The Two Kinds of Magnet.—Generally speaking, magnets are of two kinds, namely, permanent and electro-magnetic.

Permanent Magnets.—A permanent magnet is a piece of steel in which an electric force is exerted at all times. An electro-magnet is a piece of iron which is magnetized by a winding of wire, and the magnet is energized only while a current of electricity is passing through the wire.

Electro-Magnet.—The electro-magnet, therefore, is the more useful, because the pull of the magnet can be controlled by the current which actuates it.

The electro-magnet is the most essential of all contrivances in the operation and use of electricity. It is the piece of mechanism which does the physical work of almost every electrical apparatus or machine. It is the device which has the power to convert the unseen electric current into motion which may be observed by the human eye. Without it electricity would be a useless agent to man.

While the electro-magnet is, therefore, the formp. 19 of device which is almost wholly used, it is necessary, first, to understand the principles of the permanent magnet.

Magnetism.—The curious force exerted by a magnet is called magnetism, but its origin has never been explained. We know its manifestations only, and laws have been formulated to explain its various phases; how to make it more or less intense; how to make its pull more effective; the shape and form of the magnet and the material most useful in its construction.

Materials for Magnets.—Iron and steel are the best materials for magnets. Some metals are non-magnetic, this applying to iron if combined with manganese. Others, like sulphur, zinc, bismuth, antimony, gold, silver and copper, not only are non-magnetic, but they are actually repelled by magnetism. They are called the diamagnetics.

Non-magnetic Materials.—Any non-magnetic body in the path of a magnetic force does not screen or diminish its action, whereas a magnetic substance will

p. 20

In Fig. 5 we show the simplest form of magnet, merely a bar of steel (A) with the magnetic lines of force passing from end to end. It will be understood that these lines extend out on all sides, and not only along two sides, as shown in the drawing. The object is to explain clearly how the lines run.

Action of a Severed Magnet.—Now, let us suppose that we sever this bar in the middle, as in Fig. 6, or at any other point between the ends. In this case each part becomes a perfect magnet, and a new north pole (N) and a new south pole (S) are made, so that the movement of the magnetic lines of force are still in the same direction in each—that is, the current flows from the north pole to the south pole.

What North and South Poles Mean.—If these two parts are placed close together they will attract each other. But if, on the other hand, one of the pieces is reversed, as in Fig. 7, they will repel each other. From this comes the statement that likes repel and unlikes attract each other

p. 21

Repulsion and Attraction.—This physical act of repulsion and attraction is made use of in motors, as we shall see hereinafter.

It will be well to bear in mind that in treating of electricity the north pole is always associated with the plus sign (+) and the south pole with the minus sign (-). Or the N sign is positive and the S sign negative electricity.

Positives and Negatives.—There is really no difference between positive and negative electricity, so called, but the foregoing method merely serves as a means of identifying or classifying the opposite ends of a magnet or of a wire.

Magnetic Lines of Force.—It will be noticed that the magnetic lines of force pass through the bar and then go from end to end through the atmosphere. Air is a poor conductor of electricity, so that if we can find a shorter way to conduct the current from the north pole to the south pole, the efficiency of the magnet is increased.

This is accomplished by means of the well-knownp. 22 horseshoe magnet, where the two ends (N, S) are brought close together, as in Fig. 8.

The Earth as a Magnet.—The earth is a huge magnet and the magnetic lines run from the north pole to the south pole around all sides of the globe.

The north magnetic pole does not coincide with the true north pole or the pivotal point of the earth's rotation, but it is sufficiently near for all practical purposes. Fig. 9 shows the magnetic lines running from the north to the south pole.

Why the Compass Points North and South.—Now, let us try to ascertain why the compass points north and south.

Let us assume that we have a large magnet (A, Fig. 10), and suspend a small magnet (B) above it, so that it is within the magnetic field of the large magnet. This may be done by means of a short pin (C), which is located in the middlep. 23 of the magnet (B), the upper end of this pin having thereon a loop to which a thread (D) is attached. The pin also carries thereon a pointer (E), which is directed toward the north pole of the bar (B).

You will now take note of the interior magnetic lines (X), and the exterior magnetic lines (Z) of the large magnet (A), and compare the direction of their flow with the similar lines in the small magnet (B).

The small magnet has both its exterior and its interior lines within the exterior lines (Z) of the large magnet (A), so that as the small magnet (B) is capable of swinging around, the N pole ofp. 24 the bar (B) will point toward the S pole of the larger bar (A). The small bar, therefore, is influenced by the exterior magnetic field (Z).

Let us now take the outline represented by the earth's surface (Fig. 11), and suspend a magnet (A) at any point, like the needle of a compass, and it will be seen that the needle will arrange itself north and south, within the magnetic field which flows from the north to the south pole

p. 25

Peculiarity of a Magnet.—One characteristic of a magnet is that, while apparently the magnetic field flows out at one end of the magnet, and moves inwardly at the other end, the power of attraction is just the same at both ends.

In Fig. 12 are shown a bar (A) and a horseshoe magnet (B). The bar (A) has metal blocks (C) at each end, and each of these blocks is attracted to and held in contact with the ends by magnetic influence, just the same as the bar (D) is attracted by and held against the two ends of the horseshoe magnet. These blocks (C) or the bar (D) are called armatures. Through them is represented the visible motion produced by the magnetic field.

Action of the Electro-Magnet.—The electro-magnet exerts its force in the same manner as a permanent magnet, so far as attraction and repulsion are concerned, and it has a north and a south pole, as in the case with the permanent magnet. An electro-magnet is simply a bar ofp. 26 iron with a coil or coils of wire around it; when a current of electricity flows through the wire, the bar is magnetized. The moment the current is cut off, the bar is demagnetized. The question that now arises is, why an electric current flowing through a wire, under those conditions, magnetizes the bar, or core, as it is called.

In Fig. 13 is shown a piece of wire (A). Let us assume that a current of electricity is flowing through this wire in the direction of the darts. What actually takes place is that the electricity extends out beyond the surface of the wire in the form of the closed rings (B). If, now, this wire (A) is wound around an iron core (C, Fig. 14), you will observe that this electric field, asp. 27 it is called, entirely surrounds the core, or rather, that the core is within the magnetic field or influence of the current flowing through the wire, and the core (C) thereby becomes magnetized, but it is magnetized only when the current passes through the wire coil (A).

From the foregoing, it will be understood that a wire carrying a current of electricity not only is affected within its body, but that it also has a sphere of influence exteriorly to the body of the wire, at all points; and advantage is taken of this phenomenon in constructing motors, dynamos, electrical measuring devices and almost every kind of electrical mechanism in existence.

Exterior Magnetic Influence Around a Wire Carrying a Current.—Bear in mind that the wire coil (A, Fig. 14) does not come into contact with the core (C). It is insulated from the core, either by air or by rubber or other insulating substance, and a current passing from A to C under those conditions is a current of induction. On the other hand, the current flowing through the wire (A)p. 28 from end to end is called a conduction current. Remember these terms.

In this connection there is also another thing which you will do well to bear in mind. In Fig. 15 you will notice a core (C) and an insulated wire coil (B) wound around it. The current, through the wire (B), as shown by the darts (D), moves in one direction, and the induced current in the core (C) travels in the opposite direction, as shown by the darts (D).

Parallel Wires.—In like manner, if two wires (A, B, Fig. 16) are parallel with each other, and a current of electricity passes along the wire (A) in one direction, the induced current in the wire (B) will move in the opposite direction.

These fundamental principles should be thoroughly understood and mastered.

p. 29