TOOLS FOR ADJUSTING AND ERECTING A very complete outfit of small tools, some of which are furnished as part of the tool equipment of various engines are shown in group at Fig. 163. This group includes all of the tools necessary to complete a very practical kit and it is not unusual for the mechanic who is continually dismantling and erecting engines to possess even a larger assortment than indicated. The small bench vise provided is a useful auxiliary that can be clamped to any convenient bench or table or even fuselage longeron in an emergency and should have jaws at least three inches wide and capable of opening four or five inches. It is especially useful in that it will save trips to the bench vises, as it has adequate capacity to handle practically any of the small parts that need to be worked on when making repairs. A blow torch, tinner’s snips and soldering copper are very useful in sheet metal work and in making any repairs requiring the use of solder. The torch can be used in any operation requiring a source of heat. The large box wrench shown under the vise is used for removing large special nuts and sometimes has one end of the proper size to fit the valve chamber cap. The piston ring removers are easily made from thin strips of sheet metal securely brazed or soldered to a light wire handle. These are used in sets of three for removing and applying piston rings in a manner to be indicated. The uses of the wrenches, screw drivers, and pliers shown are known to all and the variety outlined should be sufficient for all ordinary work of restoration. The wrench equipment is very complete, including a set of open end S-wrenches to fit all standard bolts, a spanner wrench, socket or box wrenches for bolts that are inaccessible with the ordinary type, adjustable end wrenches, a thin monkey wrench of medium size, a bicycle wrench for handling small nuts and bolts, a Stillson wrench for pipe and a large adjustable monkey wrench for the stubborn fastenings of large size. Fig. 163 Fig. 163.—Practical Hand Tools Useful in Dismantling and Repairing Airplane Engines. Four different types of pliers are shown, one being a parallel jaw type with size cutting attachment, while the other illustrated near it is a combination parallel jaw type adapted for use on round work as well as in handling flat stock. The most popular form of pliers is the combination pattern shown beneath the socket wrench set. This is made of substantial drop forgings having a hinged joint that can be set so that a very wide opening at the jaws is possible. These can be used on round work and for wire cutting as well as for handling flat work. Round nose pliers are very useful also. A very complete set of files, including square, half round, mill, flat bastard, three-cornered and rat tail are also necessary. A hacksaw frame and a number of saws, some with fine teeth for tubing and others with coarser teeth for bar or solid stock will be found almost indispensable. A complete punch and chisel set should be provided, samples of which are shown in the group while the complete outfit is outlined in another illustration. A number of different forms and sizes of chisels are necessary, as one type is not suitable for all classes of work. The adjustable end wrenches can be used in many places where a monkey wrench cannot be fitted and where it will be difficult to use a wrench having a fixed opening. The Stillson pipe wrench is useful in turning studs, round rods, and pipes that cannot be turned by any other means. A complete shop kit must necessarily include various sizes for Stillson and monkey wrenches, as no one size can be expected to handle the wide range of work the engine repairman must cope with. Three sizes of each form of wrench can be used, one, a 6 inch, is as small as is needed while, a 12 inch tool will handle almost any piece of pipe or nut used in engine construction. Three or four sizes of hammers should be provided, according to individual requirement, these being small riveting, medium and heavyweight machinist’s hammers. A very practical tool of this nature for the repair shop can be used as a hammer, screw driver or pry iron. It is known as the “Spartan” hammer and is a tool steel drop forging in one piece having the working surfaces properly hardened and tempered while the metal is distributed so as to give a good balance to the head and a comfortable grip to the handle. The hammer head provides a positive and comfortable T-handle when the tool is used as a screw driver or “tommy” bar. Machinist’s hammers are provided with three types of heads, these being of various weights. The form most commonly used is termed the “ball pein” on account of the shape of the portion used for riveting. The straight pein is just the same as the cross pein, except that in the latter the straight portion is at right angles to the hammer handle, while in the former it is parallel to that member. FORMS OF WRENCHES Wrenches have been made in infinite variety and there are a score or more patterns of different types of adjustable socket and off-set wrenches. The various wrench types that differ from the more conventional monkey wrenches or those of the Stillson pattern are shown at Fig. 164. The “perfect handle” is a drop forged open end form provided with a wooden handle similar to that used on a monkey wrench in order to provide a better grip for the hand. The “Saxon” wrench is a double alligator form, so called because the jaws are in the form of a V-groove having one side of the V plain, while the other is serrated in order to secure a tight grip on round objects. In the form shown, two jaws of varying sizes are provided, one for large work, the other to handle the smaller rods. One of the novel features in connection with this wrench is the provision of a triple die block in the centre of the handle which is provided with three most commonly used of the standard threads including 5/16-inch-18, 3/8-inch-16, and 1/2-inch-13. This is useful in cleaning up burred threads on bolts before they are replaced, as burring is unavoidable if it has been necessary to drive them out with a hammer. The “Lakeside” wrench has an adjustable pawl engaging with one of a series of notches by which the opening may be held in any desired position. Fig. 164 Fig. 164.—Wrenches are Offered in Many Forms. Ever since the socket wrench was invented it has been a popular form because it can be used in many places where the ordinary open end or monkey wrench cannot be applied owing to lack of room for the head of the wrench. A typical set which has been made to fit in a very small space is shown at D. It consists of a handle, which is nickel-plated and highly polished, a long extension bar, a universal joint and a number of case hardened cold drawn steel sockets to fit all commonly used standard nuts and bolt heads. Two screw-driver bits, one small and the other large to fit the handle, and a long socket to fit spark-plugs are also included in this outfit. The universal joint permits one to remove nuts in a position that would be inaccessible to any other form of wrench, as it enables the socket to be turned even if the handle is at one side of an intervening obstruction. The “Pick-up” wrench, shown at E, is used for spark-plugs and the upper end of the socket is provided with a series of grooves into which a suitable blade carried by the handle can be dropped. The handle is pivoted to the top of the socket in such a way that the blades may be picked up out of the grooves by lifting on the end of the handle and dropped in again when the handle is swung around to the proper point to get another hold on the socket. The “Miller” wrench shown at F, is a combination socket and open end type, made especially for use with spark-plugs. Both the open end and the socket are convenient. The “Handy” set shown at G, consists of a number of thin stamped wrenches of steel held together in a group by a simple clamp fitting, which enables either end of any one of the four double wrenches to be brought into play according to the size of the nut to be turned. The “Cronk” wrench shown at H, is a simple stamping having an alligator opening at one end and a stepped opening capable of handling four different sizes of standard nuts or bolt heads at the other. Such wrenches are very cheap and are worth many times their small cost, especially for fitting nuts where there is not sufficient room to admit the more conventional pattern. The “Starrett” wrench set, which is shown at I, consists of a ratchet handle together with an extension bar and universal joint, a spark-plug socket, a drilling attachment which takes standard square shank drills from 1/8-inch to 1/2-inch in diameter, a double ended screw-driver bit and several adjustments to go with the drilling attachment. Twenty-eight assorted cold drawn steel sockets similar in design to those shown at D, to fit all standard sizes of square and hexagonal headed nuts are also included. The reversible ratchet handle, which may be slipped over the extension bar or the universal joint and which is also adapted to take the squared end of any one of the sockets is exceptionally useful in permitting, as it does, the instant release of pressure when it is desired to swing the handle back to get another hold on the nut. The socket wrench sets are usually supplied in hard wood cases or in leather bags so that they may be kept together and protected against loss or damage. With a properly selected socket wrench set, either of the ratchet handle or T-handle form, any nut on the engine may be reached and end wrenches will not be necessary. USE AND CARE OF FILES Mention has been previously made of the importance of providing a complete set of files and suitable handles. These should be in various grades or degrees of fineness and three of each kind should be provided. In the flat and half round files three grades are necessary, one with coarse teeth for roughing, and others with medium and fine teeth for the finishing cuts. The round or rat tail file is necessary in filing out small holes, the half round for finishing the interior of large ones. Half round files are also well adapted for finishing surfaces of peculiar contour, such as the inside of bearing boxes, connecting rod and main bearing caps, etc. Square files are useful in finishing keyways or cleaning out burred splines, while the triangular section or three-cornered file is of value in cleaning out burred threads and sharp corners. Flat files are used on all plane surfaces. Fig. 165 Fig. 165.—Illustrating Use and Care of Files. The file brush shown at Fig. 165, A, consists of a large number of wire bristles attached to a substantial wood back having a handle of convenient form so that the bristles may be drawn through the interstices between the teeth of the file to remove dirt and grease. If the teeth are filled with pieces of soft metal, such as solder or babbitt, it may be necessary to remove this accumulation with a piece of sheet metal as indicated at Fig. 165, B. The method of holding a file for working on plain surfaces when it is fitted with the regular form of wooden handle is shown at C, while two types of handles enabling the mechanic to use the flat file on plain surfaces of such size that the handle type indicated at C, could not be used on account of interfering with the surface finished are shown at D. The method of using a file when surfaces are finished by draw filing is shown at E. This differs from the usual method of filing and is only used when surfaces are to be polished and very little metal removed. SPLIT PIN REMOVAL AND INSERTION One of the most widely used of the locking means to prevent nuts or bolts from becoming loose is the simple split pin, sometimes called a “cotter pin.” These can be handled very easily if the special pliers shown at Fig. 166, A, are used. They have a curved jaw that permits of grasping the pin firmly and inserting it in the hole ready to receive it. It is not easy to insert these split pins by other means because the ends are usually spread out and it is hard to enter the pin in the hole. With the cotter pin pliers the ends may be brought close together and as the plier jaws are small the pin may be easily pushed in place. Another use of this plier, also indicated, is to bend over the ends of the split pin in order to prevent it from falling out. To remove these pins a simple curved lever, as shown at Fig. 166, B, is used. This has one end tapering to a point and is intended to be inserted in the eye of the cotter pin, the purchase offered by the handle permitting of ready removal of the pin after the ends have been closed by the cotter pin pliers. Fig. 166 Fig. 166.—Outlining Use of Cotter Pin Pliers, Spring Winder, and Showing Practical Outfit of Chisels. COMPLETE CHISEL SET A complete chisel set suitable for repair shop use is also shown at Fig. 166. The type at C is known as a “cape” chisel and has a narrow cutting point and is intended to chip keyways, remove metal out of corners and for all other work where the broad cutting edge chisel, shown at D, cannot be used. The form with the wide cutting edge is used in chipping, cutting sheet metal, etc. At E, a round nose chisel used in making oil ways is outlined, while a similar tool having a pointed cutting edge and often used for the same purpose is shown at F. The centre punch depicted at G, is very useful for marking parts either for identification or for drilling. In addition to the chisels shown, a number of solid punches or drifts resembling very much that shown at E, except that the point is blunt should be provided to drive out taper pins, bolts, rivets, and other fastenings of this nature. These should be provided in the common sizes. A complete set of real value would start at 1/8-inch and increase by increments of 1/32-inch up to 1/2-inch. A simple spring winder is shown at Fig. 166, H, this making it possible for the repairman to wind coil springs, either on the lathe or in the vise. It will handle a number of different sizes of wire and can be set to space the coils as desired. DRILLING MACHINES Drilling machines may be of two kinds, hand or power operated. For drilling small holes in metal it is necessary to run the drill fast, therefore the drill chuck is usually driven by gearing in order to produce high drill speed without turning the handle too fast. A small hand drill is shown at Fig. 167, A. As will be observed, the chuck spindle is driven by a small bevel pinion, which in turn, is operated by a large bevel gear turned by a crank. The gear ratio is such that one turn of the handle will turn the chuck five or six revolutions. A drill of this design is not suited for drills any larger than one-quarter inch. For use with drills ranging from one-eighth to three-eighths, or even half-inch the hand drill presses shown at C and D are used. These have a pad at the upper end by which pressure may be exerted with the chest in order to feed the drill into the work, and for this reason they are termed “breast drills.” The form at C has compound gearing, the drill chuck being driven by the usual form of bevel pinion in mesh with a larger bevel gear at one end of a countershaft. A small helical spur pinion at the other end of this countershaft receives its motion from a larger gear turned by the hand crank. This arrangement of gearing permits of high spindle speed without the use of large gears, as would be necessary if but two were used. The form at D gives two speeds, one for use with small drills is obtained by engaging the lower bevel pinion with the chuck spindle and driving it by the large ring gear. The slow speed is obtained by shifting the clutch so that the top bevel pinion drives the drill chuck. As this meshes with a gear but slightly larger in diameter, a slow speed of the drill chuck is possible. Breast drills are provided with a handle screwed into the side of the frame, these are used to steady the drill press. For drilling extremely large holes which are beyond the capacity of the usual form of drill press the ratchet form shown at B, may be used or the bit brace outlined at E. The drills used with either of these have square shanks, whereas those used in the drill presses have round shanks. The bit brace is also used widely in wood work and the form shown is provided with a ratchet by which the bit chuck may be turned through only a portion of a revolution in either direction if desired. Fig. 167 Fig. 167.