In the English language the Report on Forestry in Sweden, by Gen. C. C. Andrews, U. S. Minister at Stockholm, 1872, revised 1900, 35 pp., gives a statement of present conditions with historical notes.

A very good idea in detail of the wood trade of Sweden may be obtained from The Wood Industries of Sweden, published by TIMBER TRADES JOURNAL of London in 1896.

La SuÈde, son Peuple et son industrie, by G. Sundbarg, 1900, 2 vols., contains several pertinent chapters. It is an official work, very complete, and was translated into English in 1904.

The Economic History of the Swedish Forest, by Gunnar Schotte, 1905. 32 pp., in Swedish, published by the forestry association, gives a brief account of conditions and data of the forestry movement.

Norway. Official publication for the Paris Exposition, 1900, contains a chapter on Forestry by K. A. Fauchald, pp. 322-350, with a map of forest distribution.

Skogsvaesenets Historie ved Skogs direktoren, I Del, Historik, 1909, is an official publication of the Norwegian Forest administration, giving a full account of the development during the 50 years from 1857 to 1907, with notes of the earlier history.

Le Danemarc. Etat Actuel de sa civilization et de son organization sociale, by J. Carlsen, H. Olric and C. N. Starcke, 1900, 714 pp.

Denmark, its history and topography, etc., by H. Weitemeyer, 1891.

Bidrag til det Danske Skovbrugs Historie, by O. LÜtken, 1900, was not accessible to the writer.

Extensive notes are found through the German, Austrian and French forestry journals. Especially an article in the Centralblatt fÜr das gesammte Forstwesen, 1905 (briefed in Forestry Quarterly, vol. III, p. 292) and another (briefed in same Quarterly, vol. IX, p. 45) gives extended accounts of forest conditions in Sweden.

Under the name of Scandinavian States we may comprise the countries of Sweden, Norway and Denmark, which were settled by the same group of German tribes, the so-called Norsemen; they originally spoke the same language, which only later became more or less differentiated. The settlement of the country by these tribes seems to have been accomplished in the main by the end of the 8th century; and the separation into the three several kingdoms in the ninth to twelfth centuries, during which time they were sometimes united, or at least under one ruler, sometimes at war with each other, and always torn by interior dissensions bordering on anarchy.

In 1397, by the Calmar convention, a more permanent union into one kingdom was effected between Sweden, Norway, and Denmark under Margaret, “the Semiramis of the North.” After another period of variable fortunes, Sweden, about 1523, became an independent constitutional monarchy under Gustav Vasa, and Norway remained joined to Denmark under Frederick I.

Sweden then started on a career of conquest, being almost continuously at war with all her neighbors and especially with Russia and Poland, whereby, especially under Gustavus Adolphus and the adventurous Charles XII, her territory was greatly enlarged. With the treaties of Stockholm and Nystadt (1720 and 1721) she came into more peaceful waters, but permanent peace and a settled policy was not attained until the election of Bernadotte, one of Napoleon’s administrators, to the kingship, and by the peace of Kiel, in 1814, Sweden became a constitutional hereditary monarchy in the modern sense. At the same time, Norway was taken away from Denmark and forced to a union with Sweden, which persisted until 1907, when a peaceful separation took place by the action of the Norwegian people. The union has always been hateful to the Norwegians, although only the king and the department of foreign affairs (in which Norway was represented by a delegation from its Council) were in common, all other matters of administration being separate as well as the parliaments (Storthing in Norway, and Riksdag in Sweden).

Denmark, powerful in the 11th century under Canute, who subjugated not only Norway but England, losing both these countries shortly after his death, was shorn by Sweden of much of its territory in the 17th century, and, in 1814, was separated from Norway. Originally an elective monarchy, largely dominated by the nobility, the crown in 1661 became hereditary and absolute, and Sweden did not become a constitutional monarchy until 1849.

SWEDEN.

This country is of greatest interest to the world at large in forestry matters, because it has been until lately the largest exporter of wood and has only just fully waked up to its need for a conservative forest management: the law of 1903 promises to bring about very decided changes, and to curtail the exports upon which other European nations so much rely.

Sweden, with 172,876 square miles, occupies the eastern two-thirds of the Scandinavian peninsula. It is not like Norway, a mountain country, but the greater part consists of low granitic hills. The mountain range (Koelen) which forms the boundary towards Norway falls off in a long slope towards the gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic sea, the coast being a broad level plain, with a series of islands, larger or smaller, girdling the outer coast line and forming an archipelago.

The country is cut into numerous water sheds, the many rivers (called elfs), furnishing means of transportation, expanding frequently into lakes (sjÖ) in the upper reaches, and falling with cataracts into the lower plain, giving rise to fine water powers. Eight per cent. of the total area is in lakes. Only 12 per cent. of the land area is in farms. The forest area, with nearly 50 million acres, occupies nearly 48 per cent., leaving 40 per cent. waste land or otherwise occupied.

Half of the population of over 5 million pursues agriculture, while iron manufacture and the lumber industry occupy one-quarter.

Of the three main divisions of the country, the southern, GÖtaland, is richest in lowlands and agricultural soils, and, as it has also a favorable maritime climate, farming is the main industry. Here, a population of 50 to 60, and in parts up to 190 per square mile is found. Beech and oak are here the principal trees, with spruce occasionally intermixed.

