The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella is perhaps the most noteworthy epoch in Spanish history. It resounded with the clash of arms and with the thirst for discovery. It was also an era of intolerance. A distinctive tendency toward cruelty has ever been a prominent trait of the Spanish character. The driving out of the Moors and the elimination of the Moorish civilization, the harsh treatment of the Jews and, finally, the establishment of the Inquisition are all indicative of that tendency. These traits were carried with them into the New World in their worst forms. The Spanish expeditions to South America were marked by ferocious cruelty, unlimited bloodshed, and an unquenchable lust for treasure. A low standard of personal relations as well as a narrow conception of public morality prevailed. It was from the very worst of the population of Spain that the early colonists to Spanish South America came. Most of them were adventurers who had nothing to lose, and who were quite willing to risk their lives for the possibility of treasure. It is not unnatural that the worst characteristics of the Spanish character should early be developed, and to an abnormal degree. One quality they had to aid them—there was no lack of personal courage. Ignorant they might be, but of personal bravery there was no question, as their deeds bear witness.

In South America there were two great racial divisions, besides the tribes dwelling in Patagonia, who were quite different to either of the others. On the Pacific slope the Incas had joined together the various tribes from north of Quito to Chile into a great community over which they exercised supreme power. The people lived under established conditions; they built towns and public works and were proficient in agriculture. On the Atlantic side of the Andes, from Venezuela to the La Plata, the Indians belonged to Tupi-Guarani stock. The features and habits of some of the tribes had become slightly modified, but they show enough similarities to leave small doubt as to their common origin. These tribes were all nomadic, and existed principally on the products of the chase or wild fruits which they gathered. The Araucanian and Tehuelche Indians of Patagonia were also nomadic, but they are of a different temperament.

For three centuries after its discovery no immigration was permitted to the South American colonies except of Spaniards. These Spaniards intermarried freely with native women. From this mixture grew up the greater part of the original population of Argentina, as well as the other colonies. The gradual development of population and wealth was little understood in the mother country. Trade with foreign countries was prohibited, all mineral wealth was heavily taxed and the Crown “milked” the colonies in every way. All of the officials were native Spaniards. A feeling of animosity gradually grew up among the colonists toward the Spaniards which finally led to the outbreak of hostilities at the commencement of the nineteenth century. South Americans perhaps give too little importance to the influence of the United States in the outcome of their struggles for liberty. The idea of America for the Americans existed long before the enunciation of the Monroe Doctrine in 1823. That idea was in the minds of Washington and his co-workers. Their success also fired the patriotism of Bolivar, San Martin and other South American liberators.

The story of Argentina is but another chapter in the history of the short-sighted attitude of Spain toward her colonies in the New World. The sole purpose of the colonial policy of Spain seemed to be to protect the trading monopoly which had been farmed out to the merchants of Cadiz, and to keep a record of the production of silver and gold, in order to insure the collection of the royal one-fifth. Every Atlantic port of South America was closed to traffic except Nombre de Dios, on the coast of Panama. Everything destined for that continent had to be taken there, transported across the isthmus and reloaded to vessels on the Pacific. Goods destined for Argentina also had to follow this route. They were carried by vessels to Callao, Peru, and from there were taken overland even as far as Buenos Aires. It was for this reason that the early settlers of Argentina mostly came in from the Andes side. To further enforce this monopoly of trade the governors of Buenos Aires were instructed to forbid all importation and exportation from that port under penalty of death and forfeiture of property to those engaged in it.

It is little wonder that a system of corruption and an evasion of such iniquitous laws was developed. The several governors recommended modifications, but the Cadiz merchants were obdurate. Smuggling and surreptitious trading grew popular, and the officials soon became silent partners in the traffic. Although the laws remained upon the statute books nothing could keep the people from trafficking with their own products. Buenos Aires became a community of smugglers. English and Dutch ships landed their goods under the very noses of officials, took their pay in hides or money and then continued their way around Cape Horn to the west coast, where the same process was repeated. Mule trains carried these goods thus illegally entered across the plains to Cordoba and Tucuman; the officials along the way winking at this evasion of unpopular laws. The profits were distributed among officials and the soldiers were hired to shut their eyes. The abstract right of the government to enact such restrictive regulations was never questioned. They broke the laws without any qualms of conscience, but contesting them was not even dreamed of. The idea that the right to trade or to practise a profession existed only by sufferance of the government has not been eradicated even to this day. It is a relic of this age. It is not surprising that office holding became the popular vocation and has remained so even to the twentieth century.