—Forms of Hand Operated Drilling Machines. DRILLS, REAMERS, TAPS AND DIES In addition to the larger machine tools and the simple hand tools previously described, an essential item of equipment of any engine or plane repair shop, even in cases where the ordinary machine tools are not provided, is a complete outfit of drills, reamers, and threading tools. Drills are of two general classes, the flat and the twist drills. The flat drill has an angle between cutting edges of about 110 degrees and is usually made from special steel commercially known as drill rod. A flat drill cannot be fed into the work very fast because it removes metal by a scraping, rather than a cutting process. The twist drill in its simplest form is cylindrical throughout the entire length and has spiral flutes which are ground off at the end to form the cutting lip and which also serve to carry the metal chips out of the holes. The simplest form of twist drill used is shown at Fig. 168, C, and is known as a “chuck” drill, because it must be placed in a suitable chuck to turn it. A twist drill removes metal by cutting and it is not necessary to use a heavy feed as the drill will tend to feed itself into the work. Fig. 168 Fig. 168.—Forms of Drills Used in Hand and Power Drilling Machines. Larger drills than 3/4-inch are usually made with a tapered shank as shown at Fig. 168, B. At the end of the taper a tongue is formed which engages with a suitable opening in the collet, as the piece used to support the drill is called. The object of this tongue is to relieve the tapered portion of the drill from the stress of driving by frictional contact alone, as this would not turn the drill positively and the resulting slippage would wear the socket, this depreciation changing the taper and making it unfit for other drills. The tongue is usually proportioned so it is adequate to drive the drill under any condition. A small keyway is provided in the collet into which a tapering key of flat stock may be driven against the end of the tongue to drive the drill from the spindle. A standard taper for drill shanks generally accepted by the machine trade is known as the Morse and is a taper of five-eighths of an inch to the foot. The Brown and Sharp form tapers six-tenths of an inch to the foot. Care must be taken, therefore, when purchasing drills and collets, to make sure that the tapers coincide, as no attempt should be made to run a Morse taper in a Brown and Sharp collet, or vice versa. Sometimes cylindrical drills have straight flutes, as outlined at Fig. 168, A. Such drills are used with soft metals and are of value when the drill is to pass entirely through the work. The trouble with a drill with spiral flutes is that it will tend to draw itself through as the cutting lips break through. This catching of the drill may break it or move the work from its position. With a straight flute drill the cutting action is practically the same as with the flat drill shown at Fig. 168, E and F. If a drill is employed in boring holes through close-grained, tough metals, as wrought or malleable iron and steel, the operation will be facilitated by lubricating the drill with plenty of lard oil or a solution of soda and water. Either of these materials will effectually remove the heat caused by the friction of the metal removed against the lips of the drill, and the danger of heating the drill to a temperature that will soften it by drawing the temper is minimized. In drilling large or deep holes it is good practice to apply the lubricating medium directly at the drill point. Special drills of the form shown at Fig. 168, B, having a spiral oil tube running in a suitably formed channel, provides communication between the point of the drill and a suitable receiving hole on a drilled shank. The oil is supplied by a pump and its pressure not only promotes positive circulation and removal of heat, but also assists in keeping the hole free of chips. In drilling steel or wrought iron, lard oil applied to the point of the drill will facilitate the drilling, but this material should never be used with either brass or cast iron. The sizes to be provided depend upon the nature of the work and the amount of money that can be invested in drills. It is common practice to provide a set of drills, such as shown at Fig. 169, which are carried in a suitable metal stand, these being known as number drills on account of conforming to the wire gauge standards. Number drills do not usually run higher than 5/16 inch in diameter. Beyond this point drills are usually sold by the diameter. A set of chuck drills, ranging from 3/8 to 3/4 inch, advancing by 1/32 inch, and a set of Morse taper shank drills ranging from 3/4 to 11/4 inches, by increments of 1/16 inch, will be all that is needed for the most pretentious repair shop, as it is cheaper to bore holes larger than 11/4 inches with a boring tool than it is to carry a number of large drills in stock that would be used very seldom, perhaps not enough to justify their cost. Fig. 169 Fig. 169.—Useful Set of Number Drills, Showing Stand for Keeping These in an Orderly Manner. In grinding drills, care must be taken to have the lips of the same length, so that they will form the same angle with the axis. If one lip is longer than the other, as shown in the flat drill at Fig. 168, E, the hole will be larger than the drill size, and all the work of cutting will come upon the longest lip. The drill ends should be symmetrical, as shown at Fig. 168, F. Fig. 170 Fig. 170.—Illustrating Standard Forms of Hand and Machine Reamers. It is considered very difficult to drill a hole to an exact diameter, but for the most work a variation of a few thousandths of an inch is of no great moment. Where accuracy is necessary, holes must be reamed out to the required size. In reaming, a hole is drilled about 1/32 inch smaller than is required, and is enlarged with a cutting tool known as the reamer. Reamers are usually of the fluted form shown at Fig. 170, A. Tools of this nature are not designed to remove considerable amounts of metal, but are intended to augment the diameter of the drill hole by only a small fraction of an inch. Reamers are tapered slightly at the point in order that they will enter the hole easily, but the greater portion of the fluted part is straight, all cutting edges being parallel. Hand reamers are made in either the straight or taper forms, that at A, Fig. 170, being straight, while B has tapering flutes. They are intended to be turned by a wrench similar to that employed in turning a tap, as shown at Fig. 172, C. The reamer shown at Fig. 170, C, is a hand reamer. The form at D has spiral flutes similar to a twist drill, and as it is provided with a taper shank it is intended to be turned by power through the medium of a suitable collet. As the solid reamers must become reduced in size when sharpened, various forms of inserted blade reamers have been designed. One of these is shown at E, and as the cutting surfaces become reduced in diameter it is possible to replace the worn blades with others of proper size. Expanding reamers are of the form shown at F. These have a bolt passing through that fits into a tapering hole in the interior of the split reamer portion of the tool. If the hole is to be enlarged a few thousandths of an inch, it is possible to draw up on the nut just above the squared end of the shank, and by drawing the tapering wedge farther into the reamer body, the cutting portion will be expanded and will cut a larger hole. Reamers must be very carefully sharpened or there will be a tendency toward chattering with a consequent production of a rough surface. There are several methods of preventing this chattering, one being to separate the cutting edges by irregular spaces, while the most common method, and that to be preferred on machine reamers, is to use spiral flutes, as shown at Fig. 170, D. Special taper reamers are made to conform to the various taper pin sizes which are sometimes used in holding parts together in an engine. A taper of 1/16 inch per foot is intended for holes where a pin, once driven in, is to remain in place. When it is desired that the pin be driven out, the taper is made steeper, generally 1/4 inch per foot, which is the standard taper used on taper pins. Fig. 171 Fig. 171.—Tools for Thread Cutting. When threads are to be cut in a small hole, it will be apparent that it will be difficult to perform this operation economically on a lathe, therefore when internal threading is called for, a simple device known as a “tap” is used. There are many styles of taps, all conforming to different standards. Some are for metric or foreign threads, some conform to the American standards, while others are used for pipe and tubing. Hand taps are the form most used in repair shops, these being outlined at Fig. 171, A and B. They are usually sold in sets of three, known respectively as taper, plug, and bottoming. The taper tap is the one first put into the hole, and is then followed by the plug tap which cuts the threads deeper. If it is imperative that the thread should be full size clear to the bottom of the hole, the third tap of the set, which is straight-sided, is used. It would be difficult to start a bottoming tap into a hole because it would be larger in diameter at its point than the hole. The taper tap, as shown at A, Fig. 171, has a portion of the cutting lands ground away at the point in order that it will enter the hole. The manipulation of a tap is not hard, as it does not need to be forced into the work, as the thread will draw it into the hole as the tap is turned. The tapering of a tap is done so that no one thread is called upon to remove all of the metal, as for about half way up the length of the tap each succeeding thread is cut a little larger by the cutting edge until the full thread enters the hole. Care must be taken to always enter a tap straight in order to have the thread at correct angles to the surface. In cutting external threads on small rods or on small pieces, such as bolts and studs, it is not always economical to do this work in the lathe, especially in repair work. Dies are used to cut threads on pieces that are to be placed in tapped holes that have been threaded by the corresponding size of tap. Dies for small work are often made solid, as shown at Fig. 171, C, but solid dies are usually limited to sizes below 1/2 inch. Sometimes the solid die is cylindrical in shape, with a slot through one side which enables one to obtain a slight degree of adjustment by squeezing the slotted portion together. Large dies, or the sizes over 1/2 inch, are usually made in two pieces in order that the halves may be closed up or brought nearer together. The advantage of this form of die is that either of the two pieces may be easily sharpened, and as it may be adjusted very easily the thread may be cut by easy stages. For example, the die may be adjusted to cut large, which will produce a shallow thread that will act as an accurate guide when the die is closed up and a deeper thread cut. Fig. 172 Fig. 172.—Showing Holder Designs for One- and Two-Piece Thread Cutting Dies. A common form of die holder for an adjustable die is shown at Fig. 172, A. As will be apparent, it consists of a central body portion having guide members to keep the die pieces from falling out and levers at each end in order to permit the operator to exert sufficient force to remove the metal. The method of adjusting the depth of thread with a clamp screw when a two-piece die is employed is also clearly outlined. The diestock shown at B is used for the smaller dies of the one-piece pattern, having a slot in order that they may be closed up slightly by the clamp screw. The reverse side of the diestock shown at B is outlined below it, and the guide pieces, which may be easily moved in or out, according to the size of the piece to be threaded by means of eccentrically disposed semi-circular slots in the adjustment plate, are shown. These movable guide members have small pins let into their surface which engage the slots, and they may be moved in or out, as desired, according to the position of the adjusting plate. The use of the guide pieces makes for accurate positioning or centering of the rod to be threaded. Dies are usually sold in sets, and are commonly furnished as a portion of a complete outfit such as outlined at Fig. 173. That shown has two sizes of diestock, a tap wrench, eight assorted dies, eight assorted taps, and a small screw driver for adjusting the die. An automobile repair shop should be provided with three different sets of taps and dies, as three different standards for the bolts and nuts are used in fastening automobile components. These are the American, metric (used on foreign engines), and the S. A. E. standard threads. A set of pipe dies and taps will also be found useful. Fig. 173 Fig. 173.—Useful Outfit of Taps and Dies for the Engine Repair Shop. MEASURING TOOLS The tool outfit of the machinist or the mechanic who aspires to do machine work must include a number of measuring tools which are not needed by the floor man or one who merely assembles and takes apart the finished pieces. The machinist who must convert raw material into finished products requires a number of measuring tools, some of which are used for taking only approximate measurements, such as calipers and scales, while others are intended to take very accurate measurements, such as the Vernier and the micrometer. A number of common forms of calipers are shown at Fig. 174. These are known as inside or outside calipers, depending upon the measurements they are intended to take. That at A is an inside caliper, consisting of two legs, A and D, and a gauging piece, B, which can be locked to leg A, or released from that member by the screw, C. The object of this construction is to permit of measurements being taken at the bottom of a two diameter hole, where the point to be measured is of larger diameter than the portion of the hole through which the calipers entered. It will be apparent that the legs A and D must be brought close together to pass through the smaller holes. This may be done without losing the setting, as the guide bar B will remain in one position as determined by the size of the hole to be measured, while the leg A may be swung in to clear the obstruction as the calipers are lifted out. When it is desired to ascertain the measurements the leg A is pushed back into place into the slotted portion of the guide B, and locked by the clamp screw C. A tool of this form is known as an internal transfer caliper. Fig. 174 Fig. 174.