In the central part, Svealand or Sweden proper, the forest region begins, with pine and spruce, pure or in mixture, covering the granite hills and plateau; birch and other hardwoods, oak, beech, elm, basswood and aspen being found in the river valleys; but the third division, Norrland, is the forest region of commercial importance, the seat of the extensive export trade. It is a vast, almost unbroken forest country, with hardly more than 3 people to the square mile, in the northernmost part, called Lapland, Laps and Finns forming a not inconsiderable part of the population. Pine and spruce are the timber trees, with White Birch intermixed. Towards the northern boundary the pine increases, in more and more open stands as one goes northward into the drier climate. An open stunted growth of birch and aspen forms the transition to the treeless tundra.

A treeless alpine region occupies the northwestern frontier, fringed at lower elevations by a belt of birch in natural coppice, a result of repeated fires. The northeastern part is a level coast plain, but the climate is too severe for agriculture and the forest growth also is short and of inferior quality.

Large areas of swampland are found in nearly all parts, recoverable for farm or forest use, and mismanaged and devastated forest areas are found all over the country.

The forest, nearly 10 acres per capita, on account of its accessibility to the sea by means of the many rivers, plays an important rÔle in the economy of Sweden, not only because it covers such a large area and favorable composition (80% coniferous), but because it has long been a prominent source of income. Especially after the abolition of the English import duties, in 1866, and of the Swedish export duties which had restricted trade, in 1863, did a rapid increase in wood exports take place, until in 1900, it amounted to over 54 million dollars (of which 12 million for woodenware), being the leading export article and representing over one-half of all exports.

In addition to this export which may represent at least a round 300 million cubic feet of wood, there are about 250 million cubic feet of pulpwood and 150 million feet used for charcoal, besides the domestic fuel consumption. The total draft on the forest may be estimated to come near to 1,200 million cubic feet which is believed far in excess of the annual growth, much of the nearly 50 million acres of forest area having been devastated or deteriorated by axe and fire and being located in a northern zone where the growth is slow (1 inch in 12 to 15 years). According to others, the cut remains below the increment by about 25 per cent., the latter being figured at 25 cubic feet per acre. In the State forests, to be sure, mostly located in the more northern tiers, the cut is kept between 6 and 7 cubic feet effective, but here a waste of sometimes 40% is incurred in the exploitation due to the difficulties in transport.

1. Property Conditions.

It was Gustav Vasa who, in 1542, declared all uncultivated lands the property of the Crown. Parts of them, however, were given to colonists, and these as well as the resident population had the right to use the neighboring forest to supply their needs for wood and pasture. By the continued exercise of this right, the forest came to be considered commons, proprietary rights remaining long in doubt. Finally, a division came about, some of the lands becoming the property of the parishes, others of smaller districts (the hundreds), others again encumbered or unencumbered property of the State, and some remained in joint ownership of State and private individuals under various complicated conditions.

The State now owns somewhat over 16 million acres, of which, however, only 70% are really forest, and controls more or less 4 million more, of which about 900,000 acres are ecclesiastical benefices and forests belonging to public institutions, and 2.7 million acres in State farms, which are rented.

Since 1875, the State has pursued a policy of purchase, which has added over 500,000 acres (at $7 per acre) to the domain. Lately, this policy has found considerable opposition. In this way, by reforesting, and by settlement of disputed titles the State property in absolute possession of the government has grown by nearly 5 per cent., to 10 million acres.

In Lapland the entire forest area used to belong to the State, but in order to attract settlers these were given forest property for their own use, from 10 to 100 times the area which they had cleared. This forest area the settlers disposed of to wood merchants (lumbermen), until the law of 1873 intervened, restricting the settlers to the usufruct alone, the government taking charge of the cutting of wood for sale and limiting the cut to a diameter of 8 inch at 16 feet from the base.

This interference with what was supposed to be private rights seems to have been resented, and has led to wasteful practices, in the absence of a sufficient force of forest guards. Nevertheless the law was extended to Westerbotten in 1882.

In other provinces, Wermland, Gestrikland, etc., the government vested in the owners or ironworks the right to supply themselves with charcoal from State forests. But about the middle of the 19th century, when, owing to railroad development in other parts, some of the ironworks became unremunerative and were abandoned, their owners continued to hold on to the forest privileges, and by and by exercised them by cutting and sawing lumber for sale, or even by selling the forest areas as if they were their properties; and in this way these properties changed hands until suddenly the government began to challenge titles, and commenced litigation, about 1896.

Grants of certain log cutting privileges on government lands were also made to sawmills in past times, usually by allowing sawmillers to cut a certain number of logs annually at a very low price. In 1870 these grants, which were very lucrative, were modified by substituting the right of an increased cut for a stated number of years at a modified price, after which the grant was to cease. In 1900, there were still some 300,000 acres under such grants.

No wonder that under these circumstances the value of the State forest property was, in 1898, assessed at only $1.60 per acre; the net income being $1,680,753, or about 12 cents per acre; the expenditures for administration, supervision, and forest school amounting to $423,659, to which should be added an undetermined amount for the participation of the domain bureau, the agricultural department and provincial governments, all taking part in the forest administration.

Many of the towns and country districts (haerad) have received donations of forest areas from the Crown, which have been a considerable source of revenue to them. The parish of Orsa, e.g., realized from its forest property some 2.5 million dollars, and other similar results are recorded.

