which is formed as in Conj. II:—sele, sege, byge, &c.
II. 'Wean'-conjugation.
So are conjugated all weak verbs with a short mutated root syllable, such as ferian (carry), werian (defend), ge·byrian (befit). There are not many of them. III. 'Love'-conjugation.
So also ascian (ask), macian (make), weorÞian (honour), and many others. Irregularities. Some verbs are conjugated partly after I, partly after III. Such are habban (have) and libban (live). Habban has pres. indic. hÆbbe, hÆfst, hÆfÞ; habbaÞ, subj. hÆbbe, hÆbben, pret. hÆfde, imper. hafa, habbaÞ, particc. habbende, hÆfd. Libban has pres. libbe, leofast, leofaÞ; libbaÞ, subj. libbe, pret. leofode, imper. leofa, libbaÞ, particc. libbende, lifiende; leofod. Fetian (fetch) has pret. fette. STRONG-WEAK VERBS. The strong-weak verbs have for their presents old strong preterites, from which new weak preterites are formed. Note the occasional second person sing. in t.
The other most important weak-strong verbs are given below in the 1st and 2nd sing. pres. indic., in the plur. indic., in the pret., in the infin. and partic. pret. Of several the last two forms are doubtful, or do not exist. Ah (possess), age, agon; ahte; agen (only as adjective)[4]. Cann (know) canst, cunnon; cuÞe; cunnan; cuÞ (only as adjective.) Dearr (dare), durre, durron; dorste. Ge·man (remember), -manst; -munde; -munan. MÆg (can), miht, magon, mÆge (subj.); mihte. Mot (may), most, moton; moste. Sceal (shall), scealt, sculon, scyle (subj.); scolde. Þearf (need), Þurfon, Þyrfe (subj.); Þorfte; Þurfan. ANOMALOUS VERBS. (1) Willan (will) shows a mixture of subj. forms in the pres. indic. sing.:—
Similarly nyllan (will not):—
(2) Wesan (be).
The contracted negative forms are:—neom, neart, nis; nÆs, n?re, n?ron; n?re, n?ren. (3) Don (do).
(4) Gan (go).
PREFIXES. The following are the most important prefixes, some of which are verbal, being confined to verbs and words formed directly from them; some nominal, being confined to nouns and adjectives. a- (1) originally 'forth,' 'away,' as in a·risan, 'rise forth,' 'arise'; a·faran, 'go away,''depart'; but generally only intensive, as in a·cwellan (kill), a·hreosan (fall). (2) = 'ever' in pronouns and particles, where it gives an indefinite sense, as in a-hw?r (anywhere), a-wiht (anything). ?g- from a-ge-, the a being mutated and the e dropped, has a similar meaning, as in ?g-hwelc (each), ?gÞer = ?g-hwÆÞer (either). be-, originally 'by,' 'around' (cp. the preposition be), (1) specializes the meaning of a transitive verb, as in be·settan (beset, surround), be·scieran (shear); (2) makes an intransitive verb transitive, as in be·Þencan (consider) from Þencan (think); (3) gives a privative meaning, as in be·heafdian (behead). In some words, such as be·cuman (come), it is practically unmeaning. for- (which is distinct from the preposition for) generally has the sense of 'loss' or 'destruction,' as in for·don (destroy), for·weorÞan (perish). Of course, if the verb with which it is compounded already has this meaning, it acts merely as an intensitive, as in for·breotan (break up, break), for·scrincan (shrink up). It also modifies in a bad sense generally, as in for·seon (despise), or negatives, as in for·beodan (forbid). ge- originally meant 'together,' as in ge·fera (fellow-traveller, companion) from feran (travel). With verbs it often signifies 'completion,' 'attainment,' and hence 'success,' as in ge·gan (conquer), originally 'go over,' or 'reach,' ge·winnan (win) from winnan (fight). Hence generally prefixed to hieran and seon, ge·hieran and ge·seon strictly meaning 'succeed in hearing, seeing.' It is generally prefixed to past participles (p. 23), where it originally gave the meaning of completion—ge·lufod = 'completely loved.' mis- = 'mis,' as in mis-d?d (misdeed). n- = ne (not), as in na (not), literally 'never,' n?fre (never), nÆs (was not) = ne wÆs. on- as a verbal prefix has nothing to do with the preposition on. It properly signifies 'separation,' as in on·lucan (open) from lucan (lock, close), but is often practically unmeaning, as in on·ginnan (begin). or-, literally 'out of,' is privative, as in orsorg (unconcerned) from sorg (sorrow). to- as a verbal prefix has nothing to do with the preposition to (which occurs in to·gÆdre, 'together,' &c.), but signifies 'separation,' as in to·berstan (burst asunder), to·bregdan (shake off), and hence 'destruction,' as in to·cwiesan (crush to pieces, bruise). un- negatives, as in un-ges?lig (unhappy). ENDINGS. (a) Nouns. Personal. -end, from the present participle -ende, = '-er':—H?lend (healer, Saviour), buend (dweller). -ere = '-er':—sawere (sower), mynetere (money-changer, minter) from mynet (coin). -ing, patronymic, ÆÞeling (son of a noble, prince) from ÆÞele (noble). Abstract. -nes, fem. from adjectives:—god-nes (goodness), rihtwisnes (righteousness). -uÞ, -Þo, fem., generally from adjectives:—geoguÞ (youth), strengÞo (strength) from strang. -ung, fem. from verbs:—scotung (shooting, shot), hergung (ravaging), from scotian, hergian. The following are also independent words:— -dom, masc.:—wis-dom (wisdom), Þeow-dom (servitude). -had, masc.:—cild-had (childhood). -r?den, fem.:—ge·cwid-r?den (agreement) from cwide (speech); mann-r?den (allegiance). -scipe, masc.:—freond-scipe (friendship). Concrete in wÆter-scipe (piece of water, water). (b) Adjectives. -en, with mutation, denotes 'material,' 'belonging to':—gylden (golden), st?nen (of stone), h?Þen (heathen) from h?Þ (heath). In seolcen (silken) there is no mutation. -feald = '-fold':—hund-feald (hundred-fold). -ig:—miht-ig (mighty); hal-ig (holy) from hal (whole). -isc, with mutation:—Englisc (English) from Angel; menn-isc (human) from mann. -ol:—swic-ol (deceitful). -iht, with mutation, denotes 'material,' 'nature':—st?n-iht (stony). -sum = 'some':—hier-sum (obedient). The following exist (sometimes in a different form) as independent words:— -fÆst:—soÞ-fÆst (truthful). -full:—sorg-full (sorrowful), ge·leaf-full (believing, pious). -leas = '-less':—ar-leas (dishonoured, wicked). -lic (cp. ge·lic) = '-ly':—folc-lic (popular), heofon-lic (heavenly). -weard = '-ward':—suÞan-weard (southward). Verbs. -l?can:—an-l?can (unite), ge·Þw?r-l?can (agree). Adverbs. -e, the regular adverb-termination:—lange (long), ge·lice (similarly) from lang, ge·lic. Sometimes -lice (from -lic) is used to form adverbs, as bliÞe-lice (gladly) from bliÞe. DERIVATIONS FROM PARTICIPLES. Many abstract words are formed from present participles (often in a passive sense) and past participles (often in an active sense):— -nes:—for·giefen-nes (forgiveness), ge·reced-nes (narrative), welwillend-nes (benevolence). -lic:—unarimed-lic (innumerable). -lice:—welwillend-lice (benevolently). SYNTAX.Gender. When masculine and feminine beings are referred to by the same adjective or pronoun, the adjective or pronoun is put in the neuter:—hie ge·samnodon hie, ealle Þa heafod-menn, and eac swelce wif-menn ... and Þa hie bliÞost w?ron ... (they gathered themselves, all the chief men, and also women ... and when they were most merry ...). Here bliÞost is in the neuter plur. Cases. Accusative. Some verbs of asking (a question) and requesting, together with l?ran (teach), take two accusatives, one of the person, and another of the thing:—hie hine ne dorston ?nig Þing ascian (they durst not ask him anything); we magon eow r?d ge·l?ran (we can teach you a plan). The accusative is used adverbially to express duration of time: hw? stande ge her ealne dÆg idle? (why stand ye here all the day idle?) Dative. The dative in Old E. is of two kinds, (1) the dative proper, and (2) the instrumental dative, interchanging with the regular instrumental. It is not always easy to separate