The early Spaniards were very little interested in geography, and the boundaries between the provinces were often very vaguely described. Since the independence of the various provinces these boundary lines have been the cause of many disputes, and, in many instances, have nearly plunged neighbouring republics into bloody war. The most serious dispute still unsettled is between Peru and Ecuador, which involves a large part of the territory of the latter republic.

The older readers will remember that, when they studied geography, Bolivia had a stretch of sea coast along the desert of Atacama. For a considerable time after independence was secured little attention was paid to Atacama, since it was regarded as worthless for colonization. Chile claimed sovereignty, and its jurisdiction was generally recognized. The year 1840 brought a change. In that year the wealth of fertilizer along that coast began to be exploited. Disputes soon arose between Chile and Bolivia as to the boundary line. The various claims made by Bolivia were inconsistent. War threatened, and diplomatic relations between the two countries were broken off. The outbreak of hostilities between Spain and Peru united the two countries against what they considered a common enemy. A treaty was drawn up in 1866 by which the 24th degree of south latitude was agreed upon as the actual boundary, although the Chileans were allowed to continue their operations in the nitrate regions beyond that line. Furthermore, Chile was to pay over to Bolivia half the customs received between the 24th and 25th degrees, and Bolivia was to hand over to Chile half the customs received between the 23rd and 24th degrees, south latitude. It was also provided that neither party to the treaty could alienate its rights to a foreign government.

This treaty gave rise to continual disputes. Chile regarded this settlement as a final solution of the dispute, but Bolivia refused or neglected to live up to her part of the agreement. By a later treaty Chile renounced her claims between these two degrees, with the agreement on the part of Bolivia that the export duties on mineral products from that zone should not be increased, and that Chilean industries and citizens should not be subjected to higher taxes than then prevailed. This treaty was to remain in force for twenty-five years. The capital invested in that zone was almost exclusively Chilean, and the labourers employed were also of that nationality. Peru had large interests in the nitrate industry and began to intrigue with Bolivia, in order to prevent a ruinous competition in the market. So long as Chilean enterprise was left free this monopoly was impossible. As the interests of Peru and Bolivia were opposed to those of Chile, these two republics, in 1872, entered into a secret treaty of alliance. Like many state secrets this one became public, and Chile began to prepare for a conflict, which seemed impending, by purchasing ironclads and in other ways strengthening her navy.

In 1870 a revolution occurred in Bolivia, and a new government came into power which refused to carry out the provisions of the last treaty entered into with Chile. It, furthermore, at the alleged suggestion of Peru, attempted to increase the taxes upon all nitrate exports, in absolute violation of its treaty obligations. The manager of a Chilean company was imprisoned, and the property was confiscated on his refusal to pay the enhanced tax. Chile issued an ultimatum through her diplomatic representative. Upon the refusal of the Bolivian government to recede, Chile landed troops at Antofagasta and took possession of that city. Bolivia declared war against Chile on the 1st of March, 1879, and, because Peru refused to abrogate the secret treaty between it and Bolivia, Chile declared war against Peru the following month. Most writers lay the blame for the war entirely upon the aggressiveness and covetousness of Chile, but a careful study of the situation shows great moderation on the part of Chile for a long period of time.

It was generally believed that the Peruvian navy was far superior to that of Chile, but, as a matter of fact, they were pretty evenly matched. For several years Chile had steadily strengthened her naval forces. Peru had suffered from internal dissensions and corrupt administrations, and was ill prepared for war. Bolivia was in still worse condition. At the time of the outbreak of hostilities the only available arms were fifteen hundred Remington rifles, and the stock of ammunition was small; the rest of the army was equipped with old flint-lock muskets. The bulk of both the Peruvian and Bolivian armies were Indians. The Chilean army was not large at the time of the declaration of war, but its personnel, man for man, was far superior to either of its adversaries. The Chileans were likewise prompt and energetic in their preparations for war. The land forces were increased, and both naval and army supplies were accumulated at strategic points. Because of the long stretch of sea coast it was inevitable that the navies of the two countries would bear the brunt of the fighting, as subsequent events proved.

The naval war was opened with the blockade of Iquique by the Chileans. With Iquique as a rendezvous the Chilean navy visited various ports, and inflicted serious damage to commercial interests. The aim was to deprive Peru of her main source of revenue. Peru had an intrepid and doughty admiral by the name of Grau, who commanded the Peruvian fleet, of which the Huascar was the flagship. While the main part of the Chilean navy was away from Iquique, two Peruvian boats appeared in that harbour. The Huascar rammed and sank the Esmeralda, one of the best of the Chilean ships, after four hours of heavy firing. It was at this fight that Arturo Prat, who was in command of the Esmeralda, made a hero of himself by leaping upon the deck of the Huascar. “Follow me,” said this brave officer, as he boarded the Huascar, sword in hand. The ships, however, separated so quickly that only one man was able to follow him. Prat rushed along the deck of the ship as though he himself had captured it. “Surrender, Captain,” said Admiral Grau, “we wish to save the life of a hero.” Prat refused, and was soon cut down while still fighting with his sword. The Esmeralda sank with colours flying, and only fifty out of a crew of two hundred were saved. Before the conflict ended, however, Peru also lost one vessel, the Independencia, which ran upon the rocks while pursuing the Chilean Covadonga.