These communal and institute forests of various description comprise somewhat over 2.6 million acres, or 5.5%, and are placed under management of local committees, with the governor of the province as chairman. The management consists in selling stumpage of all trees over 13 inches in diameter 5 feet above ground, to be cut by the purchaser under regulations.

In the years from 1840 to 1850, the government sold to English wood merchants considerable tracts of timberland, and in the latter part of the 19th century, as the sawmill industry expanded, many mill firms acquired wood-cutting leases for 50 year terms for prices which were often realized from the forest in the first winter. At present longer leases than for 20 years are prohibited by law. The diameter limit of 12 inches, 18 or 20 feet above ground, was usually the basis of the leases; and as the owners could then lease away other sizes, it might happen that 2 or 3 persons besides the original owner would have property rights in the same forest. Of late years many of the mill owners have endeavored to get rid of the resulting inconvenience by buying the fee-simple of the land. This movement has resulted in the aggregation of large areas in single hands or more often in the hands of large mill companies.

By the acquisition of these properties a certain amount of cultivated land is usually included, which is then left to the former owner at a nominal rent, provided that he pays the taxes on the whole; thereby creating a class of renters in lieu of owners of farms. The area thus privately owned, mostly by sawmill companies, must be over 25 million acres; the total private forest area, which includes the bulk of the commercial forest, is about 30 million acres (61.3%), unreclaimable waste lands swelling the figure to over 50 million.

2. Development of Forest Policy.

From the times of Olaf TratÂlja, the first Christian king of Sweden (about 1000 A.D.), who gained fame by the part he took in exploiting the forests of Wermland, down to the 14th century Sweden suffered from a superabundance of forest. Nevertheless, by the end of that century restriction of the wilful destruction by fire was felt necessary, and an ordinance with that object in view was promulgated.

It is questionable whether this order had any effect in a country, where the homestead law provided, that a settler might take up “as much pasture and arable land as he could make use of, twice as much forest, and in addition on each side of this homestead as much as a lame man could go over on crutches without resting.”

Not till 1638, do we again find an attempt at forest conservancy, this time in the interest of supply of charcoal for the iron industry, by the appointment of overseers of the public forests.

The first general forest code, however, dates from 1647, which among other useless prescriptions made the existing usage of planting two trees for every one cut obligatory, and this provision remained on the statutes until 1789. In spite of this and other, restrictive, laws, exploitation by the liege lords and the communities continued until, in 1720, a director of forests for the two southern districts, Halland and Bohus, was appointed, and, at least in this part of the country, the execution of the laws was placed under a special officer.

This appointment may be considered the first germ of the later forest department.

A policy of restriction seems to have prevailed during the entire 18th century, although it is questionable whether the restrictions were enforced since there was no personnel to watch over their enforcement, and the governors, in whose hands the jurisdiction lay, had other interests, more engrossing. A law, enacted in 1734, restricted the peasant forest owners in the sale of wood from their own properties, and, in 1789, this restriction and other supervision was extended to those of the nobility.

It appears that soon after this a considerable sentimental solicitude inside and outside the Riksdag was aroused regarding an apprehended deterioration of climate as well as scarcity of wood as a result of further forest destruction—in the light of present experience a rather amusing anticipation. These jeremiads, however, after an unsatisfactory attempt at legislation in 1793, led, in 1798, to the appointment of a commission which reported after 5 years of investigation. A new set of forest regulations was enacted as a result in 1805.

In further prosecution of these attempts at regulating forest use a commissioner, Prof. F. W. Radloff, was sent to Germany, in 1809, to study methods employed in that country. Long before that time, about 1762, some of the iron masters, owning large forest areas had imported a commission of German forest experts (among them von Langen and Zanthier, the same who had done similar work in Norway and Denmark) with a view of systematizing the forest use; but apparently without result.

After much discussion of Radloff’s report, and consultation with the provincial governors, who suggested the propriety of different plans for different localities, new legislation was had in 1810, 1818, 1823, and new regulations for the crown forests were issued in 1824.

Yet at this very time not only the partition of the communal forests but also the sale of town forests was ordered; and this policy of dismemberment lasted till 1866, over 1 million acres having been sold by that time. Nor was any diminution in wasteful practices to be noted as a result of legislation, and it seems that, while on the one hand restrictive policies were discussed and enacted, on the other hand unconservative methods were encouraged. Indeed, in 1846, the then existing restrictions of the export trade were removed; apparently a reversion of restrictive policy had set in, and exploitation increased, in the belief of inexhaustible supplies. On the other hand, encouragement of reforestation was sought by giving bounties for planting waste land and for leaving a certain number of seed trees in the felling areas, also by paying rewards for the best plantations; all without result.

Meanwhile a check to the wood trade had occurred through the imposition of exorbitant customs duties by Great Britain, and at the same time the government imposed an export duty to discourage export from Norrland, and this was not abated until 1857.

A further project of forest supervision was attempted through a report by a new commission appointed in 1828, which formulated rules for the control of public and private forests, and recommended the establishment of a Central bureau for the management of forest affairs, as well as the organization of a Forest Institute, for the teaching of forestry. This Institute was established at Stockholm in 1828, but, instead of organizing the bureau, the director of that institute was charged with the duties of such bureau. Again for years, committee reports followed each other, but led to no satisfactory solution of the problems.

