215. RACIAL ELEMENTS IN OUR POPULATION.—The Federal census of 1920 gave the population of continental United States as 105,710,620. Approximately nine tenths of this population is white, while about one tenth is negro. Those who are neither white nor negro, namely, American Indians and Asiatics, together constitute less than one half of one per cent of the population.

The great majority of our people are either European immigrants, or the descendants of European immigrants who came to this country within the last century and a half. With reference to European immigration we distinguish three groups: the foreign-born, the native-born children of the foreign-born, and natives. Natives include those whose ancestors have been in this country two or more generations. On the basis of this classification, about one seventh of our population is foreign-born while over one third is either foreign-born or the native-born children of foreign-born parents.

The ease with which immigrants have adapted themselves to American life prevents any accurate classification of nationalities in our population, but probably Great Britain and Ireland, Germany, Italy, Russia, (including Poland), and Austria-Hungary have, in the order named, contributed the largest numbers.

216. THE "OLD" IMMIGRATION.—European immigration to the United States may be divided into two groups, the "old" and the "new." The "old" immigration extended from the beginning of our national history to about the year 1880, and was derived chiefly from Great Britain and Ireland, Germany, and the Scandinavian countries. Between 1820 (the first year for which we have accurate records) and 1880, about nine tenths of our immigrants came from these countries.

The striking features of the "old" immigration should be noted. In comparison with present-day immigration, it was relatively small in volume. In view of the abundance here of free land, and our consequent need for pioneers, the small volume of immigration prevented the rise of any serious problem. Moreover, the "old" immigration was largely made up of individuals who were similar to the original American colonists in political ideals, social training, and economic background. The "old" immigration therefore merged with the native stock fairly easily and rapidly.

217. THE "OLD" GIVES WAY TO THE "NEW" IMMIGRATION.—In the period centering about the year 1880 there was a distinct shift in the immigration movement. Whereas before 1880 most of our immigrants had been Anglo-Saxons and Teutons from northern Europe, after 1880 the majority of our immigrants were members of the Mediterranean and Slavic races from southern and southeastern Europe. Before 1880 about nine tenths of the aliens coming to our shores were from northern Europe and only one tenth were from southern and southeastern Europe. In the period since 1880, less than one fourth of our immigrants have come from northern Europe, while more than three fourths have been derived from southern and southeastern Europe. The bulk of this new immigration has come from Russia, Poland, Austria-Hungary, Greece, Turkey, Italy, and the Balkan countries.

218. INCREASING VOLUME OF IMMIGRATION.—Since it is in connection with the "new" immigration that the modern immigration problem arises, it will be profitable to inquire more fully into the character of the movement after about 1880.

Not only has the character of immigration changed since the eighties, but the volume of immigration has steadily increased. Of approximately 35,000,000 immigrants who have come to our shores since 1800, more than half have come within the last thirty-five years. The peak of immigration was reached in the decade preceding the World War, when as many as a million and a quarter of immigrants landed in this country in a single year. This heavy flow was interrupted by the World War, but after the signing of the armistice in the fall of 1918, a heavy immigration again set in. [Footnote: Various classes of immigrants are excluded from the United States by the immigration laws summarized in section 223 of this chapter. In addition to these laws, which may be said to constitute the basis of our permanent immigration policy, President Harding signed, in May, 1921, a bill relative to the temporary exclusion of aliens who would ordinarily be admissible. This temporary exclusion act provided that between July 1, 1921, and June 30, 1922, the number of immigrants entering the United States from any other country might not exceed three per cent of the former immigrants from that country who were within the bounds of the United States at the time of the last census.]

219. DISTRIBUTION OF THE "NEW" IMMIGRATION.—One of the most significant facts in connection with the immigration problem is that our immigrant population is unequally distributed. About two thirds of the immigrants in this country are in the North Atlantic division; about a quarter of them are located in the North Central division; while less than one tenth are located in the western and southern sections of the country combined. Three fourths of our foreign-born live in the cities of the North Atlantic and North Central divisions. Forty per cent of the present population of New York City is foreign born, while in Boston and Chicago more than a third of the population is foreign born. In the smaller manufacturing cities of the North Atlantic division it often happens that from half to four fifths of the population is foreign born.

220. ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION.—In the earlier part of our national history free land was abundant and immigration relatively small in volume; after the eighties free land disappeared and immigration increased rapidly. It was toward the end of the nineteenth century, therefore, that the economic aspect of the immigration problem became acute. In the last decades of that century manufacturing developed rapidly, and American cities became important centers of population. Large numbers of immigrants were attracted by the opportunities for employment in urban centers. An addition to this factor, immigrants continued to concentrate in the cities, partly because of the spirit of clannishness, partly because of the disappearance of free land, and partly because the development of agricultural machinery reduced the demand for agricultural laborers. Still another influence was the fact that the unfamiliar American farm was less attractive to the southern European immigrant than was the opportunity of performing unskilled labor in the city. To-day four fifths of our immigrants are unskilled laborers who are employed chiefly in mining, construction work, transportation, and domestic service.

From the economic standpoint, the chief objection to unrestricted immigration is that it prevents the wages of American workmen from rising as rapidly as would otherwise be the case. The newly arrived immigrant usually has a lower standard of living than has the native American; that is to say, the immigrant is content with less in the way of food, clothing, house room and education than is the native. When newly arrived immigrants come into competition with native workmen, the immigrant generally offers to work for a lower wage than the native. But though relatively low, this wage is so much higher than the newly arrived immigrant has been used to, that he feels justified in marrying early and rearing a large family. This adds to the supply of unskilled labor.

In order to compete with the recent immigrant, the native must accept relatively low wages. In order to get along on these relatively low wages, the native must either lower his standard of living or postpone marriage. Sometimes he has lowered his standard of living; sometimes he has preferred to retain his relatively high standard of living, and to get along on the decreased wage either by postponing marriage, or by permanently abandoning his plans for a normal family life. It is contended, therefore, that an oversupply of unskilled immigrant labor in this country has had at least two injurious results. First, it has kept the standard of living of American workmen from rising as rapidly as would otherwise have been possible. Second, it has caused the birth rate to decline among the native groups.

221. SOCIAL EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION.—The tendency of immigrants to concentrate in American cities gives rise to a number of serious social problems. Urban congestion is unqualifiedly bad. It is difficult or impossible for immigrants living in crowded quarters to maintain proper health standards. Nor does overcrowding conduce to healthy morals. The foreign born do not show an unusual tendency toward crime, which is remarkable when we consider the immigrant's ignorance of our laws, as well as the ease with which unscrupulous persons exploit him. On the other hand, the children of the foreign born often show a strong tendency toward crime and vice, a fact which is attributed to the bad social conditions surrounding their homes. The percentage of dependency among immigrants is rather high. This is not surprising, however, for many immigrants must go through an adjustment period in which lack of financial reserves is likely to force them to call upon charitable agencies for temporary aid.

222. DIFFICULTY OF ASSIMILATING THE "NEW" IMMIGRATION.—Those who made up the "old" immigration assimilated rapidly: they were relatively like the native stock in manners and customs, the volume of immigration was relatively small, and the newcomers spread out into frontier communities where habitual contact with natives was unavoidable.

Those who make up the "new" immigration have assimilated less rapidly: they are relatively unlike the native stock in language, race, and customs; the volume of immigration is very great; and rather than being uniformly distributed, the "new" immigrants tend to concentrate in cities where they are often little subject to contact with natives. Members of foreign "colonies" not only tend to remain ignorant of American life, but unfamiliarity with self-government encourages their exploitation by political "bosses." It is admitted by the most careful students that the lack of proper civic ideals among unassimilated foreigners in American cities is a large element in the corruption of our municipal governments.

