Influence of Dress on Health.—While this aspect of the subject of dress receives far less consideration than it deserves, its importance is to be measured only by the importance of human life and by the value that attaches to a state of perfect health. Like fresh air, pure water, and bright sunshine, health is only appreciated when it is gone. The behests of fashion often make sad inroads upon it, but the seductive siren lures us on until we can no longer follow. With scanty strength we then worship at the shrine of Hygeia, but this queenly goddess governs with stern rule, and is often unresponsive to our petitions.

Temperature.—There is a constant interchange between bodies or substances of different temperatures when they are in touch one with the other. The warmer give off heat which is absorbed by the colder, and in this way they tend toward equalization. The normal heat of the average human body is 98.4 degrees, Fahrenheit. When it is exposed to a temperature lower than this, it must be protected by clothing to retard radiation of the body-heat, and thus prevent not only the chilling of the surface but also more serious disorders of the internal organs. In very hot countries, clothing is worn as a protection against heat. The head, especially, needs protection from the sun’s rays.

Warmth.—From the standpoint of health, no other property of dress is so important as that of warmth. While certain garments are described as being warm and others as being cool, it is a well-known fact that articles of clothing possess neither warmth nor coolness in themselves. By reason of certain chemical processes constantly going on within the body, there is produced a degree of natural heat, commonly called animal heat.

The body in health seldom varies more than one or two degrees from the normal standard. Conditions of climate, season, exercise, age, or sex have but slight influence upon the average temperature of the body. By conduction, radiation, and evaporation, any excess of heat is quickly reduced. More than seventy per cent of the whole amount of animal heat lost passes through the skin.

Evaporation from the skin is very rapid, and may lead to too sudden cooling of the body. A person who, after exercise that has produced free perspiration, stands in a current of cool air, is apt to take cold. The dryer the atmosphere, the more rapid is the cooling process. The most uncomfortable and oppressive atmospheric condition is that in which the air is heavily laden with moisture and the temperature high. Evaporation from the body is then slow, and the sensation of heat is oppressive.

It is a mistaken notion that clothing keeps the cold out. Its purpose is to keep the heat in, or, in other words, to prevent the rapid radiation of heat. We speak of warm clothing and of cool clothing. That clothing is warm which retards the giving off of heat from the body. The Indian wraps a blanket about his body to keep it warm; we wrap a blanket around a piece of ice to keep it from melting.

Any clothing that prevents the rapid escape of heat from the body is said to be a bad conductor, and is called warm. Woolen textures rank first among dress materials as poor conductors, and are therefore best adapted for winter clothing. Silk and cotton come next. Linen is a good conductor of heat; that is, it carries off the heat from the surface of the body very rapidly, and produces a sensation of coolness; therefore, all dress materials made from flax are said to be cool.

Materials.—The principal materials used for clothing are wool, cotton, linen, and silk. These differ greatly in weight, texture, warmth, porosity, power to absorb moisture, and in other less important qualities.

In a climate so changeable as that which prevails in most parts of the United States, the body, and especially the trunk, should be protected at all seasons from sudden chill by the use of under garments containing wool. Even in the warmest weather it will be found that a light woolen fabric absorbs the perspiration, and is more agreeable to the skin than cotton. The wearing of a flannel band, eight to ten inches in width, buttoned around the waist next to the skin, will prove an excellent protection to the kidneys and the abdominal region. Silk is light and soft, and as it retards the giving out of heat from the body, is worn for under garments, especially by those to whom wool is irritating or otherwise unpleasant. Rubber cloth is useful for rain coats, but as it prevents evaporation of the perspiration, it increases the liability to chill, and renders the wearer uncomfortable except in cold weather.

Animal Heat.—The bird is warmer than the air in which it moves; the fish possesses a higher temperature than the water. As before remarked, chemical changes are constantly going on in the system which give rise to this result. Even plant life is subject to this law. A delicate thermometer placed among a cluster of geraniums about to burst into flower will show a temperature a degree or two higher than the surrounding air.

Warm-Blooded Animals.—Those animals possessing well-developed lungs and large breathing capacity are usually active in movement, and are classed among the warm-blooded animals. They comprise birds, quadrupeds, and man. The animals possessing small lung development are for the most part inactive, and are cold to the touch, indicating a low temperature. Such are the frog, toad, lizard, snake, and tortoise.