—Common Forms of Inside and Outside Calipers. The form of caliper shown at B is an outside caliper. Those at C and D are special forms for inside and outside work, the former being used, if desired, as a divider, while the latter may be employed for measuring the walls of tubing. The calipers at E are simple forms, having a friction joint to distinguish them from the spring calipers shown at B, C and D. In order to permit of ready adjustment of a spring caliper, a split nut as shown at G is sometimes used. A solid nut caliper can only be adjusted by screwing the nut in or out on the screw, which may be a tedious process if the caliper is to be set from one extreme to the other several times in succession. With a slip nut as shown at G it is possible to slip it from one end of the thread to the other without turning it, and of locking it in place at any desired point by simply allowing the caliper leg to come in contact with it. The method of adjusting a spring caliper is shown at Fig. 174, H. Among the most common of the machinist’s tools are those used for linear measurements. The usual forms are shown in group, Fig. 175. The most common tool, which is widely known, is the carpenter’s folding two-foot rule or the yardstick. While these are very convenient for taking measurements where great accuracy is not required, the machinist must work much more accurately than the carpenter, and the standard steel scale which is shown at D, is a popular tool for the machinist. The steel scale is in reality a graduated straight edge and forms an important part of various measuring tools. These are made of high grade steel and vary from 1 to 48 inches in length. They are carefully hardened in order to preserve the graduations, and all surfaces and edges are accurately ground to insure absolute parallelism. The graduations on the high grade scales are produced with a special device known as a dividing engine, but on cheaper scales, etching suffices to provide a fairly accurate graduation. The steel scales may be very thin and flexible, or may be about an eighth of an inch thick on the twelve-inch size, which is that commonly used with combination squares, protractors and other tools of that nature. The repairman’s scale should be graduated both with the English system, in which the inches are divided into eighths, sixteenths, thirty-secondths and sixty-fourths, and also in the metric system, divided into millimeters and centimeters. Some machinists use scales graduated in tenths, twentieths, fiftieths and hundredths. This is not as good a system of graduation as the more conventional one first described. Fig. 175 Fig. 175.—Measuring Appliances for the Machinist and Floor Man. Some steel scales are provided with a slot or groove cut the entire length on one side and about the center of the scales. This permits the attachment of various fittings such as the protractor head, which enables the machinist to measure angles, or in addition the heads convert the scale into a square or a tool permitting the accurate bisecting of pieces of circular section. Two scales are sometimes joined together to form a right angle, such as shown at Fig. 175, C. This is known as a square and is very valuable in ascertaining the truth of vertical pieces that are supposed to form a right angle with a base piece. The Vernier is a device for reading finer divisions on a scale than those into which the scale is divided. Sixty-fourths of an inch are about the finest division that can be read accurately with the naked eye. When fine work is necessary a Vernier is employed. This consists essentially of two rules so graduated that the true scale has each inch divided into ten equal parts, the upper or Vernier portion has ten divisions occupying the same space as nine of the divisions of the true scale. It is evident, therefore, that one of the divisions of the Vernier is equal to nine-tenths of one of those on the true scale. If the Vernier scale is moved to the right so that the graduations marked “1” shall coincide, it will have moved one-tenth of a division on the scale or one-hundredth of an inch. When the graduations numbered 5 coincide the Vernier will have moved five-hundredths of an inch; when the lines marked 0 and 10 coincide, the Vernier will have moved nine-hundredths of an inch, and when 10 on the Vernier comes opposite 10 on the scales, the upper rule will have moved ten-hundredths of an inch, or the whole of one division on the scale. By this means the scale, though it may be graduated only to tenths of an inch, may be accurately set at points with positions expressed in hundredths of an inch. When graduated to read in thousandths, the true scale is divided into fifty parts and the Vernier into twenty parts. Each division of the Vernier is therefore equal to nineteen-twentieths of one of the true scale. If the Vernier be moved so the lines of the first division coincide, it will have moved one-twentieth of one-fiftieth, or .001 inch. The Vernier principle can be readily grasped by studying the section of the Vernier scale and true scale shown at Fig. 176, A. Fig. 176.—At Left, Special Form of Vernier Caliper for Measuring Gear Teeth; at Right, Micrometer for Accurate Internal Measurements. The caliper scale which is shown at Fig. 175, A, permits of taking the over-all dimension of any parts that will go between the jaws. This scale can be adjusted very accurately by means of a fine thread screw attached to a movable jaw and the divisions may be divided by eye into two parts if one sixty-fourth is the smallest of the divisions. A line is indicated on the movable jaw and coincides with the graduations on the scale. As will be apparent, if the line does not coincide exactly with one of the graduations it will be at some point between the lines and the true measurement may be approximated without trouble. A group of various other measuring tools of value to the machinist is shown at Fig. 177. The small scale at A is termed a “center gauge,” because it can be used to test the truth of the taper of either a male or female lathe center. The two smaller nicks, or v’s, indicate the shape of a standard thread, and may be used as a guide for grinding the point of a thread-cutting tool. The cross level which is shown at B is of marked utility in erecting, as it will indicate absolutely if the piece it is used to test is level. It will indicate if the piece is level along its width as well as its length. Fig. 177 Fig. 177.—Measuring Appliances of Value in Airplane Repair Work. A very simple attachment for use with a scale that enables the machinist to scribe lines along the length of a cylindrical piece is shown at Fig. 177, C. These are merely small wedge-shaped clamps having an angular face to rest upon the bars. The thread pitch gauge which is shown at Fig. 177, D, is an excellent pocket tool for the mechanic, as it is often necessary to determine without loss of time the pitch of the thread on a bolt or in a nut. This consists of a number of leaves having serrations on one edge corresponding to the standard thread it is to be used in measuring. The tool shown gives all pitches up to 48 threads per inch. The leaves may be folded in out of the way when not in use, and their shape admits of their being used in any position without the remainder of the set interfering with the one in use. The fine pitch gauges have slim, tapering leaves of the correct shape to be used in finding the pitch of small nuts. As the tool is round when the leaves are folded back out of the way, it is an excellent pocket tool, as there are no sharp corners to wear out the pocket. Practical application of a Vernier having measuring heads of special form for measuring gear teeth is shown at Fig. 176, A. As the action of this tool has been previously explained, it will not be necessary to describe it further. MICROMETER CALIPERS AND THEIR USE Where great accuracy is necessary in taking measurements the micrometer caliper, which in the simple form will measure easily .001 inch (one-thousandth part of an inch) and when fitted with a Vernier that will measure .0001 inch (one ten-thousandth part of an inch), is used. The micrometer may be of the caliper form for measuring outside diameters or it may be of the form shown at Fig. 176, B, for measuring internal diameters. The operation of both forms is identical except that the internal micrometer is placed inside of the bore to be measured while the external form is used just the same as a caliper. The form outlined will measure from one and one-half to six and a half inches as extension points are provided to increase the range of the instrument. The screw has a movement of one-half inch and a hardened anvil is placed in the end of the thimble in order to prevent undue wear at that point. The extension points or rods are accurately made in standard lengths and are screwed into the body of the instrument instead of being pushed in, this insuring firmness and accuracy. Two forms of micrometers for external measurements are shown at Fig. 178. The top one is graduated to read in thousandths of an inch, while the lower one is graduated to indicate hundredths of a millimeter. The mechanical principle involved in the construction of a micrometer is that of a screw free to move in a fixed nut. An opening to receive the work to be measured is provided by the backward movement of the thimble which turns the screw and the size of the opening is indicated by the graduations on the barrel. Fig. 178 Fig. 178.—Standard Forms of Micrometer Caliper for External Measurements. The article to be measured is placed between the anvil and spindle, the frame being held stationary while the thimble is revolved by the thumb and finger. The pitch of the screw thread on the concealed part of the spindle is 40 to an inch. One complete revolution of the spindle, therefore, moves it longitudinally one-fortieth, or twenty-five thousandths of an inch. As will be evident from the development of the scale on the barrel of the inch micrometer, the sleeve is marked with forty lines to the inch, each of these lines indicating twenty-five thousandths. The thimble has a beveled edge which is graduated into twenty-five parts. When the instrument is closed the graduation on the beveled edge of the thimble marked 0 should correspond to the 0 line on the barrel. If the micrometer is rotated one full turn the opening between the spindle and anvil will be .025 inch. If the thimble is turned only one graduation, or one twenty-fifth of a revolution, the opening between the spindle and anvil will be increased only by .001 inch (one-thousandth of an inch). As many of the dimensions of the airplane parts, especially of those of foreign manufacture or such parts as ball and roller bearings, are based on the metric system, the competent repairman should possess both inch and metric micrometers in order to avoid continual reference to a table of metric equivalents. With a metric micrometer there are fifty graduations on the barrel, these representing .01 of a millimeter, or approximately .004 inch. One full turn of the barrel means an increase of half a millimeter, or .50 mm. (fifty one-hundredths). As it takes two turns to augment the space between the anvil and the stem by increments of one millimeter, it will be evident that it would not be difficult to divide the spaces on the metric micrometer thimble in halves by the eye, and thus the average workman can measure to .0002 inch plus or minus without difficulty. As set in the illustration, the metric micrometers show a space of 13.5 mm., or about one millimeter more than half an inch. The inch micrometer shown is set to five-tenths or five hundred one-thousandths or one-half inch. A little study of the foregoing matter will make it easy to understand the action of either the inch or metric micrometer. Both of the micrometers shown have a small knurled knob at the end of the barrel. This controls the ratchet stop, which is a device that permits a ratchet to slip by a pawl when more than a certain amount of pressure is applied, thereby preventing the measuring spindle from turning further and perhaps springing the instrument. A simple rule that can be easily memorized for reading the inch micrometer is to multiply the number of vertical divisions on the sleeve by 25 and add to that the number of divisions on the bevel of the thimble reading from the zero to the line which coincides with the horizontal line on the sleeve. For example: if there are ten divisions visible on the sleeve, multiply this number by 25, then add the number of divisions shown on the bevel of the thimble, which is 10. The micrometer is therefore opened 10 × 25 equals 250 plus 10 equals 260 thousandths. Micrometers are made in many sizes, ranging from those having a maximum opening of one inch to special large forms that will measure forty or more inches. While it is not to be expected that the repairman will have use for the big sizes, if a caliper having a maximum opening of six inches is provided with a number of extension rods enabling one to measure smaller objects, practically all of the measuring needed in repairing engine parts can be made accurately. Two or three smaller micrometers having a maximum range of two or three inches will also be found valuable, as most of the measurements will be made with these tools which will be much easier to handle than the larger sizes. TYPICAL TOOL OUTFITS The equipment of tools necessary for repairing airplane engines depends entirely upon the type of the power plant and while the common hand tools can be used on all forms, the work is always facilitated by having special tools adapted for reaching the nuts and screws that would be hard to reach otherwise. Special spanners and socket wrenches are very desirable. Then again, the nature of the work to be performed must be taken into consideration. Rebuilding or overhauling an engine calls for considerably more tools than are furnished for making field repairs or minor adjustments. A complete set of tools supplied to men working on Curtiss OX-2 engines and JN-4 training biplanes is shown at Fig. 179. The tools are placed in a special box provided with a hinged cover and are arranged in the systematic manner outlined. The various tools and supplies shown are: A, hacksaw blades; B, special socket wrenches for engine bolts and nuts; C, ball pein hammers, four sizes; D, five assorted sizes of screw drivers ranging from very long for heavy work to short and small for fine work; E, seven pairs of pliers including combination in three sizes, two pairs of cutting pliers and one round nose; F, two split pin extractors and spreaders; G, wrench set including three adjustable monkey wrenches, one Stillson or pipe wrench, five sizes adjustable end wrenches and ten double end S wrenches; H, set of files, including flat, three cornered and half round; I, file brush; J, chisel and drift pin; K, three small punches or drifts; L, hacksaw frame; M, soldering copper; N, special spanners for propeller retaining nuts; O, special spanners; P, socket wrenches, long handle; Q, long handle, stiff bristle brushes for cleaning motor; R, gasoline blow torch; S, hand drill; T, spools of safety wire; U, flash lamp; V, special puller and castle wrenches; W, oil can; X, large adjustable monkey wrench; Y, washer and gasket cutter; Z, ball of heavy twine. In addition to the tools, various supplies, such as soldering acid, solder, shellac, valve grinding compound, bolts and nuts, split pins, washers, wood screws, etc., are provided. Fig. 179 Fig. 179.