In 1836, however, a forestry corps (skogstaten) was organized for the management of the State forests under the direction of the Forest Institute, and, as a result of persistent propaganda, the central bureau of forest administration (skogsstyrelsen) was created in 1859 with BjÖrkman at the head, charged with the supervision of all the State, royal, communal and other public forests, and the control of private forest use.

The law of 1859, however, did not settle upon any new policy of control over private forest properties. Again and again, forest committees were appointed to propose proper methods of such control, but not until 1903 was a general law enacted, which was to go into effect on January 1, 1905.

Previous to this, locally applicable laws were enacted. In 1866, a law was passed which referred only to a particular class of private lands, namely those forests of Norrland which the State was to dispose of for ground rent, or which had been disposed of and on which the conditions of settlement had not been fulfilled. In 1869, a law applicable only on the island of Gotland provided a dimension limit, and that in case of neglect of regeneration on private fellings the owner may not cut any more wood for sale, until the neglect had been remedied.

Exactly in the same manner as the homestead and other colonization laws in the United States have been abused to get hold of public timber lands, so in Sweden large areas of government land had been taken up for settlement, but actually were exploited. It was to remedy this evil that in 1860 an examination of the public lands was ordered with a view of withdrawing portions from settlement and of making forest reservations. The royal ordinance of 1866 resulted, which was to regulate the cutting on settled lands and in such new settlements as were thereafter allowed.

Here, private owners at first were allowed to cut only for their own use, and the new law prescribed the amount of yearly cut and required the marking of timber designed for sale by the government officers.

This “compulsory marking” or “Lapland” law with a dimension limit, was, in 1873, extended to all private forests in Norbotten, and in 1888, to Vesterbotten. This law limits the diameter to which fellings are to be made (8 inches at 15 feet from base), and if the cutting of smaller trees is deemed desirable for the benefit of the forest these are to be designated by forest officials.

The law for Gotland was renewed in 1894, adding a reforestation clause, the governor being authorized to prohibit shipping of timber under 8 inch diameter, and that not until new growth was established; or at least no new fellings may be made until this condition is fulfilled. The same law applies to sand dune plantations in other, southern districts. Altogether one-quarter of the private forest property was in this manner subjected to restrictions, until the present conservation law came into existence.

This law, of 1903, which became operative in 1905, was the result of a most painstaking, extended canvass by the legislative committee, appointed in 1896, which reported in 1899, and of a further canvass by the Director of Domains, who reported in 1901. A large amount of testimony from private forest owners, sawmill men, provincial and local government officials, etc., was accumulated, and it may be reasonably expected that this new legislation will be more effective than most of the preceding seems to have been.

The law requires in general terms the application of forestry principles in the management of private woodlands. For this purpose, a Forest Protection Committee, one for each province, is constituted which has surveillance over all private forests, an institution similar to that existing in Russia.

The Committee, or Forest Conservation Board, consists of three persons who are appointed for three years, one by the government, one by the County Council, one by the managing committee of the County Agricultural Society. In addition, where the communities desire, elected Forest Conservation Commissioners may be instituted to make sure of the enforcement of the law. The Board secures the services of an expert adviser from the State forest service paid by the government but leaves to the Board discretion as to the interpretation of the law which is for the most part expressed in general terms, to secure conservative management. Hence different Boards have worked in different ways, but gradually all are coming to similar methods, and all apply persuasive means rather than force.

The law requires regeneration, but does not prescribe detail methods as to how re-growth is to be obtained, leaving these to be determined by the Board in consultation with the owners. If no agreement can be arrived at, or if the measures stipulated are not taken by the owner, the Board may enforce its rulings by Court proceedings, in which injunctions to prevent further lumbering, confiscation of logs, or of lumber, or money fines may be adjudged.

The time of contracts for logging rights is reduced from 20 to 5 years. Short courses of instruction to forest owners, and the issuing of popularly written technical publications (Folkskrifter) is one of the efficient methods of securing the result, which seems to have been attained in the few years since the law is in operation, namely in arousing such interest that opposition has become very small.

An export duty (4 to 8 cents per 100 cubic feet of timber, 8 to 14 cents per ton of dry wood pulp) is levied for the purpose of carrying out the law the export duty amounting to over $160,000, and a more general export duty is under contemplation.

The management of communal forest is to be placed under the State forest administration, the corporations paying 1.6c. per acre; but this feature does not seem entirely settled.

Protective forests under special regulations are established at the alpine frontier and on the drift-sand plains, which are planted up.

3. Forest Administration and Forestry Practice.

The central forestry bureau as it exists now was organized in 1883 as the Domain Bureau in the Department of Agriculture with, at present, a forester as General Director, and under it a forestry corps (skogstaten) (reorganized in 1890) which has charge of the public forests, and also of the forest control in the private forests where such control exists outside of the Conservation Boards. For the purpose of this administration the country is divided into 10 districts, each under an inspector (or ÖfverjÄgmÄstare); the districts are divided into ranges (revir), now 90, each under a chief of range (or jÄgmÄstare) with assistants and guards (kronojÄgare); the nomenclature of the officers suggesting the hunt rather than the forest management. In addition, 6 forest engineers are employed on working plans, engineering works, and in giving advice and assistance to private owners who pay for such service.