These facts show the connection between respiration and animal heat, the temperature being in proportion to the amount of oxygen consumed. Birds have the largest lung development in proportion to size, are most active in movement, and indicate the largest amount of animal heat.

Adaptation to Climatic Conditions.—The Polar bear suffers from the heat of the Temperate zone, and would not survive a week in the Torrid. The African lion would fare no better were he suddenly transported to the Frigid zone. Man alone, of all the animal creation, is able to adapt himself to the extremes of heat and cold. By changing his clothing, shelter, and food, he is able to create for himself an artificial climate wherever he may choose to reside. No Arctic winter has been found too cold for a Peary, Nansen, or Greely to withstand, and no African plain or jungle too hot for a Livingstone or Stanley to explore.

Evaporation.—The temperature of the body is regulated by means of perspiration. Heat induces perspiration, and its evaporation lowers the temperature of the body. Cold retards perspiration, and the heat is retained within. The principle of evaporation is illustrated in the manufacture of artificial ice. Men who labor in glass works, iron and steel foundries, and in the engine rooms of large steam vessels are exposed to great heat, yet enjoy as good health as those who are engaged in other occupations. Persons have been known to remain several minutes in an atmosphere heated above the boiling point, without materially increasing the temperature of their own bodies.

Perspiration goes on continually, night and day. This fact emphasizes the importance of a complete change of clothing upon retiring at night, so that the clothing worn during the day may be thoroughly aired. In like manner, the clothing worn at night, together with the sheets, blankets, and pillows, should be aired, and, if possible, exposed to the sun for a time, before the bed is made up.

Color of Clothing.—The color of our dress is not wholly a matter of pleasure to the eye. In general, it is known that white is cool and black is warm. Scientific experiment has shown that cloth of the same material, when exposed to the rays of the sun, absorbs heat in the following proportions: white, 100 heat units; light yellow, 102; dark yellow, 140; light green, 155; Turkey red, 165; dark green, 168; light blue, 198; dark blue, 206; black, 208. When not exposed to the sun, the color has little or no influence upon the absorption of heat.

The color of underclothing has practically but little influence upon the amount of heat radiated from the body, but the color of the outer dress has much to do with regard to the amount of heat absorbed from the sun’s rays.

Absorption of Moisture.—The property of absorbing moisture is of much importance in the hygiene of clothing. The best material for clothing to be worn next to the skin is that which, while retaining the natural heat, or giving it off very slowly, absorbs the moisture from the body, and diffuses it through its meshes. The skin is thus relieved of the cooling effect of this evaporation, which might prove harmful.

Porosity.—The ventilating property of clothing, or the ease with which air passes through its meshes, is called porosity. The most porous of dress fabrics is flannel, which is, at the same time, the warmest. Its porosity, as compared with that of linen, is as 100 to 58.

Impermeability to Water.—As a protection against rain, the simple mackintosh, or the mackintosh cloth, is the best. The latter is more pleasing to the eye, but the outer wool covering absorbs enough moisture to add somewhat to the weight of the garment, which is a slight disadvantage.

All waterproofs present this serious evil, that while they exclude the outer moisture, they prevent the escape of the natural moisture from the surface of the body. This, however, is, generally speaking, a lesser evil than to expose the body to storm and cold, with the risk of serious illness. It is not unusual to add to the waterproof the further protection of an umbrella. In such case, the discomfort of excessive perspiration may be relieved by occasionally loosening a button or two about the neck and chest.

Underclothing.—Taking all things into consideration, wool is, without doubt, the best material for garments worn next to the skin. In cold weather it maintains the natural heat of the body. In warm weather it quickly absorbs the free perspiration, giving off the moisture through its meshes, and thus preventing the too rapid evaporation from the surface of the body, which tends to produce chill and other resulting disorders. It also serves to protect the body from the hot rays of the sun, and from the heat of boilers and furnaces. No other substance so effectually modifies the evil effects of sudden and rapid changes of temperature. In the extreme cold of the polar regions and in the oppressive heat of the tropics, it is alike satisfactory. The thickness of the texture and the closeness of the weave must be determined by the climate and the season.