—Special Tools for Maintaining Curtiss OX-2 Motor Used in Curtiss JN-4 Training Biplane. SPECIAL HALL-SCOTT TOOLS | NO. | TOOL | DIRECTIONS FOR USE | | 1 | Engine hoisting hook, 6-cylinder | Hook under cam-shaft housing, when hoisting engine. | | 2 | Engine hoisting hook, 4-cylinder | Hook under cam-shaft housing, when hoisting engine. | | 3 | Water plug wrench | For use on water plugs on top and end of cylinders. | | 4 | Vertical shaft flange puller | For pulling lower pinion shaft flange from shaft. (Used on A-5 and A-7 engines only.) | | 5 | Oil gun | For general lubrication use. | | 6 | Magneto gear puller | For pulling magneto gears from magneto shaft. | | 7 | Socket wrench, 1/4'' A.L.A.M. | For use on bolts and nuts on crank cases. | | 8 | Socket wrench, 1/4'' A.L.A.M | For use on crank cases and magneto gear housings. | | 9 | Socket wrench, 1/4'' A.L.A.M. | For use on magneto gear housings. | | 10 | Socket wrench, 3/8'' standard | For bolts and nuts which fasten magnetos to crank-case. | | 11 | Socket wrench, 1/4'' A.L.A.M. | For use on magneto gear housings. | | 12 | Vertical shaft gear puller | For removing water pump and magneto drive gear. | | 13 | Brace and facing cutter | For facing lugs on cylinders for cylinder hold down stud washers. | | 14 | Handle for brace | Use with brace. | | 15 | Valve grinding brace | For grinding in valves. | | 16 | Socket wrench base, 3/8'' A.L.A.M. | For thrust bearing cap screws. | | 17 | Brace and facing cutter, 5/16'' A.L.A.M. | For facing lugs on rocker arm covers. | | 18 | Valve grinding screw driver | For grinding in valves. | | 19 | Valve spring tool | For putting on and taking off valve springs. | | 20 | Block-valve spring tool | For use with valve spring tool. | | 21 | Socket wrench, 5/8'' A.L.A.M. | For main bearing nuts. | | 22 | Socket wrench, 1/4'' A.L.A.M. | For use on cam-shaft housing. | | 23 | Socket wrench, 5/16'' A.L.A.M. | For cam-shaft housing hold down stud nuts. | | 24 | Socket wrench, 1/2'' A.L.A.M. | For cylinder hold down stud nuts. | | 25 | Socket wrench, 5/16'' A.L.A.M. | For carburetor and water pump bolts and nuts. | | 26 | Socket wrench, 5/16'' A.L.A.M. | For carburetor and water pump bolts and nuts. | | 27 | Socket wrench | For use on carburetor jets. | | 28 | Magneto screw driver | For general magneto use. | | 29 | Brass bar, 1'' diameter × 7'' long | For driving piston pins from pistons. | | 30 | Hack saw | For general use. | | 31 | Oil can | For cam-shaft housing lubrication. | | 32 | Gasoline or distillate can | For priming or other use. | | 33 | Oil can | For magneto gear lubrication. | | 34 | Shellac can | For rubber hose connections and gaskets. | | 35 | Magneto cleaner | For use on magnetos. | | 36 | Clamps | For holding cylinder hold down studs, when fitting main bearings. | | 37 | Piston guards | For use in pistons, when out of engine, to protect them. | | 38 | Screw driver | For general use. | | 39 | Vertical shaft clamps | For clamping vertical shaft flanges, when timing engine. | | 40 | Thrust adjusting nut wrench | For adjusting propeller thrust bearing. | | 41 | Stuffing box spanner wrench | For adjusting stuffing box nut on vertical shaft. | | 42 | Water pump spanner wrench | For adjusting water pump stuffing nut. | | 43 | Wrench | For use on cylinder relief cocks and cylinder priming cocks. | | 44 | Hose clamp wrench | For use on hose clamps. | | 45 | Scraper | For cleaning piston ring grooves on pistons. | | 46 | Crank-shaft nut wrench | For adjusting crank-shaft nut. | | 47 | Spark-plug wrench | For putting in and taking out spark-plugs in cylinders. | | 48 | Timing disc (single disc) | For use on crank-shaft to time engine. | | Specify type motor disc should be made for. If double disc is required, specify the two types of motors the disc is to be made for. Double disc. | | 49 | Main bearing scraper | For scraping in bearings. | | 50 | Cylinder carbon scraper | For removing carbon from heads of cylinders. | | 51 | Valve seating tool | For seating valves in cylinder heads. | | 52 | Scraper, small | For general bearing use. | | 53 | Scraper, large | For general bearing use. | | 54 | Crank-shaft flange puller | For pulling crank-shaft flange from crank-shaft. | | 55 | Piston and connecting rod racks. | | 56 | Main bearing stud nuts and shim rack. | | 57 | Main bearing board rack. | | 58 | Rocker arm and cover rack. | The special tools and fixtures recommended by the Hall-Scott Company for work on their engines are clearly shown at Fig. 180. All tools are numbered and their uses may be clearly understood by reference to the illustration and explanatory list given on pages 410 and 411. OVERHAULING AIRPLANE ENGINES After an airplane engine has been in use for a period ranging from 60 to 80 hours, depending upon the type, it is necessary to give it a thorough overhauling before it is returned to service. To do this properly, the engine is removed from the fuselage and placed on a special supporting stand, such as shown at Fig. 181, so it can be placed in any position and completely dismantled. With a stand of this kind it is as easy to work on the bottom of the engine as on the top and every part can be instantly reached. The crank-case shown in place in illustration is in a very convenient position for scraping in the crank-shaft bearings. Fig. 180 Fig. 180.—Special Tools and Appliances to Facilitate Overhauling Work on Hall-Scott Airplane Engines. In order to look over the parts of an engine and to restore the worn or defective components it is necessary to take the engine entirely apart, as it is only when the power plant is thoroughly dismantled that the parts can be inspected or measured to determine defects or wear. If one is not familiar with the engine to be inspected, even though the work is done by a repairman of experience, it will be found of value to take certain precautions when dismantling the engine in order to insure that all parts will be replaced in the same position they occupied before removal. There are a number of ways of identifying the parts, one of the simplest and surest being to mark them with steel numbers or letters or with a series of center punch marks in order to retain the proper relation when reassembling. This is of special importance in connection with dismantling multiple cylinder engines as it is vital that pistons, piston rings, connecting rods, valves, and other cylinder parts be always replaced in the same cylinder from which they were removed, because it is uncommon to find equal depreciation in all cylinders. Some repairmen use small shipping tags to identify the pieces. This can be criticised because the tags may become detached and lost and the identity of the piece mistaken. If the repairing is being done in a shop where other engines of the same make are being worked on, the repairman should be provided with a large chest fitted with a lock and key in which all of the smaller parts, such as rods, bolts and nuts, valves, gears, valve springs, cam-shafts, etc., may be stored to prevent the possibility of confusion with similar members of other engines. All parts should be thoroughly cleaned with gasoline or in the potash kettle as removed, and wiped clean and dry. This is necessary to show wear which will be evidenced by easily identified indications in cases where the machine has been used for a time, but in others, the deterioration can only be detected by delicate measuring instruments. Fig. 181 Fig. 181.—Special Stand to Make Motor Overhauling Work Easier. In taking down a motor the smaller parts and fittings such as spark-plugs, manifolds and wiring should be removed first. Then the more important members such as cylinders may be removed from the crank-case to give access to the interior and make possible the examination of the pistons, rings and connecting rods. After the cylinders are removed the next operation is to disconnect the connecting rods from the crank-shaft and to remove them and the pistons attached as a unit. Then the crank-case is dismembered, in most cases by removing the bottom half or oil sump, thus exposing the main bearings and crank-shaft. The first operation is the removal of the inlet and exhaust manifolds. In some cases the manifolds are cored integral with the cylinder head casting and it is merely necessary to remove a short pipe leading from the carburetor to one inlet opening and the exhaust pipe from the outlet opening common to all cylinders. In order to remove the carburetor it is necessary to shut off the gasoline supply at the tank and to remove the pipe coupling at the float chamber. It is also necessary to disconnect the throttle operating rod. After the cylinders are removed and before taking the crank-case apart it is well to remove the water pump and magneto. The wiring on most engines of modern development is carried in conduits and usually releasing two or three minor fastenings will permit one to take off the plug wiring as a unit. The wire should be disconnected from both spark-plugs and magneto distributor before its removal. When the cylinders are removed, the pistons, piston rings, and connecting rods are clearly exposed and their condition may be readily noticed.Before disturbing the arrangement of the timing gears, it is important that these be marked so that they will be replaced in exactly the same relation as intended by the engine designer. If the gears are properly marked the valve timing and magneto setting will be undisturbed when the parts are replaced after overhauling. With the cylinders off, it is possible to ascertain if there is any undue wear present in the connecting rod bearings at either the wrist pin or crank-pin ends and also to form some idea of the amount of carbon deposits on the piston top and back of the piston rings. Any wear of the timing gears can also be determined. The removal of the bottom plate of the engine enables the repairman to see if the main bearings are worn unduly. Often bearings may be taken up sufficiently to eliminate all looseness. In other cases they may be worn enough so that careful refitting will be necessary. Where the crank-case is divided horizontally into two portions, the upper one serving as an engine base to which the cylinders and in fact all important working parts are attached, the lower portion performs the functions of an oil container and cover for the internal mechanism. This is the construction generally followed. DEFECTS IN CYLINDERS After the cylinders have been removed and stripped of all fittings, they should be thoroughly cleaned and then carefully examined for defects. The interior or bore should be looked at with a view of finding score marks, grooves, cuts or scratches in the interior, because there are many faults that may be ascribed to depreciation at this point. The cylinder bore may be worn out of round, which can only be determined by measuring with an internal caliper or dial indicator even if the cylinder bore shows no sign of wear. The flange at the bottom of the cylinder by which it is held to the engine base may be cracked. The water jacket wall may have opened up due to freezing of the jacket water at some time or other or it may be filled with scale and sediment due to the use of impure cooling water. The valve seat may be scored or pitted, while the threads holding the valve chamber cap may be worn so that the cap will not be a tight fit. The detachable head construction makes it possible to remove that member and obtain ready access to the piston tops for scraping out carbon without taking the main cylinder portion from the crank-case. When the valves need grinding the head may be removed and carried to the bench where the work may be performed with absolute assurance that none of the valve grinding compound will penetrate into the interior of the cylinder as is sometimes unavoidable with the I-head cylinder. If the cylinder should be scored, the water jacket and combustion head may be saved and a new cylinder casting purchased at considerably less cost than that of the complete unit cylinder. The detachable head construction has only recently been applied on airplane engines, though it was one of the earliest forms of automobile engine construction. In the early days it was difficult to procure gaskets or packings that would be both gas and water tight. The sheet asbestos commonly used was too soft and blew out readily. Besides a new gasket had to be made every time the cylinder head was removed. Woven wire and asbestos packings impregnated with rubber, red lead, graphite and other filling materials were more satisfactory than the soft sheet asbestos, but were prone to burn out if the water supply became low. Materials such as sheet copper or brass proved to be too hard to form a sufficiently yielding packing medium that would allow for the inevitable slight inaccuracies in machining the cylinder head and cylinder. The invention of the copper-asbestos gasket, which is composed of two sheets of very thin, soft copper bound together by a thin edging of the same material and having a piece of sheet asbestos interposed solved this problem. Copper-asbestos packings form an effective seal against leakage of water and a positive retention means for keeping the explosion pressure in the cylinder. The great advantage of the detachable head is that it permits of very easy inspection of the piston tops and combustion chamber and ready removal of carbon deposits. CARBON DEPOSITS, THEIR CAUSE AND PREVENTION Most authorities agree that carbon is the result of imperfect combustion of the fuel and air mixture as well as the use of lubricating oils of improper flash point. Lubricating oils that work by the piston rings may become decomposed by the great heat in the combustion chamber, but at the same time one cannot blame the lubricating oil for all of the carbon deposits. There is little reason to suspect that pure petroleum oil of proper body will deposit excessive amounts of carbon, though if the oil is mixed with castor oil, which is of vegetable origin, there would be much carbon left in the interior of the combustion chamber. Fuel mixtures that are too rich in gasoline also produce these undesirable accumulations. A very interesting chemical analysis of a sample of carbon scraped from the interior of a motor vehicle engine shows that ordinarily the lubricant is not as much to blame as is commonly supposed. The analysis was as follows: | Oil | 14.3 | % | | Other combustible matter | 17.9 | | | Sand, clay, etc. | 24.8 | | | Iron oxide | 24.5 | | | Carbonate of lime | 8.9 | | | Other constituents | 9.6 | | It is extremely probable that the above could be divided into two general classes, these being approximately 32.2% oil and combustible matter and a much larger proportion, or 67.8% of earthy matter. The presence of such a large percentage of earthy matter is undoubtedly due to the impurities in the air, such as road dust which has been sucked in through the carburetor. The fact that over 17% of the matter which is combustible was not of an oily nature lends strong support to this view. There would not be the amount of earthy material present in the carbon deposits of an airplane engine as above stated because the air is almost free from dust at the high altitudes planes are usually flown. One could expect to find more combustible and less earthy matter and the carbon would be softer and more easily removed. It is very good practice to provide a screen on the air intake to reduce the amounts of dust sucked in with the air as well as observing the proper precautions relative to supplying the proper quantities of air to the mixture and of not using any more oil than is