the two. (1) The dative proper usually designates personal relations, and is frequently used with verbs, together with an accusative (generally of the thing). The dative is also used with adjectives. It is used not only with verbs of giving, &c., as in he sealde ?lcum anne pening (he gave each a penny); addressing, as in ic eow secge (I say to you), he Þancode his Dryhtne (he thanked his Lord); but also with many verbs of benefiting, influencing, &c., as in ne do ic Þe nanne teonan (I do thee no injury), hie noldon him liefan (they would not allow The dative is also used with adjectives of nearness, likeness, &c.:—Eadmund cyning clipode anne biscop Þe him ge·hendost wÆs (King Edmund summoned a bishop who was nearest at hand to him); heofona rice is ge·lic Þ?m mangere Þe sohte ÞÆt gode meregrot (the kingdom of the heavens is like the merchant who sought the good pearl). (2) The instrumental dative is used to denote the instrument and manner of an action: he ge·endode yflum deaÞe (he ended with an evil death). Hence its use to form adverbs, as in sceafm?lum (sheafwise). It also signifies time when:—Þrim gearum ?r Þ?m Þe he forÞ·ferde (three years before he died), which is also expressed by the instrumental itself:—seo wolde efsian ?lce geare Þone sanct (she used to cut the saint's hair every year); Þ? feorÞan geare his rices (in the fourth year of his reign). A past participle with a noun in the instrumental dative is used like the ablative absolute in Latin: Hubba be·laf on NorÞhymbra-lande, ge·wunnenum sige mid wÆlhreownesse (H. remained in Northumbria, victory having been won with cruelty). Genitive. The genitive is often used in a partitive sense:—his feonda sum (one of his enemies); hiera fif w?ron dysige (five of them were foolish). Hence it is generally used with fela, as in fela wundra (many miracles); also with numerals when used as substantives (p. 18). The genitive is often used like an accusative to denote the object of various emotions and mental states, such as Some of these verbs, such as biddan (ask), take an accusative of the person and a genitive of the thing:—he hine hlafes bitt (he asks him for bread). Verbs of depriving, restraining, &c., have the same construction:—nis Angel-cynn be·d?led Dryhtnes halgena (England is not deprived of the Lord's saints). Some verbs of giving, &c., take a genitive of the thing and a dative of the person:—him wÆs of·togen ?lces fodan (they were deprived of all food). The genitive is often used to define an adjective or noun:—Þu eart wierÞe sleges (thou art worthy of death); on Þ?m geare Þe Ælfred ÆÞeling an and twentig geara wÆs (in the year when Prince Alfred was twenty-one). Concord. Adjectives agree with their nouns not only when used attributively (gode menn), but also when the adjective follows the noun, either predicatively or in apposition:—Þa menn sind gode; he ge·seah oÞre idle standan (he saw others standing idle); hie comon mid langum scipum, na manigum (they came with long ships, not many). Apposition. In such expressions as 'the island of Britain,' the second noun is not put in the genitive, but the two are simply put in There is a similar apposition with the adjective sum followed by a noun or pronoun, as in sume Þa menn (some of the men); Þa Þa he seow, sumu hie feollon wiÞ weg (while he sowed, some of them [the seeds] fell by the road). Sometimes the pronoun precedes, as in Þa b?don hie sume ÞÆt Samson moste him macian sum gamen (then some of them asked that Samson might make some sport for them). Another kind of apposition occurs in instances like the following, where we have an adjective agreeing with a following noun, and denoting a part of it:—hie ge·s?ton suÞanwearde Bretene ?rest (they occupied the south of Britain first); suÞanweard hit (= ÞÆt land) hÆfdon Peohtas (the Picts had the south part of it). ADJECTIVES. The