When it is stated that the ranges in the northern provinces average over 300,000 acres of public and 400,000 acres of private forest; in central Sweden 150,000 acres of public and 145,000 acres of private forest, and in the southern provinces nearly 55,000 acres of State and communal forest, it will be understood that the control cannot be very strict.

The net revenue from the State forest during the last 30 years has increased from $300,000 to $1,750,000.

The management of even the State forests can only be very extensive. The State still sells mostly stumpage, rarely cutting on its own account. The lumbering is carried on very much as in the United States by logging contractors, and the river driving is done systematically by booming companies. Selection forest is still the general practice, now often improved into group system, although a clear cutting system with planting has been practised, but is supposed to be less desirable, probably because it entails a direct money outlay or else because it was not properly done. A seed tree management preferred by private owners for pine seems frequently not successful. Of the State forests 90% are under selection system, and of the private forest 60%.

In the southern provinces where planting is more frequently resorted to, 2-3 year old pines and 2-5 year old spruces, nursery-grown, 2,000 to the acre, are generally used or else sowing in seedspots is resorted to, which is more frequently practised in the middle country.

Some 10,000 acres were, for instance, planted by the forest administration in 1898, at a cost of $2 per acre, and the budget contains annually about $20,000 for such planting.

That private endeavor in the direction of planting, has also been active, is testified by a plantation of over 26,000 acres, now 35 years old, reported from Finspong Estate.

Complete working plans are rare even for the State forests, a mere summary felling budget being determined for most areas, the trees to be cut being marked.

Under instructions issued in 1896, working plans for the small proportion of State forest management by clearing system are to be made. In these an area allotment method is employed with rotations of 100 to 150 years.

Forest fires are still very destructive, especially in northern Sweden, although an effective patrol system, greatly assisted in some provinces by watch towers, has reduced the size of the areas burnt over. The coniferous composition and the dry summers in the northern part together with the methods of lumbering are responsible for the conflagrations. In this direction too, the activities of the Conservation Boards have been highly useful.

4. Education and Literature.

Among the propagandist literature, which had advanced the introduction of forestry ideas in Sweden it is proper to mention the writings of Israel Adolf of StrÖm, who after extensive travels in Germany established the first private forest school in 1823, and was instrumental in securing the establishment of the State Forest Institute in Stockholm (1828).

In regard to education a most liberal policy prevails.

At the Institute the tuition is free and in addition 4 students receive scholarships of 250 dollars per year; appointment to assistantships follows immediately after promotion, and in 10 years the position of jÄgmÄstare may be attained. The number of students is limited to 30. The director of this school is also general adviser in forestry matters. Besides the director, six professors are employed. The course at this school is two years of 11 full months.

There are now a higher and a lower course, the former requiring previous graduation from another preparatory forest school, either the one at Omberg (founded 1886), or that at Kloten (1900), where a one-year course, mainly in practical work, is given.

For the lower service there are not less than 6 schools in various parts of the country, each with one teacher and assistants, managed under a chief of range. In these, not only is tuition free but 10 pupils receive also board and lodging; the course lasting 8 months. These schools prepare for State service, as well as for managers of private forests.

A forest experiment station was organized in 1903, an independent institution in the Domain Bureau, under the direct charge of a practitioner. Every third year, a commission is to determine what work is to be undertaken. The appropriation, which so far is hardly $5,000 per annum, will not permit much expansion. The first number of its publication, Meddelanden fran Statens SkogsfÖrsÖksanstalt, was issued in 1904, and work of a superior character has been accomplished since then.

That a forestry public exists in Sweden is attested by a forest association with an organ Skogsvards FÖreningens Tidskrift, which was founded in 1902. This journal is really the continuation of an earlier magazine, Tidskrift for Skogshushallning, a quarterly, begun in 1869 and running until 1903. A forestry association for Norrland alone which also issues a yearbook, was organized a few years ago. A periodical for rangers, etc., is also in existence under the name of SkogsvÄnnen.

In 1902 also, there was formed a lumberman’s trust to regulate the output, which the forest owners proposed to meet by an associated effort to raise stumpage charges. The attempt of the lumbermen to restrict the cut in 1902 was, however, a failure, for the export of that year was 10% larger than the previous year.

It is expected that the new law will have the tendency of decreasing the cut and of inaugurating a new era in forestry matters generally.

NORWAY.

Originally divided up among a number of petty kings, Norway was brought under one rule by Harold in 863; and united to Denmark in the 11th century, becoming gradually a mere dependency. Its later political fortunes and changing relations with Denmark and Sweden have been referred to on p. 286. The history of the forestry development, however, has proceeded more or less independently of the other two countries.

Norway, occupying with 124,445 square miles over one-third of the Scandinavian peninsula, is for the most part a mountainous plateau with deep valleys and lakes. Its numerous fjords and water ways make accessible much of the interior mountain forest, yet a large part of the inland area still remains inaccessible and trackless.

More than 75% of the country is waste land and water; only 3% in farms, leaving for the forest area 21%, or little over 17 million acres. According to latest data (1907) from this productive area a further 2 million acres must be deducted as non-producing.