needed to insure proper lubrication of the internal mechanism. USE OF CARBON SCRAPERS It is not unusual for one to hear an aviator complain that the engine he operates is not as responsive as it was when new after he has run it but relatively few hours. There does not seem to be anything actually wrong with the engine, yet it does not respond readily to the throttle and is apt to overheat. While these symptoms denote a rundown condition of the mechanism, the trouble is often due to nothing more serious than accumulations of carbon. The remedy is the removal of this matter out of place. The surest way of cleaning the inside of the motor thoroughly is to remove the cylinders, if these members are cast integrally with the head or of removing the head member if that is a separate casting, to expose all parts. In certain forms of cylinders, especially those of the L form, it is possible to introduce simple scrapers down through the valve chamber cap holes and through the spark-plug hole if this component is placed in the cylinder in some position that communicates directly to the interior of the cylinder or to the piston top. No claim can be made for originality or novelty of this process as is has been used for many years on large stationary engines. The first step is to dismantle the inlet and exhaust piping and remove the valve caps and valves, although if the deposit is not extremely hard or present in large quantities one can often manipulate the scrapers in the valve cap openings without removing either the piping or the valves. Commencing with the first cylinder, the crank-shaft is turned till the piston is at the top of its stroke, then the scraper may be inserted, and the operation of removing the carbon started by drawing the tool toward the opening. As this is similar to a small hoe, the cutting edge will loosen some of the carbon and will draw it toward the opening. A swab is made of a piece of cloth or waste fastened at the end of a wire and well soaked in kerosene to clean out the cylinder. When available, an electric motor with a length of flexible shaft and a small circular cleaning brush having wire bristles can be used in the interior of the engine. The electric motor need not be over one-eighth horsepower running 1,200 to 1,600 R.P.M., and the wire brush must, of course, be of such size that it can be easily inserted through the valve chamber cap. The flexible shaft permits one to reach nearly all parts of the cylinder interior without difficulty and the spreading out and flattening of the brush insures that considerable surface will be covered by that member. BURNING OUT CARBON WITH OXYGEN A process of recent development that gives very good results in removing carbon without disassembling the motor depends on the process of burning out that material by supplying oxygen to support the combustion and to make it energetic. A number of concerns are already offering apparatus to accomplish this work, and in fact any shop using an autogenous welding outfit may use the oxygen tank and reducing valve in connection with a simple special torch for burning the carbon. Results have demonstrated that there is little danger of damaging the motor parts, and that the cost of oxygen and labor is much lower than the old method of removing the cylinders and scraping the carbon out, as well as being very much quicker than the alternative process of using carbon solvent. The only drawback to this system is that there is no absolute insurance that every particle of carbon will be removed, as small protruding particles may be left at points that the flame does not reach and cause pre-ignition and consequent pounding, even after the oxygen treatment. It is generally known that carbon will burn in the presence of oxygen, which supports combustion of all materials, and this process takes advantage of this fact and causes the gas to be injected into the combustion chamber over a flame obtained by a match or wax taper. Fig. 182 Fig. 182.—Showing Where Carbon Deposits Collect in Engine Combustion Chamber, and How to Burn Them Out with the Aid of Oxygen. A—Special Torch. B—Torch Coupled to Oxygen Tank. C—Torch in Use. It is suggested by those favoring this process that the night before the oxygen is to be used the engine be given a conventional kerosene treatment. A half tumbler full of this liquid or of denatured alcohol is to be poured into each cylinder and permitted to remain there over night. As a precaution against fire, the gasoline is shut off from the carburetor before the torch is inserted in the cylinder and the motor started so that the gasoline in the pipe and carburetor float chamber will be consumed. Work is done on one cylinder at a time. A note of caution was recently sounded by a prominent spark-plug manufacturer recommending that the igniter member be removed from the cylinder in order not to injure it by the heat developed. The outfits on the market consist of a special torch having a trigger controlled valve and a length of flexible tubing such as shown at Fig. 182, A, and a regulating valve and oxygen tank as shown at B. The gauge should be made to register about twelve pounds pressure. The method of operation is very simple and is outlined at C. The burner tube is placed in the cylinder and the trigger valve is opened and the oxygen permitted to circulate in the combustion chamber. A lighted match or wax taper is dropped in the chamber and the injector tube is moved around as much as possible so as to cover a large area. The carbon takes fire and burns briskly in the presence of the oxygen. The combustion of the carbon is accompanied by sparks and sometimes by flame if the deposit is of an oily nature. Once the carbon begins to burn the combustion continues without interruption as long as the oxygen flows into the cylinder. Full instructions accompany each outfit and the amount of pressure for which the regulator should be set depends upon the design of the torch and the amount of oxygen contained in the storage tank. REPAIRING SCORED CYLINDERS If the engine has been run at any time without adequate lubrication, one or more of the cylinders may be found to have vertical scratches running up and down the cylinder walls. The depth of these will vary according to the amount of time the cylinder was without lubrication, and if the grooves are very deep the only remedy is to purchase a new member. Of course, if sufficient stock is available in the cylinder walls, the cylinders may be rebored and new pistons which are oversize, i.e., larger than standard, may be fitted. Where the scratches are not deep they may be ground out with a high speed emery wheel or lapped out if that type of machine is not available. Wrist pins have been known to come loose, especially when these are retained by set screws that are not properly locked, and as wrist-pins are usually of hardened steel it will be evident that the sharp edge of that member can act as a cutting tool and make a pronounced groove in the cylinder. Cylinder grinding is a job that requires skilled mechanics, but may be accomplished on any lathe fitted with an internal grinding attachment. While automobile engine cylinders usually have sufficient wall thickness to stand reboring, those of airplane engines seldom have sufficient metal to permit of enlarging the bore very much by a boring tool. A few thousandths of an inch may be ground out without danger, however. An airplane engine cylinder with deep grooves must be scrapped as a general rule. Where the grooves in the cylinder are not deep or where it has warped enough so the rings do not bear equally at all parts of the cylinder bore, it is possible to obtain a fairly accurate degree of finish by a lapping process in which an old piston is coated with a mixture of fine emery and oil and is reciprocated up and down in the cylinder as well as turned at the same time. This may be easily done by using a dummy connecting rod having only a wrist pin end boss, and of such size at the other end so that it can be held in the chuck of a drill press. The cylinder casting is firmly clamped on the drill press table by suitable clamping blocks, and a wooden block is placed in the combustion chamber to provide a stop for the piston at its lower extreme position. The back gears are put in and the drill chuck is revolved slowly. All the while that the piston is turning the drill chuck should be raised up and down by the hand feed lever, as the best results are obtained when the lapping member is given a combination of rotary and reciprocating motion. VALVE REMOVAL AND INSPECTION One of the most important parts of the gasoline engine and one that requires frequent inspection and refitting to keep in condition, is the mushroom or poppet valve that controls the inlet and exhaust gas flow. In overhauling it is essential that these valves be removed from their seatings and examined carefully for various defects which will be enumerated at proper time. The problem that concerns us now is the best method of removing the valve. These are held against the seating in the cylinder by a coil spring which exerts its pressure on the cylinder casting at the upper end and against a suitable collar held by a key at the lower end of the valve stem. In order to remove the valve it is necessary to first compress the spring by raising the collar and pulling the retaining key out of the valve stem. Many forms of valve spring lifters have been designed to permit ready removal of the valves. When the cylinder is of the valve in-the-head form, the method of valve removal will depend entirely upon the system of cylinder construction followed. In the Sturtevant cylinder design it is possible to remove the head from the cylinder castings and the valve springs may be easily compressed by any suitable means when the cylinder head is placed on the work bench where it can be easily worked on. The usual method is to place the head on a soft cloth with the valves bearing against the bench. The valve springs may then be easily pushed down with a simple forked lever and the valve stem key removed to release the valve spring collar. In the Curtiss OX-2 (see Fig. 1821/2) and Hall-Scott engines it is not possible to remove the valves without taking the cylinder off the crank-case, because the valve seats are machined directly in the cylinder head and the valve domes are cast integrally with the cylinder. This means that if the valves need grinding the cylinder must be removed from the engine base to provide access to the valve heads which are inside of that member, and which cannot be reached from the outside as is true of the L-cylinder construction. In the Curtiss VX engines, the valves are carried in detachable cages which may be removed when the valves need attention. Fig. 1821/2.—Part Sectional View, Showing Valve Arrangement in Cylinder of Curtiss OX-2 Aviation Engine. RESEATING AND TRUING VALVES Much has been said relative to valve grinding, and despite the mass of information given in the trade prints it is rather amusing to watch the average repairman or the engine user who prides himself on maintaining his own motor performing this essential operation. The common mistakes are attempting to seat a badly grooved or pitted valve head on an equally bad seat, which is an almost hopeless job, and of using coarse emery and bearing down with all one’s weight on the grinding tool with the hope of quickly wearing away the rough surfaces. The use of improper abrasive material is a fertile cause of failure to obtain a satisfactory seating. Valve grinding is not a difficult operation if certain precautions are taken before undertaking the work. The most important of these is to ascertain if the valve head or seat is badly scored or pitted. If such is found to be the case no ordinary amount of grinding will serve to restore the surfaces. In this event the best thing to do is to remove the valve from its seating and to smooth down both the valve head and the seat in the cylinder before attempt is made to fit them together by grinding. Another important precaution is to make sure that the valve stem is straight, and that the head is not warped out of shape. Fig. 183 Fig. 183.—Tools for Restoring Valve Head and Seats. A number of simple tools is available at the present time for reseating valves, these being outlined at Fig. 183. That shown at A is a simple fixture for facing off the valve head. The stem is supported by suitable bearings carried by the body or shank of the tool, and the head is turned against an angularly disposed cutter which is set for the proper valve seat angle. The valve head is turned by a screw-driver, the amount of stock removed from the head depending upon the location of the adjusting screw. Care must be taken not to remove too much metal, only enough being taken off to remove the most of the roughness. Valves are made in two standard tapers, the angle being either 45 or 60 degrees. It is imperative that the cutter blade be set correctly in order that the bevel is not changed. A set of valve truing and valve-seat reaming cutters is shown at Fig. 183, B. This is adaptable to various size valve heads, as the cutter blade D may be moved to correspond to the size of the valve head being trued up. These cutter blades are made of tool steel and have a bevel at each end, one at 45 degrees, the other at 60 degrees. The valve seat reamer shown at G will take any one of the heads shown at F. It will also take any one of the guide bars shown at H. The function of the guide bars is to fit the valve stem bearing in order to locate the reamer accurately and to insure that the valve seat is machined concentrically with its normal center. Another form of valve seat reamer and a special wrench used to turn it is shown at C. The valve head truer shown at Fig. 183, D, is intended to be placed in a vise and is adaptable to a variety of valve head sizes. The smaller valves merely fit deeper in the conical depression. The cutter blade is adjustable and the valve stem is supported by a simple self-centering bearing. In operation it is intended that the valve stem, which protrudes through the lower portion of the guide bearing, shall be turned by a drill press or bit stock while the valve head is set against the cutter by pressure of a pad carried at the end of a feed screw which is supported by a hinged bridge member. This can be swung out of place as indicated to permit placing the valve head against the cutter or removing it. As the sizes of valve heads and stems vary considerably a “Universal” valve head truing tool must have some simple means of centering the valve stem in order to insure concentric machining of the valve head. A valve head truer which employs an ingenious method of guiding the valve stem is shown at Fig. 183, E. The device consists of a body portion, B, provided with an external thread at the top on which the cutter head, A, is screwed. A number of steel balls, C, are carried in the grooves which may be altered in size by the adjustment nut, F, which screws in the bottom of the body portion, B. As the nut F is screwed in against the spacer member E, the V-grooves are reduced in size and the steel balls, C, are pressed out in contact with the valve stem. As the circle or annulus is filled with balls in both upper and lower portions the stem may be readily turned because it is virtually supported by ball bearing guides. When a larger valve stem is to be supported, the adjusting nut F, is screwed out which increases the size of the grooves and permits the balls, C, to spread out and allow the larger stem to be inserted. VALVE GRINDING PROCESSES Mention has been previously made of the importance of truing both valve head and seat before attempt is made to refit the parts by grinding. After smoothing the valve seat the next step is to find some way of turning the valve. Valve heads are usually provided with a screw-driver slot passing through the boss at the top of the valve or with two drilled holes to take a forked grinding tool. A combination grinding tool has been devised which may be used when either the two drilled holes or the slotted head form of valve is to be rotated. This consists of a special form of screw driver having an enlarged boss just above the blade, this boss serving to support a U-shape piece which can be securely held in operative position by the clamp screw or which can be turned out of the way if the screw driver blade is to be used. As it is desirable to turn the valve through a portion of a revolution and back again rather than turning it always in the same direction, a number of special tools has been designed to make this oscillating motion possible without trouble. A simple valve grinding tool is shown at Fig. 184, C. This consists of a screw-driver blade mounted in a handle in such a way that the end may turn freely in the handle. A pinion is securely fastened to the screw-driver blade shank, and is adapted to fit a race provided with a wood handle and guided by a bent bearing member securely fastened to the screw-driver handle. As the rack is pushed back and forth the pinion must be turned first in one direction and then in the other. Fig. 184 Fig. 184.