weak forms are used: (1) after the definite article:—se ÆÞela cyning (the noble king); ÞÆs ÆÞelan cyninges, ÞÆt gode meregrot, Þa godan meregrotu. (2) after Þis:—Þas earman landleode (these poor people, pl.); Þes halga cyning (this holy king), Þisses halgan cyninges. (3) occasionally after other demonstrative and indefinite adjectives, and often after possessive pronouns:—Þine dieglan gold-hordas (thy hidden treasures). (4) in the vocative:—Þu yfla Þeow and slawa! (thou bad and slothful servant); eala Þu leofa cyning! (oh, thou dear king). Note that oÞer always keeps the strong form: Þa oÞru deor (the other wild beasts). So also do the possessive pronouns: ARTICLES. The definite article is omitted as in Modern English before names such as God, and also before Dryhten (the Lord), Deofol (the Devil), although se Deofol also occurs, and names of nations:—Bretta cyning (king of the Britons). It is omitted in many prepositional combinations, not only in those where it is omitted in Modern English also, as in sigefÆst on s? and on lande (victorious on sea and on land), but also in many others: gewende to wuda on·gean (went back to the wood); se flothere ferde eft to scipe (the army of pirates went back to their ships); he feng to rice (he took the government—came to the throne). The definite article is, on the other hand, sometimes used where it would not be in Modern E., as in se mann = 'man' (men in general). The indefinite article is often not expressed at all:—ÞÆt dyde unhold mann (an enemy did that); he be·stealcode on land swa swa wulf (he stole to land like a wolf). Or it is expressed by sum: on Þ?m lande wÆs sum mann, Leofric ge·haten (in that country was a man called L.). Or by an, as in Modern English:—an wulf wearÞ a·send to be·werienne ÞÆt heafod wiÞ Þa oÞru deor (a wolf was sent to protect the head against the other wild beasts). PRONOUNS. HwÆt is used interrogatively of persons where we should use 'who':—he nyste hwÆt hie w?ron (he did not know who they were). VERBS. Number. After ?lc Þara Þe (each of-those-who) the verb is put in the sing., agreeing not with Þara Þe but with ?lc:—?lc Þara Þe Þas min word ge·hierÞ (each of those who hear these my words). When ÞÆt or Þis is connected with a plural predicate by means of the verb 'to be,' the verb is put in the plural:—ÞÆt w?ron Þa ?restan scipu Deniscra manna Þe Angel-cynnes land ge·sohton (those were the first ships of Danish men which came to the land of the English race). Impersonal verbs take an accusative of the person, sometimes also with a genitive of the thing. Others, such as Þyncan (appear), take a dative of the person:—wÆs him ge·Þuht ÞÆt hie be·h?dden ÞÆt heafod (they thought they (the Danes) had hidden the head). Tenses. There being no future inflection in Old E., the present is used instead:—ne a·b?hÞ n?fre Eadmund Hinguare (Edmund will never submit to H.); ga ge on minne wingeard, and ic selle eow ÞÆt riht biÞ (go ye into my vineyard, and I will give you what is right). As we see in this example, there is a tendency to use beon in a future sense. Another example is gif ic beo ge·bunden mid seofon rapum, sona ic beo ge·wield (if I am bound with seven ropes, I shall at once be overcome). The future is sometimes expressed by will and shall, as in Modern English, though generally with a sense of volition with the one, and of necessity with the other, the idea of simple futurity coming out most clearly in the preterites wolde and scolde:— He ge·l?hte ane leon Þe hine a·bitan wolde (he seized a lion The preterite has the meaning of the modern (1) Preterite and imperfect:—se sawere ut eode his s?d to sawenne, and Þa Þa he seow ... (the sower went out to sow his seed, and while he was sowing ...). (2) Perfect:—her is min cnapa, Þone ic geceas (here is my servant, whom I have chosen);—ure cyning com nu her to lande (our king has