223. RESTRICTIVE LEGISLATION.—Exclusive control of immigration is vested in the Federal government. During the Civil War Congress actually encouraged immigration, but since 1882 our policy has been one of restriction. In the latter year the first general immigration act was passed, though considerable legislation on the subject was already on the statute books. Supplementary laws were enacted from time to time, the most important piece of legislation since 1900 being the Immigration Act of 1917. A brief summary of this and previous acts will serve to show the nature and extent of Federal control over immigration.

The chief aim of our immigration laws has been so to restrict immigration as to protect us against undesirable persons. In the interest of health, persons afflicted with contagious diseases, such as tuberculosis, and trachoma,—a virulent eye disease,—are excluded. Certain persons whose character is clearly immoral are excluded. Polygamists are excluded. The Act of 1917 excludes anarchists, and likewise bars from our shores all criminals, except those who have committed political offenses not recognized by the United States. In order to reduce unnecessary tax burdens, as well as to safeguard community health, we also exclude insane persons, idiots, epileptics, beggars, and other persons likely to become public charges. Contract laborers are specifically excluded, the Act of 1917 using the term "contract labor" to include anyone "induced, assisted, encouraged, or solicited" to come to this country "by any kind of promise or agreement, express or implied, true or false, to find employment." Persons over sixteen years of age are excluded from the United States if they cannot read English or some other language. [Footnote: Certain near relatives of admissible aliens, purely political offenders, and persons seeking refuge from religious persecution, are exempted from this literacy test, however.]

The bars against Asiatics call for a special word.

224. ASIATIC IMMIGRATION.—By Asiatic immigration is here meant Chinese and Japanese immigration, immigrants from other parts of Asia being relatively unimportant.

The discovery of gold in California in 1849 caused a large number of Chinese coolies to migrate to this country. This immigration grew steadily until 1882, in which year the entrance of Chinese laborers into the United States was forbidden. Our exclusion policy has been repeatedly reaffirmed, as the result of which there are to-day fewer than 70,000 Chinese in this country. The majority of these are found on the Pacific Coast, engaged as small tradesmen, truck farmers, or personal servants.

Japanese immigration to this country did not become noticeable until about 1900. After that date, however, the volume of Japanese immigration so alarmed the Pacific Coast states that a Japanese exclusion policy was formulated as early as 1907. At present the only classes of Japanese that are allowed to reside in this country permanently are "former residents," "parents, wives or children of residents," or "settled agriculturists," the latter being Japanese already in possession of land here. There are at present fewer than 120,000 Japanese in this country. Most of them are found on the Pacific Coast, engaged in occupations similar to those of the Chinese in the same area. [Footnote: Chinese and Japanese students desiring to study in this country are allowed to enter the United States by special arrangement.]

Those most familiar with the situation are practically unanimous in declaring for the continued exclusion of Chinese and Japanese immigrants. In the case of both races, the standard of living is so much lower than that of native Americans that open competition between the newly arrived Asiatic and the native American would result in the latter being driven from the labor market. The most important social reason for the exclusion of these two races is that the differences of race and religion existing between Asiatics and native Americans render assimilation of the Chinese and Japanese extremely difficult, if not impossible.

225. THE FUTURE OF IMMIGRATION.—A half century ago the belief was current that an immigration policy was unnecessary, since the sources of immigration would eventually dry up. The sources of the "old" immigration have dried up somewhat, but new sources have been opened up in southern and southeastern Europe. Immigration is a pressing social problem, and it is likely that it will be even more pressing in the future. The American frontier has disappeared and our boundaries are fixed. Urbanization is proceeding at a rapid rate, industry is becoming more complex, public opinion is more insistent that such social problems as immigration shall be solved.