—Tools and Processes Utilized in Valve Grinding. A valve grinding tool patterned largely after a breast drill is shown at Fig. 184, D. This is worked in such a manner that a continuous rotation of the operating crank will result in an oscillating movement of the chuck carrying the screw-driver blade. The bevel pinions which are used to turn the chuck are normally free unless clutched to the chuck stem by the sliding sleeve which must turn with the chuck stem and which carries clutching members at each end to engage similar members on the bevel pinions and lock these to the chuck stem, one at a time. The bevel gear carries a cam-piece which moves the clutch sleeve back and forth as it revolves. This means that the pinion giving forward motion of the chuck is clutched to the chuck spindle for a portion of a revolution of the gear and clutch sleeve is moved back by the cam and clutched to the pinion giving a reverse motion of the chuck during the remainder of the main drive gear revolution. It sometimes happens that the adjusting screw on the valve lift plunger or the valve lift plunger itself when L head cylinders are used does not permit the valve head to rest against the seat. It will be apparent that unless a definite space exists between the end of the valve stem and the valve lift plunger that grinding will be of little avail because the valve head will not bear properly against the abrasive material smeared on the valve seat. The usual methods of valve grinding are clearly outlined at Fig. 184. The view at the left shows the method of turning the valve by an ordinary screw driver and also shows a valve head at A, having both the drilled holes and the screw-driver slot for turning the member and two special forms of fork-end valve grinding tools. In the sectional view shown at the right, the use of the light spring between the valve head and the bottom of the valve chamber to lift the valve head from the seat whenever pressure on the grinding tool is released is clearly indicated. It will be noted also that a ball of waste or cloth is interposed in the passage between the valve chamber and the cylinder interior to prevent the abrasive material from passing into the cylinder from the valve chamber. When a bitstock is used, instead of being given a true rotary motion the chuck is merely oscillated through the greater part of the circle and back again. It is necessary to lift the valve from its seat frequently as the grinding operation continues; this is to provide an even distribution of the abrasive material placed between the valve head and its seat. Only sufficient pressure is given to the bitstock to overcome the uplift of the spring and to insure that the valve will be held against the seat. Where the spring is not used it is possible to raise the valve from time to time with the hand which is placed under the valve stem to raise it as the grinding is carried on. It is not always possible to lift the valve in this manner when the cylinders are in place on the engine base owing to the space between the valve lift plunger and the end of the valve stem. In this event the use of the spring as shown in sectional view will be desirable. The abrasive generally used is a paste made of medium or fine emery and lard oil or kerosene. This is used until the surfaces are comparatively smooth, after which the final polish or finish is given with a paste of flour emery, grindstone dust, crocus, or ground glass and oil. An erroneous impression prevails in some quarters that the valve head surface and the seating must have a mirror-like polish. While this is not necessary it is essential that the seat in the cylinder and the bevel surface of the head be smooth and free from pits or scratches at the completion of the operation. All traces of the emery and oil should be thoroughly washed out of the valve chamber with gasoline before the valve mechanism is assembled and in fact it is advisable to remove the old grinding compound at regular intervals, wash the seat thoroughly and supply fresh material as the process is in progress. The truth of seatings may be tested by taking some Prussian blue pigment and spreading a thin film of it over the valve seat. The valve is dropped in place and is given about one-eighth turn with a little pressure on the tool. If the seating is good both valve head and seat will be covered uniformly with color. If high spots exist, the heavy deposit of color will show these while the low spots will be made evident because of the lack of pigment. The grinding process should be continued until the test shows an even bearing of the valve head at all points of the cylinder seating. When the valves are held in cages it is possible to catch the cage in a vise and to turn the valve in any of the ways indicated. It is much easier to clean off the emery and oil and there is absolutely no danger of getting the abrasive material in the cylinder if the construction is such that the valve cage or cylinder head member carrying the valve can be removed from the cylinder. When valves are held in cages, the tightness of the seat may be tested by partially filling the cage with gasoline and noticing how much liquid oozes out around the valve head. The degree of moisture present indicates the efficacy of the grinding process. The valves of Curtiss OX-2 cylinders are easily ground in by using a simple fixture or tool and working from the top of the cylinder instead of from the inside. A tube having a bore just large enough to go over the valve stem is provided with a wooden handle or taped at one end and a hole of the same size as that drilled through the valve stem is put in at the other. To use, the open end of the tube is pushed over the valve stem and a split pin pushed through the tube and stem. The valve may be easily manipulated and ground in place by oscillating in the customary manner. DEPRECIATION IN VALVE OPERATING SYSTEMS There are a number of points to be watched in the valve operating system because valve timing may be seriously interfered with if there is much lost motion at the various bearing points in the valve lift mechanism. The two conventional methods of opening valves are shown at Fig. 185. That at A is the type employed when the valve cages are mounted directly in the head, while the form at B is the system used when the valves are located in a pocket or extension of the cylinder casting as is the case if an L, or T-head cylinder is used. It will be evident that there are several points where depreciation may take place. The simplest form is that shown at B, and even on this there are five points where lost motion may be noted. The periphery of the valve opening cam or roller may be worn, though this is not likely unless the roller or cam has been inadvertently left soft. The pin which acts as a bearing for the roller may become worn, this occurring quite often. Looseness may materialize between the bearing surfaces of the valve lift plunger and the plunger guide casting, and there may also be excessive clearance between the top of the plunger and the valve stem. Fig. 185 Fig. 185.—Outlining Points in Valve Operating Mechanism Where Depreciation is Apt to Exist. On the form shown at A, there are several parts added to those indicated at B. A walking beam or rocker lever is necessary to transform the upward motion of the tappet rod to a downward motion of the valve stem. The pin on which this member fulcrums may wear as will also the other pin acting as a hinge or bearing for the yoke end of the tappet rod. It will be apparent that if slight play existed at each of the points mentioned it might result in a serious diminution of valve opening. Suppose, for example, that there were .005-inch lost motion at each of three bearing points, the total lost motion would be .015-inch or sufficient to produce noisy action of the valve mechanism. When valve plungers of the adjustable form, such as shown at B, are used, the hardened bolt head in contact with the end of the valve stem may become hollowed out on account of the hammering action at that point. It is imperative that the top of this member be ground off true and the clearance between the valve stem and plunger properly adjusted. If the plunger is a non-adjustable type it will be necessary to lengthen the valve stem by some means in order to reduce the excessive clearance. The only remedy for wear at the various hinges and bearing pins is to bore the holes out slightly larger and to fit new hardened steel pins of larger diameter. Depreciation between the valve plunger guide and the valve plunger is usually remedied by fitting new plunger guides in place of the worn ones. If there is sufficient stock in the plunger guide casting as is sometimes the case when these members are not separable from the cylinder casting, the guide may be bored out and bushed with a light bronze bushing. A common cause of irregular engine operation is due to a sticking valve. This may be owing to a bent valve stem, a weak or broken valve spring or an accumulation of burnt or gummed oil between the valve stem and the valve stem guide. In order to prevent this the valve stem must be smoothed with fine emery cloth and no burrs or shoulders allowed to remain on it, and the stem must also be straight and at right angles to the valve head. If the spring is weak it may be strengthened in some cases by stretching it out after annealing so that a larger space will exist between the coils and re-hardening. Obviously if a spring is broken the only remedy is replacement of the defective member. Mention has been made of wear in the valve stem guide and its influence on engine action. When these members are an integral part of the cylinder the only method of compensating for this wear is to drill the guide out and fit a bushing, which may be made of steel tube. In some engines, especially those of recent development, the valve stem guide is driven or screwed into the cylinder casting and is a separate member which may be removed when worn and replaced with a new one. When the guides become enlarged to such a point that considerable play exists between them and the valve stems, they may be easily knocked out or unscrewed. PISTON TROUBLES If an engine has been entirely dismantled it is very easy to examine the pistons for deterioration. While it is important that the piston be a good fit in the cylinder it is mainly upon the piston rings that compression depends. The piston should fit the cylinder with but little looseness, the usual practice being to have the piston about .001-inch smaller than the bore for each inch of piston diameter at the point where the least heat is present or at the bottom of the piston. It is necessary to allow more than this at the top of the piston owing to its expansion due to the direct heat of the explosion. The clearance is usually graduated and a piston that would be .005-inch smaller than the cylinder bore at the bottom would be about .0065-inch at the middle and .0075-inch at the top. If much more play than this is evidenced the piston will “slap” in the cylinder and the piston will be worn at the ends more than in the center. Aluminum or alloy pistons require more clearance than cast iron ones do, usually 1.50 times as much. Pistons sometimes warp out of shape and are not truly cylindrical. This results in the high spots rubbing on the cylinder while the low spots will be blackened where a certain amount of gas has leaked by. Mention has been previously made of the necessity of reboring or regrinding a cylinder that has become scored or scratched and which allows the gas to leak by the piston rings. When the cylinder is ground out, it is necessary to use a larger piston to conform to the enlarged cylinder bore. Most manufacturers are prepared to furnish over-size pistons, there being four standard over-size dimensions adopted by the S. A. E. for rebored cylinders. These are .010-inch, .020-inch, .030-inch, and .040-inch larger than the original bore. The piston rings should be taken out of the piston grooves and all carbon deposits removed from the inside of the ring and the bottom of the groove. It is important to take this deposit out because it prevents the rings from performing their proper functions by reducing the ring elasticity, and if the deposit is allowed to accumulate it may eventually result in sticking and binding of the ring, this producing excessive friction or loss of compression. When the rings are removed they should be tested to see if they retain their elasticity and it is also well to see that the small pins in some pistons which keep the rings from turning around so the joints will not come in line are still in place. If no pins are found there is no cause for alarm because these dowels are not always used. When fitted, they are utilized with rings having a butt joint or diagonal cut as the superior gas retaining qualities of the lap or step joint render the pins unnecessary. If gas has been blowing by the ring or if these members have not been fitting the cylinder properly the points where the gas passed will be evidenced by burnt, brown or roughened portions of the polished surface of the pistons and rings. The point where this discoloration will be noticed more often is at the thin end of an eccentric ring, the discoloration being present for about 1/2-inch or 3/4-inch each side of the slot. It may be possible that the rings were not true when first put in. This made it possible for the gas to leak by in small amounts initially which increased due to continued pressure until quite a large area for gas escape had been created. PISTON RING MANIPULATION Removing piston rings without breaking them is a difficult operation if the proper means are not taken, but is a comparatively simple one when the trick is known. The tools required are very simple, being three strips of thin steel about one-quarter inch wide and four or five inches long and a pair of spreading tongs made up of one-quarter inch diameter keystock tied in the center with a copper wire to form a hinge. The construction is such that when the hand is closed and the handles brought together the other end of the expander spreads out, an action just opposite to that of the conventional pliers. The method of using the tongs and the metal strips is clearly indicated at Fig. 186. At A the ring expander is shown spreading the ends of the rings sufficiently to insert the pieces of sheet metal between one of the rings and the piston. Grasp the ring as shown at B, pressing with the thumbs on the top of the piston and the ring will slide off easily, the thin metal strips acting as guide members to prevent the ring from catching in the other piston grooves. Usually no difficulty is experienced in removing the top or bottom rings, as these members may be easily expanded and worked off directly without the use of a metal strip. When removing the intermediate rings, however, the metal strips will be found very useful. These are usually made by the repairman by grinding the teeth from old hacksaw blades and rounding the edges and corners in order to reduce the liability of cutting the fingers. By the use of the three metal strips a ring is removed without breaking or distorting it and practically no time is consumed in the operation. Fig. 186 Fig. 186.