1. There are four new years. The first of Nisan279 is a new year for kings and for festivals.280 The first of Elul281 is a new year for the tithing of cattle; but R. Eleazar and R. Simeon say, “it is on the first of Tishri.”282 The first of Tishri is a new year for civil years, for years of release, and for jubilees, also for planting of trees283 and herbs. The first of Sebat is a new year for (the tithing of) trees according to the school of Shammai, but the school of Hillel say, “on its fifteenth.”

2. The world is judged at four periods: at the passover, for the growth of corn; at Pentecost, for the fruit of trees; at new year's day, when all human beings pass before Him like lambs, as is said, “He fashioneth their hearts alike; He considereth all their works”;284 and at the feast of tabernacles, judgment is given for the rains.

3. Messengers went forth (from Jerusalem) in six months: in Nisan for the passover; in Ab285 for the fast; in Elul for the new year; in Tishri for the regulation of the feasts; in Kislev286 for the dedication; in Adar287 for the feast of lots; and also in Iyar288 during the existence of the Temple for the little passover.

1. If a witness were unknown, another was sent to testify to him. At first they received evidence of the new moon from anyone; but when the heretics294 bribed (the witnesses), they ordained that evidence should only be received from those who were known.

2. At first high flames were lighted, but when the Samaritans mimicked them, it was ordained that messengers should be sent forth.

3. “How were these high flames lighted?” “They brought long staves of cedarwood, canes, and branches of the olive tree, and the tow of flax, which was tied with twine. And one went to the top of the mountain and lighted them, and waved the flame to and fro, up and down, till he could perceive his companion doing so on the second mountain, and so on the third mountain,” etc.

4. “And where were these high flames lighted?” “From the Mount of Olives to Sartaba; from Sartaba to Grophinah; from Grophinah to Hoveran; from Hoveran to Bethbaltin; there they did not cease to wave them to and fro, up and down, till the whole country of the captivity295 looked like torches of fire.”

5. There was a large court in Jerusalem called Beth Yangzek,296 there all the witnesses met, and there the Sanhedrin examined them. And they made great feasts for them, that they might come often. At first they did not stir from thence all day.297 Rabban Gamaliel the elder ordained, that they might go 2,000 cubits on every side. And not only they, but the midwife going to a birth; and they who go to rescue from fire, or from enemies, or from inundation, or from fallen [pg 139] buildings. These are as inhabitants of the place, and they have 2,000 cubits on every side.

6. “How did they examine the witnesses?” “The first pair which came were examined first, and they brought in the eldest of them, and they said to him, ‘Tell us how you saw the moon—(her horns) toward the sun, or away from the sun? To the north, or to the south? What was her altitude? Toward where her declination? And what was her breath?’ If he said ‘toward the sun,’ he said nothing. Afterward they brought in the second and examined; if the evidence was found to agree, the evidence stood. The remaining pairs of witnesses were then superficially examined, not because there was necessity for their evidence, but not to discourage them, that they might be willing to come again.”

7. The chief of the Sanhedrin said, “(the feast) is sanctified”; and all the people answered after him, “Sanctified, sanctified.” Whether the new moon had been seen in its season, or not, they sanctified it. R. Eleazar, son of Zadok, said, “if it were not seen in its season, they did not sanctify it, for heaven had already sanctified it.”

8. Rabban Gamaliel had on a tablet and on the wall of his chamber figures and phases of the moon which he showed to ignorant witnesses, and said, “was it like this you saw her, or like that?” It happened once that two witnesses came, and said, “we saw the moon in the morning in the east, and in the evening in the west”; said R. Jochanan, son of Nourri, “they are false witnesses,” but when they came to Jamnia, Rabban Gamaliel received their evidence. Two other witnesses came, and said, “we saw the moon in her season, but on the next evening of the intercalary day she was invisible,” and R. Gamaliel received them. Said R. Dosah, son of Arkenaz, “they are false witnesses, for how can they testify of a woman being delivered, and on the morrow she is still pregnant?” To him said R. Joshua, “I approve thy words.”

