CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, AND PREPOSITIONS

78. Independent and Dependent Clauses. A sentence may consist of two or more independent clauses, or it may consist of one principal clause and one or more dependent clauses.

Independent clauses are joined by conjunctions; such as, hence, but, and, although, etc.

Dependent clauses are joined to the sentence by relative adverbs; such as, where, when, etc., or by relative pronouns; as, who, what, etc. These dependent clauses may have the same office in the sentence as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs. (See §7.)

79. Case and Number of Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. Failure to use the proper case and number of the relative pronouns has already been touched upon (see §29), but a further mention of this fault may well be made here.

The relative pronoun has other offices in the sentence than that of connecting the dependent and principal clauses. It may serve as a subject or an object in the clause. The sentence, I wonder whom will be chosen, is wrong, because the relative here is the subject of will be chosen, not the object of wonder, and should have the nominative form who. Corrected, it reads, I wonder who will be chosen. Examine the following sentences:

Wrong: We know who we mean.

Right: We know whom we mean.

Wrong: You may give it to whoever you wish.

Right: You may give it to whomever you wish.

Wrong: Do you know whom it is?

Right: Do you know who it is? (Attribute complement.)

Wrong: Everybody who were there were disappointed. (Disagreement in number.)

Right: Everybody who was there was disappointed.

The relative pronoun takes the case required by the clause it introduces, not the case required by any word preceding it. Thus, the sentence, He gave it to who had the clearest right, is correct, because who is the subject of the verb had, and therefore in the nominative case. Give it to whomever they name, is right, because whomever is the object of they name.

Errors in the use of interrogative pronouns are made in the same way as in the use of the relatives. The interrogative pronoun has other functions besides making an interrogation. It serves also as the subject or object in the sentence. Care must be taken, then, to use the proper case. Say, Whom are you looking for? not, Who are you looking for?

Note. Some writers justify the use of who in sentences like the last one on the ground that it is an idiom. When, as in this book, the object is training in grammar, it is deemed better to adhere to the strictly grammatical form.

Exercise 58

In the following sentences, choose the proper forms from those italicized:

1. Who whom do you wish to see?
2. You will please write out the name of whoever whomever you want.
3. I saw who whom was there.
4. Who whom was it you saw?
5. Who whom did you see?
6. John did not know whom who to ask.
7. Why did he not ask whomever whoever was there?
8. Who whom can tell the difference?
9. Give it to whoever whomever you please.
10. None of those who were was wanted was were there.
11. The one of those who were was wanted was not there.
12. He is one of those fellows who are is always joking.
13. Whom who was called "The Rail Splitter?"
14. Do you not know whom who it was?
15. That is one of the birds that is are very rare.
16. One of the books which was were brought was one hundred years old.
17. I am not among those who whom were was there.
18. Only one of the men who were was on board survived.
19. Everyone else who was were there was were lost.
20. I am the one of the three men who is am are guilty.
21. He was chosen one of the four speakers who was were to speak on Commencement Day.
22. It was one of the books which were was being sought by the librarian.
23. Give it to one of the men who whom is found there.
24. To who whom did you give it?
25. It was for whomever whoever was present.
26. Ask whomever whoever is nearest the door.

80. Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs. It is better to use a when clause only in the subordinate part of the sentence, to state the time of an event. Compare the following:

Bad: He was turning the corner, when suddenly he saw a car approaching.

Good: When he was turning the corner, he suddenly saw a car approaching.

Bad: When the news of the fire came, it was still in the early morning.

Good: The news of the fire came when it was still in the early morning.

81. Do not use a when or a where clause in defining a subject or in place of a predicate noun.

Bad: Commencement is when one formally completes his school course.

Good: Commencement is the formal completion of one's school course.

Bad: Astronomy is where one studies about the stars.

Good: Astronomy is the study of the stars.

82. So, then, and also, the conjunctive adverbs, should not be used to unite coÖrdinate verbs in a sentence unless and or but be used in addition to the adverb.

Bad: The boys' grades are low, so they indicate lack of application.

Good: The boys' grades are low, and so indicate lack of application.

Bad: He read for a while, then fell asleep.

Good: He read for a while, and then fell asleep.

Bad: I'll be down next week; also I shall bring Jack along.

Good: I'll be down next week; and also I shall bring Jack along.

Exercise 59

Correct the following sentences:

1. Anarchism is when one believes in no government.
2. I am studying German, also French.
3. The clock had just struck five when the cab came.
4. I shall work until nine o'clock, then I shall retire.
5. I was sick all day, so I couldn't come to the office.
6. I was going up street yesterday when unexpectedly I met Jones.
7. Death is when one ceases to live.
8. Dinner is ready, so I shall have to cease work.
9. He told half of the story, then he suddenly stopped.
10. He loves good music, also good pictures.
11. A restaurant is where meals are served.