—Method of Removing Piston Rings, and Simple Clamp to Facilitate Insertion of Rings in Cylinder. FITTING PISTON RINGS Before installing new rings, they should be carefully fitted to the grooves to which they are applied. The tools required are a large piece of fine emery cloth, a thin, flat file, a small vise with copper or leaden jaw clips, and a smooth hard surface such as that afforded by the top of a surface plate or a well planed piece of hard wood. After making sure that all deposits of burnt oil and carbon have been removed from the piston grooves, three rings are selected, one for each groove. The ring is turned all around its circumference into the groove it is to fit, which can be done without springing it over the piston as the outside edge of the ring may be used to test the width of the groove just as well as the inside edge. The ring should be a fair fit and while free to move circumferentially there should be no appreciable up and down motion. If the ring is a tight fit it should be laid edge down upon the piece of emery cloth which is placed on the surface plate and carefully rubbed down until it fits the groove it is to occupy. It is advisable to fit each piston ring individually and to mark them in some way to insure that they will be placed in the groove to which they are fitted. The repairman next turns his attention to fitting the ring in the cylinder itself. The ring should be pushed into the cylinder at least two inches up from the bottom and endeavor should be made to have the lower edge of the ring parallel with the bottom of the cylinder. If the ring is not of correct diameter, but is slightly larger than the cylinder bore, this condition will be evident by the angular slots of the rings being out of line or by difficulty in inserting the ring if it is a lap joint form. If such is the case the ring is removed from the cylinder and placed in the vise between soft metal jaw clips. Sufficient metal is removed with a fine file from the edges of the ring at the slot until the edges come into line and a slight space exists between them when the ring is placed into the cylinder. It is important that this space be left between the ends, for if this is not done when the ring becomes heated the expansion of metal may cause the ends to abut and the ring to jam in the cylinder. It is necessary to use more than ordinary caution in replacing the rings on the piston because they are usually made of cast iron, a metal that is very fragile and liable to break because of its brittleness. Special care should be taken in replacing new rings as these members are more apt to break than old ones. This is probably accounted for by the heating action on used rings which tends to anneal the metal as well as making it less springy. The bottom ring should be placed in position first which is easily accomplished by springing the ring open enough to pass on the piston and then sliding it into place in the lower groove which on some types of engines is below the wrist pin, whereas in others all grooves are above that member. The other members are put in by a reversal of the process outlined at Fig. 186, A and B. It is not always necessary to use the guiding strips of metal when replacing rings as it is often possible, by putting the rings on the piston a little askew and maneuvering them to pass the grooves without springing the ring into them. The top ring should be the last one placed in position. Before placing pistons in the cylinder one should make sure that the slots in the piston rings are spaced equidistant on the piston, and if pins are used to keep the ring from turning one should be careful to make sure that these pins fit into their holes in the ring and that they are not under the ring at any point. Practically all cylinders are chamfered at the lower end to make insertion of piston rings easier. The operation of putting on a cylinder casting over a piston really requires two pairs of hands, one to manipulate the cylinder, the other person to close the rings as they enter the cylinder. This may be done very easily by a simple clamp member made of sheet brass or iron and used to close the ring as indicated at Fig. 186, C. It is apparent that the clamp must be adjusted to each individual ring and that the split portion of the clamp must coincide with the split portion of the ring. The cylinder should be well oiled before any attempt is made to install the pistons. The engine should be run with more than the ordinary amount of lubricant for several hours after new piston rings have been inserted. On first starting the engine, one may be disappointed in that the compression is even less than that obtained with the old rings. This condition will soon be remedied as the rings become polished and adapt themselves to the contour of the cylinder. WRIST PIN WEAR While wrist pins are usually made of very tough steel, case hardened with the object of wearing out an easily renewable bronze bushing in the upper end of the connecting rod rather than the wrist pin it sometimes happens that these members will be worn so that even the replacement of a new bushing in the connecting rod will not reduce the lost motion and attendant noise due to a loose wrist pin. The only remedy is to fit new wrist pins to the piston. Where the connecting rod is clamped to the wrist pin and that member oscillates in the piston bosses the wear will usually be indicated on bronze bushings which are pressed into the piston bosses. These are easily renewed and after running a reamer through them of the proper size no difficulty should be experienced in replacing either the old or a new wrist pin depending upon the condition of that member. If no bushings are provided, as in alloy pistons, the bosses can sometimes be bored out and thin bushings inserted, though this is not always possible. The alternative is to ream out the bosses and upper end of rod a trifle larger after holes are trued up and fit oversize wrist pins. INSPECTION AND REFITTING OF ENGINE BEARINGS While the engine is dismantled one has an excellent opportunity to examine the various bearing points in the engine crank-case to ascertain if any looseness exists due to depreciation of the bearing surfaces. As will be evident, both main crank-shaft bearings and the lower end of the connecting rods may be easily examined for deterioration. With the rods in place, it is not difficult to feel the amount of lost motion by grasping the connecting rod firmly with the hand and moving it up and down. After the connecting rods have been removed and the propeller hub taken off the crank-shaft to permit of ready handling, any looseness in the main bearing may be detected by lifting up on either the front or rear end of the crank-shaft and observing if there is any lost motion between the shaft journal and the main bearing caps. It is not necessary to take an engine entirely apart to examine the main bearings, as in most forms these may be readily reached by removing the sump. The symptoms of worn main bearings are not hard to identify. If an engine knocks regardless of speed or spark-lever position, and the trouble is not due to carbon deposits in the combustion chamber, one may reasonably surmise that the main bearings have become loose or that lost motion may exist at the connecting rod big ends, and possibly at the wrist pins. The main journals of any well resigned engine are usually proportioned with ample surface and will not wear unduly unless lubrication has been neglected. The connecting rod bearings wear quicker than the main bearings owing to being subjected to a greater unit stress, and it may be necessary to take these up. Fig. 187 Fig. 187.—Tools and Processes Used in Refitting Engine Bearings. ADJUSTING MAIN BEARINGS When the bearings are not worn enough to require refitting the lost motion can often be eliminated by removing one or more of the thin shims or liners ordinarily used to separate the bearing caps from the seat. These are shown at Fig. 187, A. Care must be taken that an even number of shims of the same thickness are removed from each side of the journal. If there is considerable lost motion after one or two shims have been removed, it will be advisable to take out more shims and to scrape the bearing to a fit before the bearing cap is tightened up. It may be necessary to clean up the crank-shaft journals as these may be scored due to not having received clean oil or having had bearings seize upon them. It is not difficult to true up the crank-pins or main journals if the score marks are not deep. A fine file and emery cloth may be used, or a lapping tool such as depicted at Fig. 187, B. The latter is preferable because the file and emery cloth will only tend to smooth the surface while the lap will have the effect of restoring the crank to proper contour. A lapping tool may be easily made, as shown at B, the blocks being of lead or hard wood. As the width of these are about half that of the crank-pin the tool may be worked from side to side as it is rotated. An abrasive paste composed of fine emery powder and oil is placed between the blocks, and the blocks are firmly clamped to the crank-pin. As the lead blocks bed down, the wing nut should be tightened to insure that the abrasive will be held with some degree of pressure against the shaft. A liberal supply of new abrading material is placed between the lapping blocks and crank-shaft from time to time and the old mixture cleaned off with gasoline. It is necessary to maintain a side to side movement of the lapping tool in order to have the process affect the whole width of the crank-pin equally. The lapping is continued until a smooth surface is obtained. If a crank-pin is worn out of true to any extent the only method of restoring it is to have it ground down to proper circular form by a competent mechanic having the necessary machine tools to carry on the work accurately. A crank-pin truing tool that may be worked by hand is shown at Fig. 187, K. After the crank-shaft is trued the next operation is to fit it to the main bearings or rather to scrape these members to fit the shaft journal. In order to bring the brasses closer together, it may be necessary to remove a little metal from the edges of the caps to compensate for the lost motion. A very simple way of doing this is shown at Fig. 187, D. A piece of medium emery cloth is rested on the surface plate and the box or brass is pushed back and forth over that member by hand, the amount of pressure and rapidity of movement being determined by the amount of metal it is necessary to remove. This is better than filing, because the edges will be flat and there will be no tendency for the bearing caps to rock when placed against the bearing seat. It is important to take enough off the edges of the boxes to insure that they will grip the crank tightly. The outer diameter must be checked with a pair of calipers during this operation to make sure that the surfaces remain parallel. Otherwise, the bearing brasses will only grip at one end and with such insufficient support they will quickly work loose, both in the bearing seat and bearing cap. SCRAPING BRASSES TO FIT To insure that the bearing brasses will be a good fit on the trued-up crank-pins or crank-shaft journals, they must be scraped to fit the various crank-shaft journals. The process of scraping, while a tedious one, is not difficult, requiring only patience and some degree of care to do a good job. The surface of the crank-pin is smeared with Prussian blue pigment which is spread evenly over the entire surface. The bearings are then clamped together in the usual manner with the proper bolts, and the crank-shaft revolved several times to indicate the high spots on the bearing cap. At the start of the process of scraping in, the bearing may seat only at a few points as shown at Fig. 187, G. Continued scraping will bring the bearing surface as indicated at H, which is a considerable improvement, while the process may be considered complete when the brass indicates a bearing all over as at I. The high spots are indicated by blue, as where the shaft does not bear on the bearing there is no color. The high spots are removed by means of a scraping tool of the form shown at Fig. 187, F, which is easily made from a worn-out file. These are forged to shape and ground hollow as indicated in the section, and are kept properly sharpened by frequent rubbing on an ordinary oil stone. To scrape properly, the edge of the scraper must be very keen. The straight and curved half-round scrapers, shown at M and N, are used for bearings. The three-cornered scraper, outlined at O, is also used on curved surfaces, and is of value in rounding off the sharp corners. The straight or curved half-round type works well on soft-bearing metals, such as babbitt, or white brass, but on yellow brass or bronze it cuts very slowly, and as soon as the edge becomes dull considerable pressure is needed to remove any metal, this calling for frequent sharpening. When correcting errors on flat or curved surfaces by hand-scraping, it is desirable, of course, to obtain an evenly spotted bearing with as little scraping as possible. When the part to be scraped is first applied to the surface-plate, or to a journal in the case of a bearing, three or four “high” spots may be indicated by the marking material. The time required to reduce these high spots and obtain a bearing that is distributed over the entire surface depends largely upon the way the scraping is started. If the first bearing marks indicate a decided rise in the surface, much time can be saved by scraping larger areas than are covered by the bearing marks; this is especially true of large shaft and engine bearings, etc. An experienced workman will not only remove the heavy marks, but also reduce a larger area; then, when the bearing is tested again, the marks will generally be distributed somewhat. If the heavy marks which usually appear at first are simply removed by light scraping, these “point bearings” are gradually enlarged, but a much longer time will be required to distribute them. The number of times the bearing must be applied to the journal for testing is important, especially when the box or bearing is