Vibrations.—Every manifestation in nature is by way of vibration. The beating of the heart, the action of the legs in walking, the winking of the eyelid; the impulses from the sun, which we call light; sound, taste and color appeal to our senses by vibratory means, and, as we have hereinbefore stated, the manifestations of electricity and magnetism are merely vibrations of different wave lengths.

The Acoustic Telephone.—That sound is merely a product of vibrations may be proven in many ways. One of the earliest forms of telephones was simply a "sound" telephone, called the Acoustic Telephone. The principle of this may be illustrated as follows:

Take two cups (A, B), as in Fig. 78, punch a small hole through the bottom of each, and run a string or wire (C) from the hole of one cup to that of the other, and secure it at both ends so it may be drawn taut. Now, by talking into the cup (A) the bottom of it will vibrate to and fro, as shown by the dotted lines and thereby cause the bottom of the other cup (B) to vibratep. 111 in like manner, and in so vibrating it will receive not only the same amplitude, but also the same character of vibrations as the cup (A) gave forth.

Sound Waves.—Sound waves are long and short; the long waves giving sounds which are low in the musical scale, and the short waves high musical tones. You may easily determine this by the following experiment:

Stretch a wire, as at B (Fig. 79), fairly tight, and then vibrate it. The amplitude of the vibration will be as indicated by dotted line A. Now, stretch it very tight, as at C, so that the amplitude of vibration will be as shown at E. By putting your ear close to the string you will find that while A has a low pitch, C is very much higher. Thisp. 112 is the principle on which stringed instruments are built. You will note that the wave length, which represents the distance between the dotted lines A is much greater than E.

Hearing Electricity.—In electricity, mechanism has been made to enable man to note the action of the current. By means of the armature, vibrating in front of a magnet, we can see its manifestations. It is now but a step to devise some means whereby we may hear it. In this, as in everything else electrically, the magnet comes into play.

In the chapter on magnetism, it was stated that the magnetic field extended out beyond the magnet, so that if we were able to see the magnetism, the end of a magnet would appear to us something like a moving field, represented by the dotted lines in Fig. 80.

The magnetic field is shown in Fig. 80 at onlyp. 113 one end, but its manifestations are alike at both ends. It will be seen that the magnetic field extends out to a considerable distance and has quite a radius of influence.

The Diaphragm in a Magnetic Field.—If, now, we put a diaphragm (A) in this magnetic field, close up to the end of the magnet, but not so close as to touch it, and then push it in and out, or talk into it so that the sound waves strike it, the movement or the vibration of the diaphragm (A) will disturb the magnetic field emanating from the magnet, and this disturbance of the magnetic field at one end of the magnet also affects the magnetic field at the other end in the same way, so that the disturbance there will be of the same amplitude. It will also display the same characteristics as did the magnetic field when the diaphragm (A) disturbed it.

A Simple Telephone Circuit.—From this simple fact grew the telephone. If two magnets are connected up in the same circuit, so that the magnetic fields of the two magnets have the same source of electric power, the disturbance of one diaphragm will affect the other similarly, just the same as the two magnetic fields of the single magnet are disturbed in unison.

How to Make a Telephone.—For experimental and testing purposes two of these telephonesp. 114 should be made at the same time. The case or holder (A) may be made either of hard wood or hard rubber, so that it is of insulating material. The core (B) is of soft iron, ? inch in diameter and 5 inches long, bored and threaded at one end to receive a screw (C) which passes through the end of the case (A).

The enlarged end of the case should be, exteriorly, 2¼ inches in diameter, and the body of the case 1 inch in diameter.

Interiorly, the large end of the case is provided with a circular recess 1¾ inches in diameter and adapted to receive therein a spool which is, diametrically, a little smaller than the recess. The spool fits fairly tight upon the end of the core, and when in position rests against an annular shoulder in the recess. A hollow space (F) is thus provided behind the spool (D), so the two wiresp. 115 from the magnet may have room where they emerge from the spool.

The spool is a little shorter than the distance between the shoulder (E) and the end of the casing, at G, and the core projects only a short distance beyond the end of the spool, so that when the diaphragm (H) is put upon the end of the case, and held there by screws (I) it will not touch the end of the core. A wooden or rubber mouthpiece (J) is then turned up to fit over the end of the case.

The spool (D) is made of hard rubber, and is wound with No. 24 silk-covered wire, the windings to be well insulated from each other. The two ends of the wire are brought out, and threaded through holes (K) drilled longitudinally through the walls of the case, and affixed to the end by means of screws (L), so that the two wires may be brought together and connected with a duplex wire (M)

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As the screw (C), which holds the core in place, has its head hidden within a recess, which can be closed up by wax, the two terminals of the wires are well separated so that short-circuiting cannot take place.

Telephone Connections.—The simplest form of telephone connection is shown in Fig. 83. This has merely the two telephones (A and B), with a single battery (C) to supply electricity for both. One line wire (D) connects the two telephones directly, while the other line (E) has the battery in its circuit.

Complete Installation.—To install a more complete system requires, at each end, a switch, a battery and an electro-magneto bell. You may use, for this purpose, a bell, made as shown in the chapter on bells.