For four months Admiral Grau traversed the Pacific coast from Arica to Valparaiso. He prevented the transport of the Chilean army northward. Discontent grew rapidly. The Chileans decided that they could do nothing until they rid themselves of this doughty seaman. Their navy was divided into two squadrons, both of which began patrolling the coast. The Huascar was accompanied by the Bolivian Union. These two vessels were cruising together near Antofagasta on October 8th, 1879. When the mist, which had been thick, lifted, they made out three distinct clouds of smoke toward the northeast. These were soon recognized as one of the Chilean squadrons. Admiral Grau fled, but soon ran into the other squadron approaching him from the direction in which he was fleeing. The Admiral at once decided that the only thing to do was to close with the Cochrane before the other boats could come up, and steamed straight for that boat. None of the shots of either boat were effective until they were in close quarters, when a chance shot disabled the Huascar’s turret. Grau tried to ram the Cochrane, but the latter was too quick for her. By this time the Chilean Blanco had come up and added her shots to those of her sister boat. A shot struck the conning-tower, in which the Admiral was stationed, and blew that commander into atoms. A little later the second officer, and then the next one in seniority, were killed, which demoralized the Peruvian crew. One-third of the officers and men had been either killed or wounded when the vessel was finally surrendered. This fight is interesting not only because it was one of the deciding events of the war, but it was the first fight between modern ironclads. The entire engagement lasted but little over an hour. After repairs the Huascar was incorporated into the Chilean navy.

The capture of the Huascar gave the Chileans the absolute command of the sea, and enabled them to land an army wherever they pleased along the coast. Nor did the Chileans delay their onward march. A Chilean army of ten thousand men, well-equipped, had been landed at Antofagasta, and other regiments were in Valparaiso ready to embark as occasion arose. On the 28th of October this army was embarked on fifteen transports convoyed by four men-of-war. The destination was kept a profound secret, but a few days later they steamed into the harbour of Pisagua. A small force of Bolivians defended this port, but they were unable to prevent the landing of the Chilean troops. A brief skirmish ensued but the Bolivians were soon in retreat. The allied forces of Peruvians and Bolivians had an army of some nineteen thousand men at Iquique. These men were marched out to meet the invaders. The march of these forces across the desert regions was difficult because of the lack of provisions, and especially the scant supply of water, from which the troops greatly suffered in many instances. The Chileans had established themselves at Dolores and San Francisco, where there was an abundant supply of fresh water.

The majority of the allied armies were Inca and Aymara Indians. They had generally been recruited by force. Villages would be surrounded, and all the men that could be caught were impressed into the ranks. They were generally obedient and brave, and were capable of enduring hunger, thirst and fatigue such as would have overwhelmed white troops. They were unequalled in their capacity to make long marches with scant supplies of food and water. In no other way could the Chileans have been withstood. The wives of many accompanied them. These women are called rabonas, and were regularly recognized. As soon as a halt was made these women immediately busied themselves in preparing the food. After the battles they ministered to the wounded. Callous to all danger hundreds of these faithful helpmates met death on the field of carnage.

The first battle occurred at San Francisco and Porvenir. The vanguard of the allies was made up of Indians from the Lake Titicaca district. They were led by the brave Colonel Espinar. As these forces led a charge against the Chilean guns a bullet pierced his forehead, and he fell mortally wounded. A cry of grief and horror fell from his countrymen and their courage failed. Disputing every inch of ground they fell back to the main body of troops. The battle so gallantly fought resulted in a decisive victory for the Chileans.

General Buendia, commander of the allied forces, retreated to the village of TarapacÁ, which was a collection of mud huts. It is situated in a narrow but fertile valley not to exceed six hundred yards in width, and he there awaited the attack which he knew was soon to follow. With practically no cavalry and a dozen antiquated field-guns the prospect was not alluring. The odds seemed hopeless. He was not kept long in suspense. A force under Colonel Arteaga consisting of picked men, cavalry and artillery soon appeared. The aim was the complete destruction of the allied army. For this purpose the force had been divided into three divisions.