just landed here). (3) Pluperfect:—Þa Þa ge·comon Þe ymb Þa endlyftan tid comon (when those came who had come at the eleventh hour). Periphrastic tenses are sometimes formed, as in Modern E., by hÆbbe and hÆfde with the past participles, and often have the meanings of the modern perfect and pluperfect respectively, as in nu ic hÆbbe gestriened oÞru twa pund (now I have gained two other pounds), but even the pluperfect often has the sense of a simple preterite. The participle is undeclinable in the later language, but originally it was declined, being really an adjective in apposition to the noun or pronoun governed by habban: hie hÆfdon hiera cyning a·worpenne (they had deposed their king). The pluperfect sense is often indicated by the addition of the adverb ?r (before):—his sweora, Þe ?r wÆs for·slÆgen (his neck, which had been cut through). The periphrastic forms of intransitive verbs are formed with wesan:—siÞÞan hie a·farene w?ron (after they had gone away). Here the participle always agrees with the noun or pronoun with which it is connected. The periphrases with the present participle have no distinctive meanings of duration, &c.:—an mann wÆs eardiende on Israhela Þeode, Manue ge·haten (a man dwelt in Israel called Manue). Passive. The passive is formed with wesan or weorÞan with the past participle. These forms are very vague in meaning, and the distinction between the two auxiliaries is not clearly marked, but wesan appears to indicate a state, weorÞan an action. wearÞ ge·lufod is generally preterite or perfect in meaning: an wulf wearÞ a·send (a wolf was sent); mine leofe Þegnas, Þe on hiera beddum wurdon of·slÆgene (my beloved thanes, who have been killed in their beds). wÆs ge·lufod, indicating a state, is naturally pluperfect in meaning:—se ?rendraca sÆgde his hlaforde hu him ge·andwyrd wÆs (the messenger told his lord how he had been answered). Subjunctive. The subjunctive states something not as a fact, as in the indicative, but merely as an object of thought. Hence it is used to express wish, conditions, doubt, &c. A. In principal sentences. Wish and command (often nearly equivalent to the imperative):—ÞÆs him sie wuldor and lof a butan ende (therefore let there be to him praise and glory ever without end); ne he ealu ne drince n?fre oÞÞe win (nor shall he ever drink ale or wine). B. In dependent sentences. The chief cases are the following:— (1) In indirect narrative and question: seo cwen sÆgde ÞÆt hiere n?re be healfum d?le ge·sÆgd be Salomones m?rÞo (the queen said that she had not been told about Solomon's glory by half); ic ascige hw?r seo offrung sie (I ask where the offering is); menn woldon sceawian hu he l?ge (men (2) After verbs of desiring and commanding:— ÞÆs ic ge·wilnige and ge·wysce mid mode ÞÆt ic ana ne be·life Æfter minum leofum Þegnum (that I desire and wish with heart that I may not remain alone after my dear thanes). (3) To express purpose:—Þ? l?s ge Þone hw?te a·wyrtwalien (lest ye root up the wheat);—Dryhten as·tag niÞer, to b?m ÞÆt he ge·sawe Þa burg (the Lord descended, in order that he might see the city). (4) To express result:—Þu nÆfst Þa mihte ÞÆt Þu mÆge him wiÞ·standan (thou hast not the power that thou canst withstand him). (5) To express hypothetical comparison (as if):—se wulf folgode forÞ mid Þ?m heafde, swelce he tam w?re (the wolf followed on with the head, as if he were tame); he ge·l?hte ane leon, and to·brÆgd hie to styccum, swelce he to·t?re ticcen (he seized a lion and tore her to pieces, as if he were rending a kid). (6) In conditional clauses, generally with gif or butan, and in concessive clauses with Þeah, Þeah Þe:—God wat ÞÆt ic nyle a·bugan fram his bigengum ?fre, swelte ic, libbe ic (God knows that I will not swerve from his worship ever, whether I die or live); Þas flotmenn cumaÞ, and Þe cwicne ge·bindaÞ, butan Þu mid fleame