Disadvantages of Woolen Undergarments.—With all their advantages, woolen undergarments are not wholly free from disadvantages. The most common criticisms are that they are heavy, less cleanly than linen, and they sometimes produce irritation. For an equal weight, wool is the warmest of all dress materials. For summer wear, only that which is thin, light, and loose in web is usually chosen. Light flannel suits have become very fashionable for summer outing, both for men and women.

Woolen undergarments rapidly absorb the excretions from the skin. The water soon evaporates, but the more solid portions are held in the fibers of the garment. Woolen underwear should be washed as frequently as that of cotton, linen, or silk. Unfortunately for the health of the individual, it does not show dirt so quickly as the other materials, and, by the lower classes, is often washed less frequently than it should be.

The therapeutic value of flannel depends in no small degree upon its power to stimulate the skin. It is this that makes it popular with the old, and with those whose circulation is sluggish. For the delicate, the scrofulous, and the rheumatic, flannel undergarments are especially desirable.

Another objection might be urged to the use of woolen underwear, in that it so often shrinks and becomes hard when washed. It is possible, however, to have flannels and other woolen goods come from the wash as soft and light as when they went in. Care should be taken not to subject them to sudden and extreme changes of temperature while washing and drying.

Effects of Tight-Fitting Underwear.—A woolen shirt or undervest, quite loose, will be much warmer than a like garment of the same material, close-fitting. In the loose garment, there is a constant stratum of air between the body and the clothing. This air has almost the same effect as an additional garment. It acts as a non-conducting medium between the surface of the body and the external atmosphere.

Material loosely woven is warmer than the same material closely woven. Clothing worn in successive layers is warmer than the same quantity of material woven in a single layer. Two shirts worn, the one over the other, will afford more warmth than the same quantity of wool or cotton or silk woven into one garment.

Underwear should be light and porous, and permeable to air. Very fine materials densely woven are not so healthful as those that are more open.

Night Attire.—Night is the time for rest, not only from mental toil and physical labor, but also rest for the functions of the body, so far as possible. To this end, it has been recommended that the evening meal be eaten long enough before retiring to enable the digestive apparatus to have completed its work.

For many persons, cotton and linen are found to be more restful, for night wear, than garments made of wool. Even when woolen underclothing is worn with comfort and satisfaction during the day, there is, to some persons, a pricking sensation, a slight surface irritation, in the use of woolen night wear which is destructive of rest. The activities of the skin, as well as the other bodily functions, require a measure of repose.

The old, the delicate, and the very young may use a light woolen night-dress outside that of linen or cotton. If comfort demands the use of wool next to the skin, it should be light in weight, finely woven, and with a smooth surface.

Cleanliness and health alike demand that no part of the clothing worn during the day should be worn while sleeping. The garments worn in the day should be thoroughly aired and dried during the night, and the moisture absorbed by the night clothing should be allowed to evaporate, and the garments ventilated during the day. In cold climates and in cases of sickness, weakness, or of delicate constitution, the dress of the night as well as of the day must be adapted to the requirements of the case.

Hats.—In the advancement from barbarism to civilization, the head was the last part of the body to be covered. Nature originally furnished, in the form of a thick mat of hair, all the covering that was necessary for the head. Baldness was then unknown. While the demands of modern society must be complied with, and hats must be worn, the nearer we can approach to Nature’s plan the better.

A hat should be light, loose, and well ventilated. A heavy hat presses with undue weight upon the scalp. A tight-fitting hat interferes with the free circulation of the blood. A hat that is close in its texture, prevents the escape of the heated air within, and not only produces a sense of oppression but is believed to be the most fertile cause of baldness. Silk hats for men are especially objectionable on this ground. All close hats should be supplied with efficient means of ventilation. The head, like any other part of the body, perspires, and if the hat is removed in a cooler atmosphere or in a current of wind, a cold in the head is apt to follow.

The chief cause of baldness is pressure of the hat, which constricts the blood vessels and so interferes with the nutrition of the hair bulbs. It is probable, also, that the shutting off of air and light by the hat promotes baldness. An unhealthy condition of the scalp results, the sign of which is an excess of dandruff.