A mist hung over the little valley while the Peruvian army rested with stacked arms. Suddenly a muleteer galloped up to the commander and reported the enemy approaching. Then two others reported the other divisions. It looked as though they were being surrounded and caught in a trap. Then came the call to arms. The men responded and advanced up the bluffs against a withering fire. The stoical Indians saw their leaders fall, but they set their teeth and continued the advance. The Chileans at last found their equals. The allied forces were embarrassed by a lack of artillery, but fought desperately. Many were the deeds of heroism of that day. After a few hours of fighting they captured some guns from the enemy and used them to good advantage. The result of the battle was a decided victory for the allies, their only real victory of the war on land. San Francisco was atoned for, and the loss of the Huascar avenged. The total loss was twelve hundred men, about equally divided. The allies nevertheless retreated across the desert to Tacna, as it was impossible to maintain an army in the interior and they were not strong enough to recapture Iquique. In this way General Buendia saved the flower of his army. In several battles of this campaign several thousand troops were lost on each side, but, as a result, the Chileans came into control of all of the nitrate country. Several months later Tacna was captured, and, with the battle of Arica, which has heretofore been described, all of present-day Chile was in control of the victors.

The disasters to the armies of the allies caused revolutions in both Peru and Bolivia, and the President of each of those countries fled to Europe. Armed revolts arose and fighting took place in the streets of Lima. The position of Peru was desperate. With her navy destroyed Peru could no longer defend herself against the aggressions of the enemy on the sea. The Chileans blockaded Callao, and a marauding expedition under Captain Lynch bombarded a number of coast towns. Captain Lynch had been ordered to ravage the whole coast north of Callao, and he executed his instructions to the letter, destroying government and private property in every direction. Several Chilean boats were sunk in the harbour of Callao through ingenious schemes of the Peruvians. On one occasion the Chileans saw a boat loaded with fresh provisions. They began to transfer these supplies to the Loa. As the last of the cargo was being hoisted aboard, a terrific explosion occurred that sank the Loa. It was no doubt due to an infernal machine that had been placed in the bottom. The Covadonga was destroyed by a similar explosion on a small boat captured in the harbour by the Chileans.

The United States offered its mediation in October, 1880, and commissioners of the three countries met on board the corvette Lackawanna of the United States navy, in the harbour of Arica. The first meeting took place on the 22nd of October, when the American minister took the chair and announced the purpose of the convention. He added that the American representatives would take no part in the discussion, but would be glad to help with friendly suggestions. The Chilean commissioners presented a memorandum of their demands, which was in substance what was eventually granted, but the Peruvians refused such hard terms, thinking that foreign intervention would save them. Chile absolutely refused arbitration or a full war indemnity, and the convention broke up without any progress having been made towards peace.

The delay of a few months in the progress of the war had enraged the volatile Chileans, and those in charge of the war finally decided that it would be necessary to capture Lima. An expeditionary force of thirty thousand men of all arms was organized, transports were purchased and the resources of the country were taxed to the utmost to carry on this expedition. The army was formed into three divisions, one of which, under Captain Patrick Lynch, was ordered to land at Pisco. A second division was instructed to disembark at Curayaco Bay, which was one hundred miles nearer the capital than Pisco. The first division was ordered to march by land northward to join the second division in the final attack upon the capital.

At Lima all was confusion as the news of the actual advance of the Chileans towards the capital reached that city. “The City of the Kings,” as Pizarro had named it, the wealthy and prosperous capital of modern Peru, was now threatened with all the horrors of war. The population of the city at that time has been estimated at one hundred thousand souls, of whom at least fifteen thousand were foreigners. The inhabitants were pleasure-loving, and there was a very large irresponsible element, composed in part of negroes and Indians, that meant trouble in those dark days. The flower of the Peruvian army had been destroyed. Thousands rested on the deserts of TarapacÁ, and the sand hills of Tacna and Arica. Those seasoned troops that were in the city had become more or less disorganized. A decree was issued ordering every male resident in Lima between the ages of sixteen and sixty, of whatever trade, profession and calling, to join the army. Gay and thoughtless youths, students, idlers and the vicious were all brought together in the ranks under this order. It is easy to make such decrees, but a decree does not make an army. It takes months to create an efficient fighting force. However brave these Peruvians might be, they were not trained in military service, and they lacked the qualities of the seasoned soldiers of the Chilean army. From three to six in the afternoon all business was suspended by Presidential decree, and these drafted troops were drilled. The call to arms was made by the tolling of the bell in the great cathedral. The artillery was inferior, and it could not compete with the Krupp and Armstrong guns with which the invaders were provided.

Nicolas de Pierola, who was at the head of the army, with the title of Supreme Chief, realized the danger, and strove in the best way possible to prepare for it. At a meeting of all the generals and naval officers, plans were evolved to protect the city. As soon as it became known that the invading army had landed to the south of Lima the preparations were devoted to protecting the city from that direction. As the time was short it was not possible to prepare extensive fortifications. A chain of sandhills, which ran through Chorrillos, about ten miles from the city to the south, was chosen as the first line of defense. These hills formed a sort of natural barrier, and breastworks were thrown up at various places along them, and these newly-recruited and hastily-drilled troops were stationed along this first line of defense, which was at least six miles long. A second line of defense just outside Miraflores, and four miles nearer the capital, was established, and thousands of these troops were stationed there. The time was too short to create very formidable fortifications.