Þinum feore ge·beorge (these pirates will come and bind thee alive, unless thou savest thy life with flight); God hielt Eadmund halne his lichaman oÞ Þone miclan dÆg, Þeah Þe he on moldan come (God will keep Edmund When the statement is assumed as unreal, instead of merely hypothetical, as in the above instances, both clauses are put in the subjunctive, the preterite being substituted for the present, as in Modern English also, where if I were ... implies I am not.... The modern distinction between if I were and if I had been, the former corresponding to the present indicative I am not, the latter to the preterite I was not, is not made in Old English, which uses gif ic w?re in both instances. Sometimes the 'if'-clause has to be supplied in thought:—me leofre w?re ÞÆt ic on ge·feohte feolle wiÞ Þ?m Þe min folc moste hiera eardes brucan (I would rather fall in fight that my people might possess their country), where we must supply some such clause as gif hit swa beon mihte (if it might be so—if it were possible to save my people by my death). (7) In clauses dependant on a negative sentence:—nis nan Þing Þe his mihte wiÞ·stande (there is nothing that resists his might). Sometimes the negation must be gathered from the context, as in se halga is m?rra Þonne menn mÆgen a·smean (the saint is more illustrious than men can conceive = the saint is so illustrious that no men can conceive it). (8) In other cases, to express uncertainty, futurity, &c.: Þin rice ge·witt fram Þe, oÞ ÞÆt Þu wite ÞÆt God ge·wielt manna rica (thy kingdom shall depart from thee, till thou knowest that God rules the kingdoms of men); uton The preterite subjunctive is often expressed by should and would with an infinitive, as in Modern English. Scolde is used after verbs of desiring, requesting and commanding:—biddende Þone Ælmihtigan ÞÆt he him arian scolde (praying the Almighty to have mercy on him). In the following example the verb of commanding is understood from the noun ?rende:—he sende to ÞÆm cyninge beotlic ?rende, ÞÆt he a·bugan scolde to his mannr?denne, gif he his feores rohte (he sent to the king an arrogant message, that he was to turn to his allegiance, if he cared about his life). Wolde is used after verbs of purpose:—se cyning eode inn ÞÆt he wolde ge·seon Þa Þe Þ?r s?ton (the king went in to see those who were sitting there). Infinitive. After verbs of commanding the infinitive often seems to have a passive sense:—hie heton him sendan maran fultum (they ordered that more forces should be sent to them). So also after verbs of hearing, &c.:—ÞÆt m?ste wÆl Þe we secgan hierdon (the greatest slaughter we have heard told of). In such cases an indefinite pronoun has been omitted: 'ordered them to send ...' etc. Gerund. The gerund is used— (1) to express purpose:—ut eode se sawere his s?d to sawenne (the sower went forth to sow his seed). (2) it defines or determines an adjective (adverb or noun): hit is scandlic ymb swelc to sprecenne (it is shameful to speak of such things). PREPOSITIONS. Some prepositions govern the accusative, such as Þurh (through), ymbe (about); some the dative (and instrumental), such as Æfter (after), ?r (before), Æt (at), be (by), binnan (within), butan (without), for (for), fram (from), of (of), to (to). Some govern both accusative and dative, such as ofer (over), on (on, in), under (under). The general rule is that when motion is implied they take the accusative, when rest is implied, the dative. Thus on with the accusative signifies 'into,' with the dative 'in.' But this rule is not strictly followed, and we often find the accusative used with verbs of rest, as in he his hus ge·timbrode ofer stan (he built his house on a rock), and conversely, the dative with verbs of motion, as in hie feollon on st?nihte (they fell on stony ground). As regards the use and meaning of the prepositions, it