The distribution of this forest area is most uneven. The bulk and the most valuable portion of it is found in the south-eastern corner around Christiania in eight counties, in which the forest per cent. exceeds 40 to 50, with conifer growth (pine and spruce) up to the 3,000 foot level. Again in the three counties around Trondhjem a large and important forest area is located at the head of the fjords. But the entire western coast and the higher elevations are devoid of valuable forest growth and the northern third of the country (north of the Arctic circle) is mostly heath and moors with only 7% wooded, mainly birch growth of little commercial value.

The commercially important forest area is, therefore, locally confined. It is estimated that one-half of the territory has to import its lumber, one-quarter has sufficient for home consumption, and the excess which permits exportation is confined to the last quarter. This export, mostly in logs and staves, which amounts to nearly 20 million dollars (40% of the total export) half of it woodpulp is estimated to represent only one-fifth or one-sixth of the total cut, which is stated as about 350 million cubic feet, or at the rate of 23 cubic feet on the productive area while the annual growth is estimated at less than this amount, namely at the rate of nearly 21 cubic feet in the southern districts, and in the northern not over 12 cubic feet.

Scotch Pine is the principal timber, and occurs beyond the Arctic Circle—the northernmost forest in the world—where its rotation becomes 150 to 200 years, with Norway Spruce more or less localized, these two species forming 75 per cent. of the forest growth; oak, ash, basswood and elm occurring sporadically, and White Birch being ubiquitous.

Forest property developed on the same lines as in Sweden and in other European countries, hence we find State, communal, and private property.

When in the ninth century, upon Harold’s accession, the commons were declared the property of the king, the rights of user, both to wood and grazing, were retained by the mÄrker, and the so-called State commons (stats-almenninger) remain to date encumbered by these rights, similar to conditions in Sweden. From the end of the 17th to the middle of the 19th century it was the policy of the kings to dispose of these commons whenever their exchequer was low, and the best of these lands became, by purchase, property of the districts (bygdealmenning), provinces, city and village corporations, or else became private property on which the rights of user continued (privatalmenninger).

At present the State owns, largely in the northern districts, somewhat over 4.8 million acres (28.5%); but of this hardly 2 million acres are productive, and of these productive acres half a million consists of encumbered commons from which the State receives hardly any income. The district commons or communal, and other public institute forests comprise around 7,800,000 acres (46%); but here again only 580,000 acres are productive. The balance then, or a full one-quarter is in private hands.

Export trade in wood had been very early carried on, and had been considerably developed in the 13th and 14th century. By the middle of the 17th century the coast forest of oak had been cut out by Dutch and English wood merchants who had obtained logging privileges under special treaties of 1217 and 1308, and by Hanseatic cities, especially Hamburg entering this market in the middle of the 16th century.

There are records which would make it appear that at least some of the now denuded coast was forested in olden times. The development of the iron industry increased the drain on these supplies, which forest fires, insects and excessive grazing prevented from recuperating.

As early as the middle of the 16th century we find attempts to arrest the devastation by regulating the export trade and supervising the sawmills, forbidding especially the erection of sawmills intended to work for export only.

In the 17th century, various commissions were appointed by Christian IV to make forest reconnaissances and elaborate rules for proper forest use. In 1683, Christian V issued a forest ordinance increasing the number of forest inspectors instituted by his predecessor, and giving in detail the rules governing forest use, many of which proved impractical.

In 1725, a commission, the socalled forest and sawmill commission, was appointed to organize a forest service. It functioned until 1739, when the first Generalforstamt was established and the first attempt at real forest management was made. This came into existence through the efforts of two famous German foresters, J. G. von Langen and von Zanthier, who with six assistants were called in from the Harz mountains (as also afterwards to Denmark and Sweden), during the years 1736 to 1740, to make a forest survey and organize a management. Descriptions and instructions were elaborated in German and the service was largely manned by German “wood foresters” (holzforsterne). The strictness of the department which had been organized after von Langen’s departure in 1739, made it, however, unpopular, and, in 1746, it was abolished, von Zanthier returning to his country, the sole survivor, the other assistants having succumbed to scurvy. The administration was again placed in the hands of a commission which continued till 1760.

Only the forests connected with mines remained under the administration as instituted, and those belonging to the copperworks of Roras continued under its forest inspectors until 1901.

In that year, 1760, another shortlived attempt to organize a forest administration was made, but the new organization did not fare any better and was superseded in 1771. Then followed an interim regimen, during which the general government and district officers were in charge.

The old orders under which forest use had been regulated remained mostly in force until in 1795 all the reasonable and the unreasonable obstructions to export were removed. The sawmill privileges, under which English lumbermen held large areas for long terms and devastated them without regard to the impractical regulations, were, however, not ended until 1860. The wood industries were then relieved entirely from restrictions, and forest destruction progressed even more rapidly with the increasing facilities for transportation.

This final cessation of the destructive policy was the outcome of a campaign which started once more with a forest commission instituted, in 1849, to take stock and make new propositions. This commission reported in 1850, and pointed out not only the necessity of terminating the sawmill privileges, which was done in 1854, giving time till 1860, but also very wisely accentuated the need of technically educated foresters if anything for forest recuperation was to be done.