For a long period the whole of South America was under the viceroyalty of Peru. Some of the larger capitals had bodies of officials known as Audiencias. The viceroyalty was divided into provinces, each of which had a governor. Each new region occupied was organized into a municipality, which was the real unit of their political structure. The governing body of this municipality was termed the Cabildo, and was composed of from six to twelve members who were appointed and held office for life. This body exercised the civil and judicial administration. Most of these men secured their appointment through actual purchase. The territorial jurisdiction of these municipalities was generally poorly defined, and it was sometimes almost coextensive with the province. Although the colonial governor was supposed to give a full account of his administration, he often failed to do so and conducted his office as a despotic and irresponsible ruler.

The governors were always Spaniards, and only one exception appears in Argentina, Hernandarios Saavedra. This man appears as one of the brightest names during the seventeenth century. For several years he acted as governor of Buenos Aires, and he did a great deal of good in securing justice to the Indians and curbing the military power. He retained the confidence of both natives and Spaniards by his reputation for giving a square deal to all sides. Under his policy the colonies prospered and the pastoral pursuits were greatly extended. The sixteenth century contained very little of interest to the general reader. The inhabited portions were extended but little, and there were one or two uprisings of Indians against the white man’s rule. Only one was serious and that was of the tribes on the Andean slopes, who were stirred up by a leader who claimed to be the direct descendant of the old Inca princes. This disturbance lasted for fifty years, but it ended with the capture and execution of the leader, who was known to the Spaniards as Bohorquez.

Some struggles took place between the Portuguese settlers of Brazil and the Spaniards, who had attempted to penetrate the regions watered by the upper ParanÁ. The “Paulistas,” inhabitants of the state of SÃo Paulo, resisted the encroachments of the Spaniards, as they feared the Jesuit influences, which they both feared and hated. They raided the settlements of that order in Misiones and carried off several thousand of the poor natives as captives. The IguassÚ River and the east bank of the Uruguay seemed to be adopted informally as the dividing line between the two races, although later differences arose over the territory now embraced in the republic of Uruguay. The Portuguese established a settlement, called Colonia, in 1680, almost opposite to Buenos Aires, which was ever a sore spot for the Spaniards and gave rise to much trouble. It became a harbouring place for smugglers and offenders against Spanish laws, but it remained under Portuguese control for a long period.

With the eighteenth century Spain adopted a little more liberal policy toward her colonies in regard to trade. The prestige which England and Holland had obtained practically forced certain concessions. Uruguay began to be settled by Spaniards. The increase in population and greater demand for wool and hides in Europe caused a remarkable advance in trade. In 1767 the Jesuits were expelled, as they had been in Brazil some time previous. This order had accumulated enormous wealth and ruled a large section of the country with an iron hand. The members of the order were forcibly driven out and their property sold at auction or divided among other orders.

In 1776, just a few days after the declaration of independence in the American colonies, Buenos Aires was established as a viceroyalty. Lake Titicaca on the north, and the Andes on the west, were established as the boundary lines. It included the territory now divided into the four republics of Uruguay, Bolivia, Argentina and Paraguay. South of the city of Buenos Aires, however, there was practically no development. The first viceroy was named Pedro de Zeballos, who came over with a large force of soldiers and sailors in order to drive out the Portuguese. Free commerce with Spain was now permitted and commerce greatly increased. Buenos Aires became the centre of all this trade, was greatly prospered and its population rapidly increased. Wines, brandies, hides, tobacco and matÉ (Paraguay tea) were the principal articles exported to Europe.

The beginning of the nineteenth century saw unrest all over South America. It began in Quito, Ecuador, and spread in every direction. It did not take long to reach the loosely cohered sections of the viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, in which the different elements had not coalesced. The Spaniards generally lived in the populated centres, while the gauchos, mostly half-breeds, had their homes on the broad pampas. It was essentially democratic as compared with more aristocratic Peru and Mexico. The only common bond was religion, and that was not strong. Spain’s selfish policy had destroyed her prestige, while the revolutions in France and North America had propagated the idea of democracy among the youth.