must be noticed that in is very seldom used, its place being supplied by on, the meaning 'on' being in its turn often expressed by ofer, as in the passage just quoted. When a thing is referred to, Þ?r is substituted for hit, the preposition being joined on to the Þ?r, so that, for instance, Þ?r-to corresponds to to him; hie l?ddon Þone cyning to anum treowe, and tiegdon hine Þ?r-to (they led the king to a tree, and tied him to it). So also her-beeastan is equivalent to 'east of this (country).' Prepositions sometimes follow, instead of preceding the words they modify, sometimes with other words intervening: hie scuton mid gafelocum him to (they shot at him with missiles); hie cw?don him be·tweonan (they said among themselves); Þ?m Ælmihtigan to lofe, Þe hie on ge·liefdon (to the praise of the Almighty, in whom they believed), where on Where the noun modified by such a preposition is not expressed, the preposition becomes an adverb: se cyning sende his here to, and for·dyde Þa mannslagan (the king sent his army to the place, and destroyed the murderers). Negation. The negative particle is ne, which drops its e before some common verbs and pronouns, as in nis = ne is, nan = ne an. The negative particle is prefixed to every finite verb in a sentence, and to all the words besides which admit the contracted forms:—to·cwiesed hreod he ne for·briett (he breaks not the bruised reed), hit na ne feoll (it did not fall); nan mann nyste nan Þing (no man knew anything). So also with ne ... ne = 'neither ... nor': ne flitt he ne he ne hriemÞ (he neither disputes nor cries out). Correlation. Correlation is often more fully expressed in Old than in Modern English, as in Þa Þa menn slepon, Þa com his feonda sum = 'when the men slept, then came one of his enemies.' In Þa Þa = 'when' the two correlatives are brought immediately together:—Þa Þa he seow, sumu hie feollon wiÞ weg = 'then when he sowed, some of them fell by the road.' In the following example the conjunction ÞÆt is correlative with the pronoun ÞÆt:—ÞÆs ic ge·wilnige ÞÆt ic ana ne be·life Æfter minum leofum Þegnum—'that I desire, that I may not remain alone after my dear thanes.' Sometimes a word is used to include both the demonstrative and the relative meaning:—he ge·brohte hine Þ?r he hine ?r ge·nam (he brought him to the place where he took him from). Word-Order. The Old English word-order resembles that of German in many respects, though it is not so strict, thus:— The verb comes before its nominative when the sentence is headed by an adverb or adverbial group, or when the object or predicate is put at the head of the sentence:—Þa cwÆÞ se cyning (then said the king); ?rest w?ron buend Þisses landes Brettas (at first the Britons were the inhabitants of this country); on his dagum comon ?rest Þreo scipu (in his days three ships first came); ÞÆt b?ron olfendas (camels carried it); m?re is se God Þe Daniel on be·liefÞ (great is the God that Daniel believes in). The infinite often comes at the end of the sentence; we magon eow r?d ge·l?ran (we can teach you a plan). The finite verb often comes at the end in dependent sentences, an auxiliary verb often coming after an infinitive or participle; ÞÆt w?ron Þa ?restan scipu Deniscra manna Þe Angel-cynnes land ge·sohton (those were the first ships of Danish men which came to the land of the English race); ÞÆt m?ste wÆl Þe we secgan hierdon oÞ Þisne andweardan dÆg (the greatest slaughter that we have heard tell of up to this present day); ÞÆt hie Þone Godes mann a·bitan scolden (in order that they should devour the man of God). There is a tendency to put the verb at the end in principal sentences also, or, at least, to bring it near the end: hiene man of·slog (they killed him); hie Þ?r sige namon (they got the victory there). GENERAL TABLE OF ENDINGS.
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