large and not easily handled. The time required to distribute the bearing marks evenly depends largely upon one’s judgment in “reading” these marks. In the early stages of the scraping operation, the marks should be used partly as a guide for showing the high areas, and instead of merely scraping the marked spot the surface surrounding it should also be reduced, unless it is evident that the unevenness is local. The idea should be to obtain first a few large but generally distributed marks; then an evenly and finely spotted surface can be produced quite easily. In fitting brasses when these are of the removable type, two methods may be used. The upper half of the engine base may be inverted on a suitable bench or stand and the boxes fitted by placing the crank-shaft in position, clamping down one bearing cap at a time and fitting each bearing in succession until they bed equally. From that time on the bearings should be fitted at the same time so the shaft will be parallel with the bottom of the cylinders. Considerable time and handling of the heavy crank-shaft may be saved if a preliminary fitting of the bearing brasses is made by clamping them together with a carpenter’s wood clamp as shown at Fig. 187, J, and leaving the crank-shaft attached to the bench as shown at C. The brasses are revolved around the crank-shaft journal and are scraped to fit wherever high spots are indicated until they begin to seat fairly. When the brasses assume a finished appearance the final scraping should be carried on with all bearings in place and revolving the crank-shaft to determine the area of the seating. When the brasses are properly fitted they will not only show a full bearing surface, but the shaft will not turn unduly hard if revolved with a moderate amount of leverage. Bearings of white metal or babbitt can be fitted tighter than those of bronze, and care must be observed in supplying lubricant as considerably more than the usual amount is needed until the bearings are run in by several hours of test block work. Before the scraping process is started it is well to chisel an oil groove in the bearing as shown at Fig. 187, L. Grooves are very helpful in insuring uniform distribution of oil over the entire width of bearing and at the same time act as reservoirs to retain a supply of oil. The tool used is a round-nosed chisel, the effort being made to cut the grooves of uniform depth and having smooth sides. Care should be taken not to cut the grooves too deeply, as this will seriously reduce the strength of the bearing bushing. The shape of the groove ordinarily provided is clearly shown at Fig. 187, G, and it will be observed that the grooves do not extend clear to the edge of the bearing, but stop about a quarter of an inch from that point. The hole through which the oil is supplied to the bearing is usually drilled in such a way that it will communicate with the groove. The tool shown at Fig. 187, K, is of recent development, and is known as a “crank-shaft equalizer.” This is a hand-operated turning tool, carrying cutters which are intended to smooth down scored crank-pins without using a lathe. The feed may be adjusted by suitable screws and the device may be fitted to crank-pins and shaft-journals of different diameters by other adjusting screws. This device is not hard to operate, being merely clamped around the crank-shaft in the same manner as the lapping tool previously described, and after it has been properly adjusted it is turned around by the levers provided for the purpose, the continuous rotary motion removing the metal just as a lathe tool would. FITTING CONNECTING RODS In the marine type rod, which is the form generally used in airplane engines, one or two bolts are employed at each side and the cap must be removed entirely before the bearing can be taken off of the crank-pin. The tightness of the brasses around the crank-pin can never be determined solely by the adjustment of the bolts, as while it is important that these should be drawn up as tightly as possible, the bearing should fit the shaft without undue binding, even if the brasses must be scraped to insure a proper fit. As is true of the main bearings, the marine form of connecting rod in some engines has a number of liners or shims interposed between the top and lower portions of the rod end, and these may be reduced in number when necessary to bring the brasses closer together. The general tendency in airplane engines is to eliminate shims in either the main or connecting rod bearings, and when wear is noticed the boxes or liners are removed and new ones supplied. The brasses are held in the connecting rod and cap by brass rivets and are generally attached in the main bearing by small brass machine screws. The form of box generally favored is a brass sand casting rich in copper to secure good heat conductivity which forms a backing for a thin layer of white brass, babbitt or similar anti-friction metal. Fig. 188 Fig. 188.—Showing Points to Observe When Fitting Connecting Rod Brasses. In fitting new brasses there are two conditions to be avoided, these being outlined at Fig. 188, B and C. In the case shown at C the light edges of the bushings are in contact, but the connecting rod and its cap do not meet. When the retaining nuts are tightened the entire strain is taken on the comparatively small area of the edges of the bushings which are not strong enough to withstand the strains existing and which flatten out quickly, permitting the bearing to run loose. In the example outlined at B the edges of the brasses do not touch when the connecting rod cap is drawn in place. This is not good practice, because the brasses soon become loose in their retaining member. In the case outlined it is necessary to file off the faces of the rod and cap until these meet, and to insure contact of the edges of the brasses as well. In event of the brasses coming together before the cap and rod make contact, as shown at C, the bearing halves should be reduced at the edges until both the caps and brasses meet against each other or the surfaces of the liners as shown at A. SPRUNG CAM-SHAFT If the cam-shaft is sprung or twisted it will alter the valve timing to such an extent that the smoothness of operation of the engine will be materially affected. If this condition is suspected the cam-shaft may be swung on lathe centers and turned to see if it runs out and can be straightened in any of the usual form of shaft-straightening machines. The shaft may be twisted without being sprung. This can only be determined by supporting one end of the shaft in an index head and the other end on a milling machine center. The cams are then checked to see that they are separated by the proper degree of angularity. This process is one that requires a thorough knowledge of the valve timing of the engine in question, and is best done at the factory where the engine was made. The timing gears should also be examined to see if the teeth are worn enough so that considerable back lash or lost motion exists between them. This is especially important where worm or spiral gears are used. A worn timing gear not only produces noise, but it will cause the time of opening and closing of the engine valves to vary materially. PRECAUTIONS IN REASSEMBLING PARTS When all of the essential components of a power plant have been carefully looked over and cleaned and all defects eliminated, either by adjustment or replacement of worn portions, the motor should be reassembled, taking care to have the parts occupy just the same relative positions they did before the motor was dismantled. As each part is added to the assemblage care should be taken to insure adequate lubrication of all new points of bearing by squirting liberal quantities of cylinder oil upon them with a hand oil can or syringe provided for the purpose. In adjusting the crank-shaft bearings, tighten them one at a time and revolve the shafts each time one of the bearing caps is set up to insure that the newly adjusted bearing does not have undue friction. All retaining keys and pins must be positively placed and it is good practice to cover such a part with lubricant before replacing it because it will not only drive in easier, but the part may be removed more easily if necessary at some future time. If not oiled, rust collects around it. When a piece is held by more than one bolt or screw, especially if it is a casting of brittle material such as cast iron or aluminum, the fastening bolts should be tightened uniformly. If one bolt is tightened more than the rest it is liable to spring the casting enough to break it. Spring washers, check nuts, split pins or other locking means should always be provided, especially on parts which are in motion or subjected to heavy loads. Before placing the cylinder over the piston it is imperative that the slots in the piston rings are spaced equidistant and that the piston is copiously oiled before the cylinder is slipped over it. When reassembling the inlet and exhaust manifolds it is well to use only perfect packings or gaskets and to avoid the use of those that seem to have hardened up or flattened out too much in service. If it is necessary to use new gaskets it is imperative to employ these at all joints on a manifold, because if old and new gaskets are used together the new ones are apt to keep the manifold from bedding properly upon the used ones. It is well to coat the threads of all bolts and screws subjected to heat, such as cylinder head and exhaust manifold retaining bolts, with a mixture of graphite and oil. Those that enter the water jacket should be covered with white or red lead or pipe thread compound. Gaskets will hold better if coated with shellac before the manifold or other parts are placed over them. The shellac fills any irregularities in the joint and assists materially in preventing leakage after the joint is made up and the coating has a chance to set. Before assembling on the shaft, it is necessary to fit the bearings by scraping, the same instructions given for restoring the contour of the main bearings applying just as well in this case. It is apparent that if the crank-pins are not round no amount of scraping will insure a true bearing. A point to observe is to make sure that the heads of the bolts are imbedded solidly in their proper position, and that they are not raised by any burrs or particles of dirt under the head which will flatten out after the engine has been run for a time and allow the bolts to slack off. Similarly, care should be taken that there is no foreign matter under the brasses and the box in which they seat. To guard against this the bolts should be struck with a hammer several times after they are tightened up, and the connecting rod can be hit sharply several times under the cap with a wooden mallet or lead hammer. It is important to pin the brasses in place to prevent movement, as lubrication may be interfered with if the bushing turns round and breaks the correct register between the oil hole in the cap and brasses. Care should be taken in screwing on the retaining nuts to insure that they will remain in place and not slack off. Spring washers should not be used on either connecting rod ends or main bearing nuts, because these sometimes snap in two pieces and leave the nut slack. The best method of locking is to use well-fitting split pins and castellated nuts. TESTING BEARING PARALLELISM It is not possible to give other than general directions regarding the proper degree of tightening for a connecting rod bearing, but as a guide to correct adjustment it may be said that if the connecting rod cap is tightened sufficiently so the connecting rod will just about fall over from a vertical position due to the piston weight when the bolts are fully tightened up, the adjustment will be nearly correct. As previously stated, babbitt or white metal bearings can be set up more tightly than bronze, as the metal is softer and any high spots will soon be leveled down with the running of the engine. It is important that care be taken to preserve parallelism of the wrist-pins and crank-shafts while scraping in bearings. This can be determined in two ways. That shown at Fig. 189, A, is used when the parts are not in the engine assembly and when the connecting rod bearing is being fitted to a mandrel or arbor the same size as the crank-pin. The arbor, which is finished very smooth and of uniform diameter, is placed in two V blocks, which in turn are supported by a level surface plate. An adjustable height gauge may be tried, first at one side of the wrist-pin which is placed at the upper end of the connecting rod, then at the other, and any variation will be easily determined by the degree of tilting of the rod. This test may be made with the wrist-pin alone, or if the piston is in place, a straight edge or spirit level may be employed. The spirit level will readily show any inclination while the straight edge is used in connection with the height gauge as indicated. Of course, the surface plate must be absolutely level when tests are made. Fig. 189.—Methods of Testing to Insure Parallelism of Bearings After Fitting. When the connecting rods are being fitted with the crank-shaft in place in crank-case, and that member secured in the frame, a steel square may be used as it is reasonable to assume that the wrist-pin, and consequently the piston it carries, should observe a true relation with the top of the engine base. If the piston side is at right angles with the top of the engine base it is reasonable to assume that the wrist-pin and crank-pin are parallel. If the piston is canted to one side or the other, it will indicate that the brasses have been scraped tapering, which would mean considerable heating and undue friction if the piston is installed in the cylinder on account of the pressure against one portion of the cylinder wall. If the degree of canting is not too great, the connecting rods may be sprung very slightly to straighten up the piston, but this is a makeshift that is not advised. The height gauge method shown above may be used instead of the steel square, if desired, because the top of the crank-case is planed or milled true and should be parallel with the center line of the crank-shaft. CAM-SHAFTS AND TIMING GEARS Knocking sounds are also evident if the cam-shaft is loose in its bearings, and also if the cams or timing gears are loose on the shaft. The cam-shaft is usually supported by solid bearings of the removable bushing type, having no compensation for depreciation. If these bearings wear the only remedy is replacement with new ones. In the older makes of cars it was general practice to machine the cams separately and to secure these to the cam-shaft by means of taper pins or keys. These members sometimes loosened and caused noise. In the event of the cams being loose, care should be taken to use new keys or taper pins, as the case may be. If the fastening used was a pin, the hole through the cam-shaft will invariably be slightly oval from wear. In order to insure a tight job, the holes in cam and shaft must be reamed with the next larger size of standard taper reamer and a larger pin driven in. Another point to watch is the method of retaining the cam-shaft gear in place. On some engines the gear is fastened to a flange on the cam-shaft by retaining screws. These are not apt to become loose, but where reliance is placed on a key the cam-shaft gear may often be loose on its supporting member. The only remedy is to enlarge the key slot in both gear and shaft and to fit a larger retaining key.
|