9. Rabban Gamaliel sent to (R. Joshua), “I order thee to come to me with thy staff and money on the day of atonement, according to thy reckoning.”298 R. Akivah went to (R. Joshua), and found him sorrowing. He said to him, “I can [pg 140] prove that all Rabban Gamaliel has done is well done, for it is said, ‘These are the feasts of the Lord, even holy convocations, which ye shall proclaim in their seasons,’299 or out of their seasons; I have no other feasts but these.” R. Joshua came to R. Dose, son of Arkenaz. He said to him, “if we are to judge the tribunal of Rabban Gamaliel, we must also judge the tribunals which have existed from the days of Moses till now,” for it is said, “Then went up Moses and Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel.”300 “And why were not the names of the elders mentioned, but to inform us that every three men in Israel who compose a tribunal, are as a tribunal of Moses?” R. Joshua took his staff and money in his hand, and went to Jamnia to Rabban Gamaliel on the day when the atonement began, according to his reckoning. Rabban Gamaliel stood up and kissed him on his head, saying to him, “come in peace, my master and disciple—my master in wisdom, my disciple in obeying my words.”

2. All cornets are allowed, except (horns) of a heifer,301 because it is (written) horn.302 Said Rabbi JosÉ, “are not all cornets called horn? for it is said, ‘When they shall make a long (blast) with the ram's horn.’ ”303

3. The cornet of the New Year was a straight horn of a wild goat; and its mouthpiece was plated with gold. And the two trumpets304 were stationed on each side. The cornet prolonged [pg 141] its note when the trumpets ceased, because the obligation of the day was for the cornet.

4. On fast days (there were) crooked rams' horns; and their mouthpieces were plated with silver. And the two trumpets were stationed in the midst. The cornet ceased, and the trumpets prolonged their notes, because the obligation of the day was for the trumpets.

5. The jubilee is like the New Year for the sounding and the blessings. R. Judah says, “on the New Year they sounded rams' horns; and on the jubilee wild goats' horns.”

6. A cornet, which was rent and cemented, is disallowed. One cemented from fragments of cornets is disallowed. “It had a hole, which was closed?” “If it hinder the sound, it is disallowed; but if not, it is allowed.”

7. “If one sound the cornet within a pit, a cistern, or in an earthenware vessel, and one (outside) hears the sound of the cornet?” “He is free.”305 “But if he hear the echo of the sound?” “He is not free.” And so, if one be passing behind a synagogue, or his house adjoin the synagogue, and he hear the sound of the cornet, or the reading of the roll of Esther, he is legally free, provided he heard it with due attention; but if not, he is not legally free. Although one hears as well as another, yet one hears with hearty intention, and another without hearty intention.

8. “And it came to pass, when Moses held up his hand that Israel prevailed,”306 etc. And how could the hands of Moses make the battle, or crush the battle? But it is written to tell thee that while Israel looked to Heaven for aid, and subjected their hearts to their heavenly Father, they prevailed; and when they did not do so, they were defeated. Like as He says, “Make thee a fiery serpent, and set it upon a pole, and it shall come to pass that everyone that is bitten, when he looketh upon it, shall live.”307 And how could the serpent kill, or make alive? But when the Israelites looked to Heaven for aid, and subjected their hearts to their heavenly Father, they were healed; and when they did not do so, they perished. One deaf and dumb, or an idiot, or a child, cannot, as proxies, free others from their obligations. This is the [pg 142] rule: all who are not responsible for a thing, cannot free others from their obligations.

2. And again,308 Jerusalem was privileged above Jamnia, because every city which could be seen, and the sounding heard, and which was near, and to which it was allowed to go, might sound the cornet; but in Jamnia they could only sound it before the tribunal of justice.

3. At first the palm-branch was taken seven days in the Sanctuary, and one day in the provinces. After the destruction of the Temple, R. Jochanan, son of Zacai, decreed, “that the palm-branch should be taken in the provinces for seven days, to commemorate the Sanctuary”; also “that the whole day of the waving309 it should be forbidden (to eat new corn).”

4. At first they received evidence of the new moon during the whole (thirtieth) day; but once the witnesses delayed coming, and the Levites erred in the chant. They decreed, that they should receive evidence only till the time of the evening sacrifice; and if witnesses came after the evening sacrifice, that and the next day were kept holy. After the destruction of the Sanctuary Rabban Jochanan, son of Zacai, decreed, “that they should receive evidence of the new moon during the whole day.” R. Joshua, son of Korcha, says, “and again Rabban Jochanan, son of Zacai, decreed that wherever the chief of the Sanhedrin might be, the witnesses need only go to the place of its meeting.”