Perhaps no one incident had greater influence upon the final events than the attempt of England, encouraged by her successes in South Africa, to capture Buenos Aires. In June, 1806, a British fleet bearing on board fifteen hundred troops appeared in the La Plata. The Viceroy immediately fled, and the British flag soon floated over his late residence. For several weeks the people acquiesced in this change, but a Frenchman, named Jacques de Liniers, headed the opposition. He organized a force in Montevideo and advanced on Buenos Aires. The citizens, reanimated by his enthusiasm, flocked to his banner and, after some bloody street fighting, the English were compelled to surrender. Their flags were captured and are still exhibited as trophies of Argentine prowess in the Church of Santo Domingo in that city. The success of the Argentinos, who had accomplished this victory without help from the mother country, greatly encouraged the patriots and aroused in them a hope of separation from Spain. Reinforcements came from England, to renew the conflict. The troops marched confidently into the city. The flat roofs of the buildings and the parapet-like fronts, however, provided excellent shelter for the defenders, and the British general was finally compelled to ask for terms. He had lost a quarter of his force but was allowed to leave on honourable terms. The attempt of Napoleon to place his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the throne of Spain also fermented the spirit of revolution that was becoming rampant, for the people felt no loyalty or allegiance to this upstart. A new Viceroy was sent out by the mother country, but he did not remain in peace very long. In an effort to placate the Spanish-American colonies a royal decree was issued that the colonies were considered an integral part of the monarchy and should have representatives in the Cortes. “At last you are raised to the dignity of free men,” came the message to the colonists. It was too late.

A group of patriots had already risen who were holding meetings to decide what could be done in this crisis. The leader in this band was Manuel Belgrano. They decided to ask the resignation of the Viceroy and waited on him with this request. He knew that his position was untenable because of the disaffection among the troops. On the 25th of May, 1810,[2] an armed assembly met on the plaza in front of the government palace under the leadership of Belgrano, Moreno, Castelli and Valcarcel. The colours of blue and white were seen everywhere, for these were the colours adopted by the revolutionists. A provisional junta was selected who assumed the executive powers of government. For several years, however, their acts all run in the name of Ferdinand VII, King of Castile and Leon. No attempt was made at this time to secure the adherence of the other provinces, but emissaries were later sent asking their coÖperation. Troops were afterwards sent, and a number of encounters occurred. Both sides killed their prisoners as a general rule, and the combats were very sanguinary.

Manuel Belgrano was a native of Buenos Aires. He had been educated in Spain and had there imbibed republican ideas. His enthusiasm, his radicalism and his ability soon placed him at the head of the revolutionary forces. Though lacking in military training he proved himself an able general. He led an unsuccessful expedition into Paraguay, whither he went to induce the Paraguayans to join in the revolt. Another great defeat had been given the Argentine forces in Bolivia. Montevideo was evacuated, and the situation was becoming desperate. Belgrano was then placed in command and gathered together the scattered forces at Tucuman. The result was a decisive victory for the patriots. The gaucho cavalry followed the fleeing Spaniards clear to the boundaries of Bolivia, and inflicted great losses upon them. Belgrano foolishly followed up this real victory by another invasion of Bolivia, and met with an overwhelming defeat at Vilapugio, and again at Ayohuma. With the remnant of his army he returned to Argentine territory, and was succeeded in command by San Martin, who proved to be the real genius of the struggle for independence.

JosÉ de San Martin first saw the light on the 25th of February, 1778, in a little town on the Uruguay River, his father being an officer in the Spanish army. While still a small boy he was taken to Spain to be educated. Entering a military school, for his father had destined him for a military career, he finished that course, and at an early age enlisted in the army. He served in the many wars of that country against Napoleon, and rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He also fought for a time under the great English general, Wellington, in his campaign in the Iberian peninsula. In these conflicts San Martin had imbibed liberal principles, and a hatred of all forms of oppression and injustice filled his soul. The success of the American republic inspired him as well as others, so that he joined with many in a secret society, pledged to the work of establishing a republic in Spain.

