Of all celestial objects the nearest and most familiar is our satellite, the moon. Yet the mistakes and blunders that otherwise intelligent persons frequently make when they refer to the various aspects of the moon are quite unbelievable.

Who has not read in classics or in popular fiction of crescent moons riding high in midnight skies, of full moons rising above western cliffs or setting beyond eastern lakes? Who has not seen the moon drawn in impossible positions with horns pointing toward the horizon, or a twinkling star shining through an apparently transparent moon?

Careful observation of the moon in all its various phases and at different seasons is the best method to be used in acquiring a knowledge of the elementary facts regarding the motion of the moon through the heavens from day to day, but that requires that one be up often after midnight and in the early hours preceding dawn and so it is that we feel so hazy in regard to what happens to the moon after it has passed the full.

A few fundamental rules can be easily acquired, however, and these will enable us to locate the moon in the right quarter of the heavens at any time of the day or night when we know its phase and the approximate position of the sun at the same instant, and thus we may avoid some of the most obvious blunders that are made in dealing with the general aspect of the moon at any given time.

As can be verified by direct observation, the moon is always moving continually eastward. Since it makes a complete revolution around the earth from new moon back to new moon again in a little less than thirty days, it passes over about twelve degrees a day (360° divided by 30), on the average, or one-half a degree an hour, which is about the angular extent of its own diameter. Therefore every hour the moon moves eastward a distance equal to its own diameter. This is of course only approximate as the moon moves more rapidly in some parts of its orbit than in others.

In addition to its real eastward motion the moon shares the apparent daily westward motion of all celestial objects which is due to the daily rotation of the earth on its axis in the opposite direction. That is, the moon, as well as the sun, stars and planets, rises in the east and sets in the west daily. On account of its continuous eastward motion, however, the moon rises later every night, on the average about fifty minutes, though the amount of this daily retardation of moon-rise varies from less than half an hour to considerably over an hour at different seasons of the year and in different latitudes. In the course of a month then the moon has risen at all hours of the day and night and set at all hours of the day and night.

It might seem unnecessary to emphasize the fact that the moon always rises in the east were it not that the astronomer occasionally meets the man who insists that he has at times seen the moon rise in the west.

To be sure the new crescent moon first becomes visible above the western horizon shortly after sunset though it rises in the east the morning of the same day shortly after sunrise. As is also true of the sun the exact point on the horizon where the moon rises or sets varies from day to day and from season to season. In one month the moon passes over very nearly the same path through the heavens that the sun does in one year, for the moon's path is inclined only five degrees to the ecliptic or apparent path of the sun through the heavens. It can never pass more than 28½° (23½° + 5°) south of the celestial equator, nor more than 28½° north of it. It has a slightly greater range in altitude than the sun, therefore. North of 28½° north latitude it always crosses the meridian south of the zenith and below 28½° south latitude it crosses the meridian north of the zenith. In tropical regions the moon sometimes passes north of the zenith, sometimes south, or again directly through the zenith.

Since the full moon is always diametrically opposite to the sun it passes over nearly the same part of the heavens that the sun did six months before. In winter then when the sun is south of the equator the moon "rides high" at night north of the equator and, vice versa, in summer when the sun is north of the equator the full moon "rides low" south of the equator. In winter then we have more hours of moonlight than we have in summer. This may be of no great advantage in mid-latitudes but we may imagine what a boon it is to the inhabitants of the Arctic and Antarctic regions to have the friendly moon above the horizon during the long winter months when the sun is never seen for days at a time.

At time of "new" moon the moon lies directly between us and the sun, but ordinarily passes just to the north or south of the sun since its orbit is inclined five degrees to the ecliptic or plane of the earth's orbit. If the moon's path lay exactly in the ecliptic we would have an eclipse of the sun every month at new moon and an eclipse of the moon two weeks later at full moon. Now the moon crosses the ecliptic twice a month, the points of crossing being called the nodes of its orbit, but only twice a year is the moon nearly enough in line with the sun at the time it crosses to cause eclipses. Every year, then, there are two "eclipse seasons," separated by intervals of six months, when the moon is in line with the sun at or close to the point where it crosses the ecliptic; then and only then can solar and lunar eclipses occur. The solar eclipses, of course, will occur when the moon is new, that is, when the moon passes directly between the earth and the sun and throws its shadow over the earth; and the lunar eclipses two weeks later when the earth passes between the sun and moon and throws its shadow over the face of the moon.

Probably there is no astronomical subject that has been more generally misunderstood than that of solar and lunar eclipses. It is well to remember that solar eclipses can only occur at time of new moon and lunar eclipses only at the time of full moon; and at the time of eclipses, whether lunar or solar, the moon is at or near its nodes, the points where its orbit crosses the ecliptic. There are always at least two solar eclipses every year and there may be as many as five. There are years when there are no lunar eclipses, though ordinarily both solar and lunar eclipses occur every year, some partial others total.