Baldness is almost unknown among savages, who wear no hats, and is comparatively rare with men in the tropics where very light hats are worn. Laborers are less prone to baldness than business or professional men. They generally wear soft hats or caps, which are often pushed to the back of the head, so that the scalp gets plenty of light and air. There is no good reason why, if properly treated, the hair should not last as long as the man. Wear a soft, loose, well-ventilated hat, and wear it as little as possible, and never keep it on in the office or house.

In hot weather and in tropical climates hats should be of a light color, with a considerable crown and ample brim. In the United States, the ordinary straw hats, if not too closely made, answer every requirement. For the intense heat of Africa or India, more elaborate head-gear is found necessary. The ill effects of special exposure to the sun’s heat may be reduced by wearing, in the crown of the hat, a thin sponge, or even a handful of grass or leaves, or other light, porous substance.

From the standpoint of health, but little criticism can be made against the head-gear of women. Nature has provided them with a splendid covering of hair for warmth and protection. The woman’s hat, or bonnet, is largely an object of adornment. Fashion, at times, dictates an unequal distribution of its weight, or an over-burden of ornament, or a lack of protection to the eyes, but, for the most part, it is light, loose, and admits of free ventilation. Veils are more or less injurious to the eyes, and if worn so as to cover the nose and mouth, prevent the free escape of the exhalations from the lungs. The dyes used in veils have, in some instances, been productive of face eruptions and other disorders.

The Neck.—The improper clothing of the neck is responsible for much ill-health. The high collars for men, the tight-fitting high collars and neck bands for women, the scarfs, handkerchiefs, and other neck apparel in winter produce an excess of heat. Cold air is inhaled, and the result is some form of sore throat.

Fashion makes greater demands upon the powers of endurance, or resistance, of women than of men. To go warmly clad through the day, and then to put on a ball or party dress, exposing the neck and shoulders to repeated currents of cold air, requires a degree of vitality that many do not possess, and the physician’s and undertaker’s labors are increased by the victims of fashion.

The neck should be comfortably clad, and kept at the normal temperature as nearly as possible. It is the sudden change from an over-heated neck and chest to that of the opposite extreme that causes the trouble. The boy who, with scarf tightly wrapped about his neck, fights his mimic battle with snowballs until the perspiration flows from every pore, and then throws aside jacket and scarf while he rests, and the girl who, in furs and tippet, skates until she becomes thoroughly heated, and takes off her wraps while she stops to breathe, have many imitators among the older boys and girls in the world.

As to the proper amount of covering for the neck, much depends upon habit, and not a little upon individual requirement. The important point is to preserve uniformity, and to guard against sudden changes. The sailor with neck freely exposed is fully as exempt from colds as is the soldier whose neck is more warmly clad. If they should suddenly exchange their manner of dress, the result would be disastrous to both.

The important blood-vessels that supply the face, head, and brain, and the jugular veins which return the blood to the heart, all pass through the neck. The clothing about the neck should therefore be loose, so as to allow the freest passage of the food, breath, and blood, and the fullest movement of the head.

Male Attire.—While appearance demands that the outer clothing should be neat-fitting, comfort and health require that it should be sufficiently loose to admit of the freest movements of the body. It should be as light as possible to insure proper protection from the cold. Weight does not always count for warmth. Many persons prefer light flannels as outer garments for warm weather.

The trousers should be supported from the shoulders by suspenders. Belts involve more or less constriction of the abdomen, and are injurious. Men suffer greater disadvantage from their use than women. The practice of wearing a belt during the summer months is especially objectionable.

Female Attire.—Healthful and proper clothing implies, (1), the protection of the body against extremes of heat and cold, and the maintaining of an equable temperature in every part; (2), the absence of all superfluous material and needless weight; and (3), the non-interference with the normal functions of the body.

Mrs. Woolson, a writer on Dress and Health, says: The limbs have not half the amount of covering which is put upon the trunk of the body. Many garments have no sleeves, or sleeves that terminate a few inches below the shoulders. As to the legs, the clothing which should increase in direct ratio to the distance from the body to the feet, diminishes in the same ratio. Thin drawers, thinner stockings, and wind-blown skirts which keep up constant currents of air supply little warmth to the limbs beneath. The feet, half-clad and pinched in tight shoes, are chilled in consequence.