The first division of the Chilean army landed at Pisco on the 13th of December, and immediately began its march overland. Villages and plantations were destroyed along the route, and the record of Captain Lynch is a rather cruel one. On the 25th a junction of the two divisions was made at Curayaco. These two bodies proceeded to Lurin, a small village lying in a beautiful little valley, and remained there about three weeks, while making their final preparations for the capture of the capital. This time was spent in reconnoitering and collecting provisions for the final campaign. The Chilean army at this time consisted of an effective force of twenty-six thousand men, with seventy long range field guns, and a considerable body of cavalry. Most of these troops were thoroughly disciplined men, who had had experience in previous campaigns. They were under the command of General Baquedano, who had made a record for himself in this war.

The battle of Chorrillos began at dawn on the morning of the 13th of January, 1881. The Peruvians were taken by surprise, but resisted bravely. It was not long, however, until their right flank was driven back, and then various other points of defense were carried at the point of the bayonet. The Chilean cavalry completed the victory by pursuing and cutting down fugitives in every direction, until the plains for several miles were covered with the dead bodies of the Peruvians. The Peruvians fell back in more or less disorder to the second line of defense, which was only six miles distant from the city itself. An armistice was arranged by the diplomatic corps at Lima on the 15th, in the hope of preventing any more bloodshed and averting the horrors of a battle just outside the capital. This was done at the request of the Peruvian commander-in-chief, and the Chilean general agreed that it should last until midnight of the 15th. Through some misunderstanding some shots were exchanged, and each party believed that the other had violated its agreement, so that the battle of Miraflores was fought on that date. The defense of the Peruvians was brave, as they were fighting for their homes and the city which all of them loved. The battle extended over the entire line of the second defense, which was not less than four miles. The battle began early in the afternoon, and a number of warships in the harbour near there assisted in the assault by firing their long range guns. The ammunition of the defenders ran low and the defense began to weaken. The Chileans made a bayonet charge, and one breastwork after another was captured. For almost four hours the defense was maintained, but at the end of that time the Chileans were victors. The village of Miraflores was burned; the pleasant country homes surrounding it were sacked, the crops destroyed and the work of devastation was terrible. On the 16th, Lima was surrendered to the Chilean general by the Municipal Alcalde, and possession was to be given on the following day. The intervening night was a night of terror, and, had it not been for the voluntary service of the foreign colony, the whole city might have been sacked by the disorderly elements in it.

The Chilean commander entered Lima on the 16th and established himself in the palace. He immediately took possession of the revenues, policed the city, and endeavoured to restore peaceful conditions to such an extent as they could be under a military government by a hated foe. A million pesos a month was levied upon the citizens, and they were required to meet it. The conduct of the Chileans was reprehensible in that they became vandals. A great part of the valuable library, filled with almost priceless volumes, was looted and some of it sold as junk on the streets. Pictures and statues were removed and taken to Chile, where they may still be seen. The Chileans, coming from the same stock and claiming allegiance to the same church, did not seem to have any consideration for a fallen foe.

Before a treaty could be entered into it was necessary to have a government established with which to treat. Several attempts were made, but no one could be found who dared sign a treaty that would permanently alienate a portion of the country. The Chileans refused to treat with Pierola, so that he resigned. Calderon assumed the presidency, but the congress refused him authority to alienate any territory. Admiral Montero next attempted the seemingly impossible and failed. At length General Iglesias called a convention of his compatriots in the northern districts, and it was decided to adopt measures that would secure the speedy retirement of the Chileans, no matter at what sacrifice. He declared himself President, and his pretensions were supported by the Chileans. A treaty was arranged with Chile, which was signed provisionally on the 23rd of October, 1883, and is known as the Treaty of Ancon. Five days later the Peruvian flag was again hoisted in Lima, and the Chileans left the country. It was a number of years later before a treaty of peace was arranged with Bolivia, although no further fighting took place.

It is quite possible that the last word has not yet been spoken in the nitrate controversy between Chile and Peru. The feeling of Peruvians toward their late foe is intensely bitter. They all look forward to another day of war, and predict that Peru will retake from Chile all that she has lost. If some ambitious leader should arise in Peru and secure the presidency, another war might easily follow. At the present time Peru’s finances would not warrant such a step. It is to be hoped that both nations will seriously consider the ultimate consequences of war, and make unnecessary the reference of mooted questions to the arbitrament of the field of battle.