To meet this latter want, young men were sent to Germany at government expense to study forestry. Some 10 or 12 men were educated in this way during the next decade and thereby the basis for a technical forest management was laid. In 1857, the first two professional foresters, Mejdell and Barth, were placed in charge of affairs under the Interior Department, and when in 1859 a new commission was charged with organizing a forest service, these two men were members. Gradually an organization took shape under the direction of these two forestmeisters, and, finally, in 1863, the modern forest department and forest policy was established by law, placing the State domain and other public forests under an effective management, making provision for the extinction of the ruinous rights of user and also for reducing the mismanagement of private forests.

The forest service, as now constituted after a reorganization in 1906, is in the Department of Agriculture under a director (Skovdirector) and 4 Forstmeister or inspectors with some executive officers under various names, and 360 rangers (skogsvogternes), including the rangers employed in the public forests outside the State domain. The ranges are so large, sometimes several million acres, and many of them so inaccessible that only the most extensive management is possible; the officials being poorly paid and poorly educated, the management is, of course, not of a high order.

Besides a “forest engineer,” who is a public lecturer, the officers of the forest department are under the obligation of advising private forest owners in their management, under contracts somewhat similar to the present practice of the U. S. Forestry Bureau, the owners agreeing to follow the advice.

Since 1860, the State has begun to purchase forest lands for reforestation in the forestless districts and where, for protective reasons, it is desirable. In late years, regular appropriations of $15,000 to $20,000 were annually made for this purpose, besides extraordinary grants. In this way, the cut-over lands, neglected by their owners, are cheaply acquired by the State. Besides its own planting, the State assists private owners by advice and money grants and plantmaterial in reforesting their waste lands.

The communal forests are under government supervision; they are usually worked under plans and under supervision of foresters with a view to supply the needs of the community. Only when the area is more than sufficient may they obtain the right to cut for sale outside of their parish; on the other hand all fellings may be prohibited by the government, if this is found desirable. As regards private property there seems to be little or no supervision, although the law of 1863 had declared Kulturplight and Kulturtvank, i.e., the duty of reforesting, but it had not defined that duty, and the law remained a dead letter.

In 1874, a special commission was charged to consider the forest policy which the public welfare required. The commission reported in 1879 with propositions, which were submitted to the officials of the department and the district. A new proposition was worked out and submitted in 1882, but it was pigeonholed until 1891, when the forest administration brought in not a general law but one merely forbidding the export from Nordland, Tromsoe and Finmarken, the thinly forested northern provinces.

Finally, in 1893, legislation was had enabling municipalities to protect themselves against destruction of forests needed for their protective function. This gives to them the right to formulate rules which are to prevent devastation, as for instance a diameter limit for felling, or reforestation of clearings. But the costs of such restriction must be borne by the municipalities as well as half the cost of inspection, the other half being paid by the State. The procedure to determine the protective quality of forests and the financial difficulty have left the law unused.

In 1878, however, a committee of private owners formed itself, to fix the sand dunes, which with the State subventions started work the following year.

Many of the State forests are so burdened with rights of user, which were granted to help in developing the country, that the financial results of the forest administration and the conditions of the State property are most unsatisfactory, and the application of silviculture greatly circumscribed.

The silvicultural system applied is most generally the rough selection forest or an approach to group system, relying upon voluntary reproduction entirely. Management is much hampered by rights of user to certain dimensions, and in the more distant districts by the difficulty of disposing of any but the best sizes. An orderly organization is still almost unknown. The stumpage is sold and removed by the buyer and the axe is still mainly used.

Higher forest schools there are none, but three schools for the lower grades had existed for some time, the first having been established in 1875 at Kongsberg; one of them was abandoned in 1889. Forestry is also taught at two farm schools.

Until recently the higher class foresters had to get their education in Germany, or in the Swedish Forest Institute at Stockholm; but in 1879, a chair of forestry was instituted in the Agricultural college at Kristiania.

In 1881, the first forestry association was formed, which by 1898 had over 500 members, and then was re-organized with a special view to elevate private forestry practice. It has now (1907) 1,500 members, and employs a forester paid by the State, to give professional advice, and works with State aid. It has set out over 50 million trees besides sowing 8,000 lbs. of seed. It publishes a journal Tidskrift for Skogsbruk, and a Yearbook. There is also another journal, Forstligt Tidskrift, and a professional Society of Foresters.

Altogether forestry is not yet on a high level in this country, but the subject is now being brought even into the primary schools, and the efforts to improve conditions are widespread.

DENMARK.

Forestry in Denmark is of interest especially on account of the intensive methods developed on small areas, and of the efforts at reforestation of sand dunes, moors and heaths.

Greatly curtailed in area when, as a result of the war of 1864, Prussia detached the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein, Denmark now has an area of 15,360 square miles with 2.5 million people (or 163 to the square mile). It is largely a farming country, 80 per cent. being productive, only 6.3 per cent. of it, or less than 600,000 acres being under forest, and this also mostly on soil capable of farm use; hence an import of over 7 million dollars worth of wood material is required.

In addition, there are about 75,000 acres of heaths and other wastes in process of reforestation. Especially on the island of SjÄlland, on which the capital Copenhagen, is situated, the forest area is now increasing by planting. The balance, or nearly 20 per cent. of the land area, consists of heaths, moors, peatbogs and sands.