The trunk of the body has as many zones of temperature as the planet it inhabits. Its frigid zone is above, on the shoulders and chest; for, although the dress-body extends from the neck to the waist, most, if not all, of the garments worn beneath it are low-necked. The temperate zone lies between the shoulders and the belt, for that region receives the additional covering of undervest, corset, and chemise. The torrid zone begins with the belt and bands, and extends to the limbs below; for all the upper garments are continued below the belt, and all the lower garments come up as far as the belt, so that the clothing over the whole hip region must be at least double what it is over any other section. But it is more than double; it is quadruple, for the tops of all these lower garments have a superfluous fullness of material which is brought into the binding by gathers and plaits.

It will be observed from the above that the three rules laid down for a perfect dress are all violated. First, the unequal preservation of heat; second, the excessive weight, largely supported by the waist; and, third, the constriction of the waist and pressure upon the abdomen caused by the gathering of so many garments at this point.

The Petticoat.—Petticoats are objectionable in several ways. They seriously impede movement. They involve an unnecessary expenditure of muscular force by hampering the action of the lower limbs. They stir up and accumulate the dirt of the streets, or drag through mud and slush, often occasioning wet ankles and engendering disease. Thick woolen drawers reaching to the feet, or, better still, the one-piece underwear which covers the entire body except the head, hands, and feet, would furnish more warmth and distribute it more equally than the “many petticoat” plan, and save the weight and secure freer movement by enabling the wearer to dispense with one or more of these objectionable garments. This would add greatly to the comfort of the wearer, reduce the weight of the nether garments, prevent in large measure the undue heat of the abdominal region, and would not materially change the appearance of the outer dress.

Tight Lacing.—It is said that Hippocrates earnestly reproached the ladies of his time for too tightly compressing their ribs, and thus interfering with their breathing powers. Fashion and Health must be sworn enemies, for they have not come much nearer together since. We smile at the Chinese lady who cramps her foot until it is neither fit to look upon nor to walk upon. Yet, the tortures she endures are no greater than those voluntarily assumed by many American women at the behest of the same tyrant, Fashion.

The unnatural constriction about the waist and abdomen involves every vital function. It compresses the lower part of the lungs, diminishes their capacity, and thus interrupts the proper oxidizing of the blood. It cramps the heart, and often results in fainting and swooning, to say nothing of the more permanent results of impeded heart action. It forces out of shape and place the liver and stomach, restricts the flow of the bile and other stomachic juices, and seriously interferes with the important function of digestion. It restricts the action of the intestines, producing constipation, with all its attendant evils. It presses upon the blood vessels leading to the bowels and the lower extremities, diminishes the circulation, produces cold feet, and often causes varicose veins. And, worst of all, those delicate organs peculiar to women are so crushed by the unnatural pressure, and so obstructed in their normal action, that the function of motherhood is most seriously impaired, the poor deformed woman becomes the victim of untold suffering, and the wretchedness entailed upon the race is widespread and far reaching.

A Deformity.—The devotee of feminine fashion will doubtless resent the intimation that she is deformed, or is likely to become so. A missing finger or hand, a shortened arm or leg, an inverted foot or curved spine—these are set down as deformities. In short, any wide departure from the normal human structure must be classed as a deformity.

The bony framework of the thoracic cavity in its natural shape is an irregular cone, whose apex is at the neck, and whose widest part, or base, is formed by the spread of the lower ribs. By constantly compressing the waist, the flexible lower ribs yield to the pressure, and after a time become fixed in this unnatural position, and that which was the base of the cone becomes the apex, and the widest part is now near the top. From the standpoint of anatomy, the latter condition can be nothing less than a deformity.

Are Corsets Ever Necessary?—For any unnatural or unhealthy conditions, the physician or specialist alone must prescribe. There is no reason why the bones and muscles of a woman, as well as a man’s, should not support the upper part of the body without artificial aid. As remarked in another chapter, the body acquires habits. After wearing corsets or stays for a time, their absence will doubtless suggest a lack of support, for the muscles have become weakened from a lack of use.

The skirts and other garments should be supported from the shoulders, and not from the waist. To this end, an under jacket, close-fitting, but in no sense compressing the body, loose in texture so as to be permeable to the air, with straps over the shoulders, should be worn. To this, by means of buttons, all the lower garments should be attached. No steel or other stiff supports should be tolerated. With this system in general use for a generation, the amount of suffering saved would be incalculable, and the advantage to the race would be beyond compute.