The moon shines only by reflected sunlight. It is of itself a solid, dark body with its day surface intensely hot and its night surface intensely cold, a world of extreme temperatures.

At new moon all of the night side of the moon is turned toward us, at full moon all of the day side. At other phases we see part of the day side and part of the night side and the illuminated side of the moon is always the side that is towards the sun. Failure to observe this simple rule leads to many grievous blunders in depicting the moon.

At the time of new moon the moon, moving continually eastward, passes north or south of the sun from west to east except when it passes directly in front of the sun, causing eclipses. A day or so later the waxing crescent moon or the "new moon," as it is popularly called, becomes visible low in the west immediately after sunset. The moon is now east of the sun and will remain east of the sun until the time of full moon. During the period from new moon to full moon it will, therefore, rise after the sun and set after the sun. The waxing crescent moon will not be visible in the morning hours because, inasmuch as it rises after the sun, it is lost to view in the sun's brilliant rays. Nevertheless, it follows the sun across the sky and becomes visible in the west as soon as the sun has disappeared below the western horizon. The thin illuminated crescent has its horns or cusps turned away from the point where the sun has set. The horns of the crescent can never point toward the horizon since the illuminated side of the moon is always turned toward the sun whether the sun is above or below our horizon.

As hour by hour and day by day the moon draws farther eastward and increases its angular distance from the sun, more and more of the illuminated side becomes visible; the crescent increases in width and area and the moon appears higher in the western sky each night at sunset.

Usually about seven and a fraction days after the date of new moon the moon completes the first quarter of its revolution around the earth. The period from one phase to the next is variable and irregular, being sometimes less than seven days and at other times more than eight days, since the moon does not move at a uniform rate in different parts of its orbit.

When the moon has completed the first quarter of a revolution it is ninety degrees east of the sun and presents the phase known as "half-moon" since half of the surface that is turned toward the earth is illuminated and half is in darkness. It is said to be "at the first quarter." The illuminated half is of course the western half because the sun is to the west of the moon. The half moon is near the meridian at sunset and sets near midnight. Up to the first quarter, then, the moon is a crescent in the western sky during the first part of the night and should never be represented as east of the meridian or near the meridian at midnight.

After the moon has passed the first quarter and before it is full more than half of the side turned toward the earth is illuminated and it is in the "gibbous" phase. It is still the western limb that is fully illuminated. The moon is now east of the meridian at sunset and it crosses the meridian before midnight and sets before sunrise. All who are abroad during the first half of the night find this phase of the moon more favorable to them than the gibbous phase following full moon.

The moon now being above the horizon at sunset is visible continuously from sunset to midnight but sets some time during the second half of the night, while the full moon shines throughout the night, rising in the east at sunset and setting in the west at sunrise.

When the moon is full it is 180° east, or west, of the sun and so both its eastern and western limbs are perfectly illuminated. After the full the moon goes through its phases in reverse order, being first gibbous, then a half-moon once more, and lastly a waning crescent.

It is now west instead of east of the sun and so it is the eastern limb that is fully illuminated by the sun. Being west of the sun it will now rise before the sun and set before the sun, the interval decreasing each day as the moon draws in toward the sun once more.

The gibbous phase preceding full moon is favorable to all abroad before midnight but the gibbous phase following full moon is more favorable to those who are abroad after midnight, for from full moon to last quarter the moon is below the horizon at sunset, and of course, is rising later and later each night, while at sunrise it is still above the horizon, appearing each day higher and higher above the western horizon at sunrise as it approaches the third or last quarter.

When it has reached this point it is once more a half-moon, though now it is the eastern half instead of the western half of the disk that is fully illuminated. The moon is 90° west of the sun at third quarter and from this phase to the phase of new moon it is a crescent once more, but now a waning instead of a waxing crescent. It appears east of the meridian before sunrise and as the crescent grows thinner it draws nearer and nearer to the eastern horizon and the rising sun. As with the waxing crescent moon the horns are turned away from the horizon. The waning crescent moon is always to be looked for east of the meridian and to be associated with the rising sun, while the waxing crescent moon is to be looked for west of the meridian and associated with the setting sun. Neither the waxing nor the waning crescent moon will be visible during the midnight hours.

As the waning crescent moon grows thinner and draws in closer to the sun each successive night, its time of rising precedes that of the sun by an ever-decreasing interval until finally the crescent disappears from view in the eastern sky; the next day we see no crescent either in the eastern or western skies—the moon is once more in conjunction with the sun and "new." One revolution of the moon about the earth with respect to the sun has been completed and a day or so later we may look for a new crescent moon in the western sky after sunset.