Half the forest area is located on the islands, and as these represent about one-third of the total area, they are twice as densely forested as the peninsula of JÜtland. This latter along the north and west coast for 200 miles represents a large sandbank with extensive sand dunes, shifting sands, heaths and moors, a desolate almost uninhabited country of sterile downs, called Klitten, the recovery of which has been in progress for a hundred years. According to some, this once bore a coniferous forest, more likely it was never forested.

While originally beech was and is still the predominant timber (60%) with considerable additions of oak (7%) and other hardwoods, a conifer forest of spruce and pine, covering more than 20% of the forest area, has been established by planting. This planting has been mainly done on the dunes and sandwastes, and in the reclamation of the extensive heaths and moors or peat bogs, especially in the northern Limfjord district, which occupy one-sixth of the unproductive area.

As was natural, the forest stocking on good farm land had to yield early to plow and pasture. Attempts at conservative use of the forest area date back to 1557 when Christian III issued a forest ordinance directing his vassals or liege lords to permit the peasants to secure their domestic wood requirements at a cheap rate, but not to permit cutting for sale or export, and reserving to himself all returns from such sales. There were also regulations for the pasture, especially as to goats, and for the use of the mast, which then formed more than one-quarter of the income from the royal forests.

In the 18th century the need of forest management was recognized, and in 1762 the two eminent German foresters, von Langen and von Zanthier (see p. 88) were invited to visit Denmark and Norway (see above) with a view of organizing such management. In 1760, eight young Danes were sent to von Langen in Wernigerode to study his methods for three years, and these with the two German foresters returned in 1762, and under the direction of von Langen organized the Seeland forest areas and started the first plantations of conifers, which are now the pride of Danish foresters.

In 1781, the State forests were altogether placed under an organized administration.

By the beginning of the 19th century the reduction of forest areas had progressed to such an extent that, in 1805, a law was enacted providing that the then existing forest area containing beech and oak should be maintained as such forever, or at least that for any new clearing an equivalent area be planted to forest. This law was perhaps the result of a journey in 1802, to Germany made by two leading officials of the forest department, German influence through Cotta and Hartig being at this time visible everywhere.

Other restrictions in the disposal of peasants’ farms or woodlands and in the manner of farming the large estates (otherwise than by renting to farmers), were also enacted in order to secure stability of the peasant class. It was at this time that the accumulative taxing of landed estates now under heated discussion in Great Britain, was used effectively to break up the aggregation of landed property and changed the country from one of baronial estates to small farmer’s holdings. In this reform movement the name of Count Reventlow, Chief of the State forest department, appears as the leading spirit.

The forest area, which until 1820 was on the decrease, has since that time increased steadily, and is especially now increasing through reforestation of waste lands.

At present, most intensive forest management is practised in the State forest as well as in the communal and private forest areas, which latter as stated, are largely in farmers’ wood lots since the law forbids the union of small farms into large estates. There is little communal property, and large private estates are also rare. The State owns about 24% of the forest area or 142,000 acres, of which one third is nonproductive or otherwise occupied, and one third consists of coniferous plantations. Excepting in the beech forest, most of the timber is of the younger age classes, below 60 to 80 years, and it is anticipated that the cut will have to be reduced, and the import of wood and woodenware increased.

Artificial reproduction is the most general silvicultural practice except in the beech forest which is reproduced naturally after preparation of the soil and sowing acorns for admixture at the same time, spending altogether $12 to $15 per acre in this preparation. Since 1880, thinnings have been based on the idea of favoring final harvest trees somewhat after the French fashion; they are begun in the twentieth to thirtieth year and are repeated every three years, aided by pruning. Then in each subsequent decade the return occurs in as many years as the decade has tens. Especially in the direction of thinnings, the German practice and even theory is outdone, the thinnings being made severer and recurring more frequently.

More than a hundred years ago the State began the reclamation work of the dunes and heaths, but it progressed more actively only since the sixties of last century as a result of legislation had in 1857. In 1867, a special Dune Department was instituted, and through the effort of a State engineer, Capt. Dalgas, an association was formed for the reclamation of heaths and moors. A small subvention of $600 started the work of the association, in its useful campaign under the advice of Staats planteur (State forest planter) Jensen Tusch. The State subvention now amounts to about forty thousand dollars annually, and the success of the association has been such that it has become almost a fad for large land owners and others to buy up these waste lands and have them planted through the agents of the Heath Association. The planting is mainly of spruce in plow furrows at a cost of $10 to $12 per acre; 60 to 80 year old stands of earlier plantings testifying to the possible results.

In the last 40 years nearly 200,000 acres of heath have been planted, of which over one-half are to the credit of the association.

For the education of the higher grade foresters a department of forestry (now with two professors) was instituted in the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural High School at Copenhagen in 1869, with a course of five years including one and a half year of practical work. This education is given free of charge.

The Heath Association educates its own officers, including in their subjects the management of meadows and peatbogs.

A Forestry Association, composed one-half of forest owners, with its organ Tidskrift for Skovvaesen, in existence since 1888, and a valuable book literature, in which the problems of the heath are especially fully and authoritatively treated, places Denmark in the foremost rank in the forestry world in these particulars.

Among the prominent contributors are to be mentioned, besides Reventlow and Dalgas, P. E. MÜller, well known by his discussions of the problems of moor soils. From 1876 to 1891, he issued a magazine, in which Oppermann contributed a history of Danish forestry. The latter author also, in co-operation with Hauch, published in 1900 a Hand-book of Forestry.