The Feet.—In so far as the health is affected by the dress, next to the evils of tight lacing come the evils of tight shoes. The feet being remote from the heart, the circulation of the blood at this point is not as free as in other parts of the body. This in itself tends to beget cold feet, and at once suggests the advantage of warm stockings and stout shoes in order to keep out the cold and wet, and to induce a freer current of warmth-producing blood.

The small foot is almost as much an object of worship as the small waist. The temptation to cramp it by tight and ill-fitting shoes is great, and is not wholly confined to the weaker sex. Large shoes may be ill-fitting and injurious, as well as small ones, often rubbing the skin and producing blisters and sores.

The shoes should be close-fitting but not tight, thus allowing free circulation of air as well as of blood, and also the freest action of the bones and muscles. Like other parts of the dress, the shoes must be adapted to the season. In cold and wet weather the soles should be thick so as to keep out the dampness. The maxim, “Keep the feet warm and the head cool,” is none the less good because it is old.

Rubbers.—Tight-fitting rubbers impede circulation, and, on this score, are objectionable. But the disadvantages of wet or damp feet are far greater. Through the winter and spring months the streets and pavements are rarely free from dampness, and light rubbers or sandals should be worn. Persons who are exceptionally susceptible to colds need to be doubly careful to keep the feet dry and warm.

Stockings.—The stockings, too, should be stout and warm. For most persons, wool is the best material. If the rough surface is uncomfortable to the skin, those of a smoother surface may be tried. A thin silk stocking with a woolen one of moderate thickness outside will make no more bulk than a single heavy woolen stocking, and will be found equally warm.

Some persons when about to undergo extreme exposure to cold wrap the feet with a thickness or two of tissue paper, either under or outside of the stocking. Being impervious to the air, paper is not to be recommended for general use.

The physical annoyances and discomforts growing out of ill-clad feet are such as to demand that great care be given to this part of the dress. Corns, bunions, and in-growing nails are so common that it is a rare thing to find a person who is free from these afflictions.

Heels.—Heels of moderate height are desirable. High heels throw the foot into the front of the shoe, cramp the toes, and destroy the natural action of the foot. The French heel, so coveted by many ladies, is an abomination. It is not only too high, but, being placed under the arch of the foot, defeats Nature’s purpose in the construction of the arch. Children under twelve years should not wear heels.

Wide Soles.—The width of the sole should always be greater than the width of the foot. With the foot clad in a close-fitting, stout stocking, stand upon a cardboard or piece of stiff paper, bearing the weight of the body upon this foot. With a pencil held in a vertical position, have some one draw the outline of the foot upon the paper. When purchasing a pair of shoes, apply this outline to the soles, and see to it that they are larger at every point than the outline. This will go far toward securing comfort.

Infants require to be warmly clad. The heat-producing powers of the organism are feeble. Clothing should be of a kind and of sufficient quantity to prevent the undue waste of natural heat. Children are often clad too thinly, and exposed to cold before they are strong enough to bear it. The “hardening” process to which some foolish mothers resort is accountable for no small amount of infant mortality. The other extreme is equally reprehensible. Aim to maintain an equable temperature of the room as well as of the body; avoid sudden changes, and keep the child out of draughts. Clothing of fine soft wool, as a rule, is the best.

Evenly Distributed.—The body of the child usually is too warmly clad, while the arms and neck are often insufficiently covered. The long skirts of infants are objectionable because they keep the legs too warm and hamper them in their movements, so essential to their growth and development.

Weight.—The weight of the clothing of all persons, of whatever age, should be as light as is compatible with comfortable warmth, but it is a matter of double importance to infants and young children.

Constriction.—Many young mothers have done their infant children incalculable injury by tightly pinning about their tender bodies the swathing band and the upper parts of the skirts. The heart and lungs, stomach and liver, as well as the rest of the body, need room for growth. Instances are recorded of infants having died from being deprived of sufficient room to breathe properly. Here again, the opposite extreme must be avoided. Socks that come well up on the legs should be provided. The dress should not be so loose about the neck as to admit cold draughts of air to the chest or spine. As with older persons, the petticoats and nether garments should be suspended from the shoulders as soon as the child is old enough to walk. The increase in the average life of the American is largely due to the better care of the children.