Fig. 84 shows such a circuit. We now dispense with one of the line wires, because it has been found that the ground between the two stations serves as a conductor, so that only one line wire (A) is necessary to connect directly with the telephonesp. 117 of the two stations. The telephones (B, B', respectively) have wires (C, C') running to the pivots of double-throw switches (D, D'), one terminal of the switches having wires (E, E'), which go to electric bells (F, F'), and from the bells are other wires (G, G'), which go to the ground. The ground wires also have wires (H, H'), which go to the other terminals of the switch (D, D'). The double-throw switch (D, D'), in the two stations, is thrown over so the current, if any should pass through, will go through the bell to the ground, through the wires (E, G or E', G').

Now, supposing the switch (D'), in station 2, should be thrown over so it contacts with the wire (H'). It is obvious that the current will then flow from the battery (I') through wires (H', C') and line (A) to station 1; then through wire C, switch D, wire E to the bell F, to the ground through wire G. From wire G the current returns through the ground to station 2,p. 118 where it flows up wire G' to the battery, thereby completing the circuit.

The operator at station 2, having given the signal, again throws his switch (D') back to the position shown in Fig. 84, and the operator at station 1 throws on his switch (D), so as to ring the bell in station 2, thereby answering the signal, which means that both switches are again to be thrown over so they contact with the battery wires (H and H'), respectively. When both are thus thrown over, the bells (G, G') are cut out of the circuit, and the batteries are both thrown in, so that the telephones are now ready for talking purposes.

Microphone.—Originally this form of telephone system was generally employed, but it was found that for long distances a more sensitive instrument was necessary.

Light Contact Points.—In 1877 Professor Hughes discovered, accidentally, that a light contact point in an electric circuit augmented the sound in a telephone circuit. If, for instance, ap. 119 light pin, or a nail (A, Fig. 85) should be used to connect the severed ends of a wire (B), the sounds in the telephone not only would be louder, but they would be more distinct, and the first instrument made practically, to demonstrate this, is shown in Fig. 86.

How to Make a Microphone.—This instrument has simply a base (A) of wood, and near one end is a perpendicular sounding-board (B) of wood, to one side of which is attached, by wax or otherwise, a pair of carbon blocks (C, D). The lower carbon block (C) has a cup-shaped depression in its upper side, and the upper block has a similar depression in its lower side. A carbon pencil (E) is lightly held within these cups, so that the lightest contact of the upper end of the pencilp. 120 with the carbon block, makes the instrument so sensitive that a fly, walking upon the sounding-board, may be distinctly heard through the telephone which is in the circuit.

Microphone the Father of the Transmitter.—This instrument has been greatly modified, and is now used as a transmitter, the latter thereby taking the place of the pin (A), shown in Fig. 85.

Automatic Cut-outs for Telephones.—In the operation of the telephone, the great drawback originally was in inducing users of the lines to replace or adjust their instruments carefully. When switches were used, they would forget to throw them back, and all sorts of trouble resulted.

It was found necessary to provide an automatic means for throwing in and cutting out an instrument, this being done by hanging the telephone on the hook, so that the act merely of leaving the telephone made it necessary, in replacing the instrument, to cut out the apparatus.

Before describing the circuiting required for these improvements, we show, in Fig. 87, a section of a transmitter.

A cup-shaped case (A) is provided, made of some insulating material, which has a diaphragm (B) secured at its open side. This diaphragm carries the carbon pencil (C) on one side and from the blocks which support the carbon pencilp. 121 the wires run to binding posts on the case. Of course the carbon supporting posts must be insulated from each other, so the current will go through the carbon pencil (C).

Complete Circuiting with Transmitter.—In showing the circuiting (Fig. 88) it will not be possible to illustrate the boxes, or casings, which receive the various instruments. For instance, the hook which carries the telephone or the receiver, is hinged within the transmitter box. The circuiting is all that it is intended to show.

The batteries of the two stations are connected up by a wire (A), unless a ground circuit is used. The other side of each battery has a wire connection (B, B') with one terminal of the transmitter, and the other terminal of the transmitter has a wire (C, C') which goes to the receiver. From the other terminal of the receiver is a wire (D, D') which leads to the upper stop contact (E, E') ofp. 122 the telephone hook. A wire (F, F') from the lower stop contact (G, G') of the hook goes to one terminal of the bell, and from the other terminal of the bell is a wire (H, H') which makes connection with the line wire (A). In order to make a complete circuit between the two stations, a line wire (I) is run from the pivot of the hook in station 1 to the pivot of the hook in station 2.

In the diagram, it is assumed that the receivers are on the hooks, and that both hooks are, therefore, in circuit with the lower contacts (G, G'), so that the transmitter and receiver are both out of circuit with the batteries, and the bell in circuit; but the moment the receiver, for instance, in station 1 is taken off the hook, the latter springs up so that it contacts with the stop (E), thus establishing a circuit through the line wire (I) to the hook of station 2, and from the hook through line (F') to the bell. From the bell, the line (A) carries the current back to the battery of station (A), thence through the wire (B) to the transmitter wire (C) to receiver and wire (D) to the post (E), thereby completing the circuit.

When, at station 2, the receiver is taken off the hook, and the latter contacts with the post (E'), the transmitter and receiver of both stations are in circuit with each other, but both bells are cut out.

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