Man proposes, but God disposes. The struggle for independence in Argentina appealed to this patriot and he decided to return to his native land. He arrived at an opportune time, for the successes of the Spanish troops had plunged the patriots into despair. In March, 1812, San Martin landed in Buenos Aires. His first step was to organize and drill some effective regiments of infantry in that city, for men trained in military tactics were wanting. He selected the finest physical and moral specimens of manhood that could be found, and subjected them to a rigid discipline. The lazy and cowardly ones were weeded out, until he had only a small force, but this body was composed of real soldiers. With these men he gained some victories, but success did not seem possible to him along these lines. He therefore planned a new move with all the genius of a great commander, who cares not for temporary success but sees only ultimate victory.

To San Martin the only hopeful plan seemed to be to drive the Spaniards out of Chile, and then attack Peru, the stronghold of Spanish power in South America. He aimed not only for the independence of Argentina, but of all of that great continent; he vowed he would not be satisfied until the last Spanish soldier had left the soil of South America, and every province was free. To this end he sought the appointment as governor of Cuyo, nestling up against the Andes on the direct route to Chile, and now known as the province of Mendoza, in Argentina. The inhabitants of that section, who breathed the free air of the mountains, were notoriously anti-Spanish, brave and enduring. Chilean patriots who had been exiled were numerous here, too, and it offered good recruiting ground. He brought with him as a nucleus a part of the troops he had drilled in Buenos Aires, and the government later sent him a corps of negro slaves, who had been freed from bondage. For three years San Martin laboured steadily building up a great war machine. Though civil war waged in and around the capital he kept aloof from all these disturbances, and busied himself in recruiting, drilling and instructing officers, as well as men, raising taxes, gathering provisions, making powder, casting guns, building portable bridges and making all arrangements for transport and commissariat on his contemplated march into Chile.

Dictator succeeded dictator, military chief followed military chief in Buenos Aires. A formal act of independence from Spain had been drawn up and proclaimed on the 9th of July, 1816, in Tucuman, where Congress had convened for that purpose. Pueyrredon was selected as supreme director. He was succeeded by Rordeau, and he again was defeated by Artigas. Then came Ramirez and other military leaders who gained more or less power and authority. San Martin paid no attention to these military or governmental affairs. One idea, one definite plan absorbed all his energy and attention. This plan he confided to no one. This taciturn general, however, was preparing a thunderbolt that would clear the Argentine sky of all these clouds, except internal dissensions. When summer came in 1817, which is our winter, and all the passes were freed from snow, he felt that he was ready to advance. Among his forces were the picked youth of Buenos Aires, reckless, enthusiastic and ambitious, who were willing to follow this leader anywhere; manumitted negroes, who were scarcely inferior to their white comrades; Chilean exiles, who preferred death to submission, and looked upon this as their only hope of again seeing their homes. All of these men had been thoroughly drilled in the arts of war as practised by the armies of Europe in the Napoleonic era. No detail had been omitted. The last few months had been spent in preparing rations of dried beef and parched corn, in gathering mules for transport, and in making sledges to be used on the slopes which were too steep for cannon on wheels. Every possible route across the Andes had been examined, and the most careful calculation of distances made. Spies were placed in all the passes, and the Spaniards were kept in absolute ignorance as to which of many passes along hundreds of miles of frontier would be used for the impending attack. These men were sworn to remain “united in sentiment and courage, in order not to suffer for the future any tyrant in America; and like new Spartans never to bear the chains of slavery while the stars shone in the sky and blood ran in their veins.”

The precautions of this astute leader are shown by the fact that his real intentions were not revealed until on the very eve of the advance, through fear of treachery. In the middle of January General San Martin broke camp and left Mendoza. His army was divided into two divisions. The smaller force was sent through what is known as the Uspallata pass, which was the old Inca trail, and is now followed by the railway which has just been completed across the Andes. This trail runs across the Bridge of the Incas, one of the most famous natural bridges in the world. The other followed the more difficult pass of Las Platas, farther to the north. The solitude, barrenness and utter desolation of these Andean passes can only be fully appreciated by those who have traversed them as has the writer. Majestic Aconcagua looks down upon both routes, and all around are lofty peaks which seem like giant sentinels guarding these solitudes of nature from the invasion of man. Terrific wind and snow storms are common, and the dust blows in clouds that are almost stifling at times. It was an undertaking that would have appalled an ordinary man.

SAN MARTIN AND O’HIGGINS AT LA CUMBRE, CROSSING THE ANDES INTO CHILE

Courtesy of the Bulletin of Pan-American Union