83. Conjunctions. There are certain conjunctions, and also certain pairs of conjunctions that frequently cause trouble.

And or but should not be used to join a dependent clause to an independent clause; as, It was a new valise and differing much from his old one. Say instead, It was a new valise, differing much from his old one, or It was a new valise, and differed very much from his old one. Similarly, It was a new book which (not and which) interested him very much. This "and which" construction is a frequent error; and which should never be used unless there is more than one relative clause, and then never with the first one.

But or for should not be used to introduce both of two succeeding statements. Both of the following sentences are bad by reason of this error: He likes geometry, but fails in algebra, but studies it hard, He read all night, for the book interested him, for it was along the line of his ambition.

Than and as should not be followed by objective pronouns in sentences like this: I am as large as him. The verb in these sentences is omitted. If it is supplied, the error will be apparent. The sentence would then read, I am as large as him (is large). The correct form is, I am as large as he (is large). Similarly, He is taller than I (am tall), She is brighter than he (is bright).

As may be used as either a conjunction or an adverb. He is as tall as I. The first as is an adverb, the second as is a conjunction. As is properly used as an adverb when the equality is asserted, but, when the equality is denied, so should be used in its place. He is as old as I, is correct, but the denial should be, He is not so old as I. After not do not use as when as is an adverb.

Neither, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by nor; as, Neither he nor (not or) I can come. Neither should never be followed by or.

Either, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by or.

84. Placing of Correlatives. The correlatives, such as neither—nor, either—or, not only—but also, should be placed in clear relation to similar parts of speech or similar parts of the sentence. One should not be directed toward a verb and the other toward some other part of speech.

Bad: He not only brought a book, but also a pencil.

Good: He brought not only a book but also a pencil.

Bad: He would offer neither reparation nor would he apologize.

Good: Neither would he offer reparation nor would he apologize.

Good: He would offer neither reparation nor apology.

85. The prepositions without, except, like, and the adverb directly should not be used as conjunctions.

Wrong: Without (unless) you attend to class-room work, you cannot pass.

Wrong: This she would not do except (unless) we promised to pay at once.

Wrong: I acted just like (as) all the others (did).

Wrong: Directly (as soon as) he came, we harnessed the horses.

Exercise 60

Correct the following sentences:

1. Mary is as old as her.
2. I read as much as him.
3. He either wore his coat or a sort of vest.
4. He walked to the next town, but did not come back, but stayed all night.
5. We are better players than them.
6. He became thoroughly under the influence of the hypnotist and doing many absurd things.
7. There we met a man named Harmon and whom we found very entertaining.
8. They work harder than us.
9. John is not as tall as you.
10. Neither John or James is as tall as you.
11. I admire Mary more than she.
12. That can't be done without you get permission from the principal.
13. He dresses just like I do.
14. Directly he came we launched the canoes.
15. This cannot be done except you are a senior.
16. Neither she nor I was present.
17. He not only had a trained pig but also a goose.
18. Mary is not as pretty as Helen.
19. The men neither interested him nor the places.
20. He has traveled more than me.
21. We like him very much, for he is very interesting, for he has traveled so much.
22. It is a good book and which has much valuable information.
23. It was a rough town and harboring many criminals.
24. He took an interest neither in studies, nor did he care for athletics.
25. He neither took an interest in studies nor athletics.

Exercise 61

Construct sentences in which the following words are correctly used:

When, where, than, as—as, so—as, neither—nor, not only—but also, either—or, except, like, without, directly.

86. Prepositions. Some mistakes are made in the use of prepositions. Note the following brief list of words with the appropriate prepositions to be used with each:

agree with a person differ from (person or thing) agree to a proposition differ from or with an opinion bestow upon different from compare with (to determine value) glad of compare to (because of similarity) need of comply with part from (a person) confide in (to trust in) part with (a thing) confide to (to intrust to) profit by confer on (to give) prohibit from confer with (to talk with) reconcile to (a person) convenient to (a place) reconcile with (a statement) convenient for (a purpose) scared by dependent on think of or about

Do not use prepositions where they are unnecessary. Note the following improper expressions in which the preposition should be omitted:

continue on	down until
covered over	inside of
off of	outside of
started out	where to?
wish for to come	remember of
more than you think for

Do not omit any preposition that is necessary to the completeness of the sentence.

Bad: He is a dealer and shipper of coal.

Good: He is a dealer in and shipper of coal.

Exercise 62

Illustrate in sentences the correct use of each of the expressions listed under the first paragraph of §86.

Form sentences in which correct expressions are used in place of each of the incorrect expressions listed under the second paragraph of §86.