226. WHAT SHALL BE OUR ATTITUDE TOWARD IMMIGRATION?—There is no good reason why immigration should be absolutely prohibited. On the other hand, the most public-spirited students of the question believe that the careful restriction of immigration is imperative. Clearly, it is our duty to accept only such immigrants as show promise of becoming capable and efficient American citizens. It is also clearly our duty to accept even this type of immigrant only in such numbers as we can conveniently assimilate. We must not be selfish with America, but we should not be misled by the statement that anyone in Europe has a "right" to make his home in this country. Those who come to this country are personally benefited, no doubt, but unrestricted immigration may lower the tone of American life and permanently injure our social and political institutions. America is for the present generation, but is also for posterity. The millions of unborn have as much right to be considered as have the millions now clamoring at our gates. For this reason, the "right" of an individual to migrate to America must be interpreted in the light of what he will mean to the future of this country.

227. HELPING THE IMMIGRANT IN HIS NEW HOME.—The readjustment, assimilation, or "Americanization" of the immigrant is a problem of vital importance. The term "Americanization" is variously interpreted, and must be used with care. Americanization ought not to force the immigrant to give up his native tongue, or his old-country customs. It ought to be a mutually helpful process, whereby native Americans would help the immigrant in adjusting himself to his new environment, while, in turn, the immigrant would be permitted and encouraged to make his own contribution to American life. Since the immigrant has little or no opportunity to contribute to American life until he has become adjusted to his new home, it follows that the most fundamental part of an Americanization program is one of helping the immigrant solve his problems.

In carrying out this part of the Americanization program it is essential that the newly arrived alien be protected against unscrupulous persons who seek to exploit him. Adequate laws ought to be supplemented by the work of immigrant aid societies and other private organizations whose duty it would be to protect immigrants against dishonest boarding houses, swindlers, unreliable banks, and other forms of imposition. Friendly help of this type will do much toward encouraging and inspiring the alien in his new life.

Improvement in the immigrant's economic status is an important part of an Americanization program. Not only does the undue concentration of immigrants in cities spell ill-health and a great temptation to crime and vice, but immigrant laborers sometimes secure lower wages in cities than they would receive in the more sparsely settled parts of the country. Of considerable interest, therefore, is the recent development of plans for redistributing immigrants into the rural and sparsely populated districts. [Footnote: The movement to transfer immigrants to the rural districts is not unqualifiedly good; indeed, it may do more harm than good. For the dangers of this movement, see Chapter XXV.] Since 1907 the Division of Information in the Bureau of Labor Statistics has done valuable work in finding employment for immigrants in rural districts. Much remains to be done, however.

The school, of course, is an important agent of Americanization. Whether or not the immigrant retains his old-country language, he ought to learn to speak, read and write English. The school is likewise an important means of instructing the newcomers and their children in the essentials of American history and government. Where the school is being used as a real community center, the institution becomes truly a method of introducing the foreign-born to the everyday activities of American life. The increasing emphasis upon the racial traits of different immigrant groups, with a view to encouraging unique contributions to the culture of the community, deserves special notice.

Americanization measures of the type touched upon in this section help to build the nation on a sound foundation of friendly and intelligent coÖperation.

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. What proportion of our population is foreign-born? What proportion is native?

2. Distinguish between the "old" and the "new" immigration.

3. Describe the increasing volume of immigration.

4. Outline the distribution of immigrants in this country.

5. What are the economic effects of immigration?

6. Explain the relation of immigration to the wages and standard of living of American workmen.

7. What are the social effects of immigration?

8. What factors impede the assimilation of the "new" immigrants?

9. What classes of aliens are excluded from this country? What is "contract labor"?

10. What is the nature of Asiatic immigration? Why are Asiatics excluded?

11. Does it seem likely that the immigration problem will be more or less acute in the future? Why?

12. What should be our attitude toward immigration?

13. What is the chief aim of a good Americanization program?

REQUIRED READINGS

1. Williamson, Readings in American Democracy, chapter xx.

Or all of the following:

2. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. xciii, pages 134-138, 156-161.

3. Burch and Patterson, American Social Problems, chapters ix and x.

4. Ellwood, Sociology and Modern Social Problems, chapter x.

5. Roberts, The Problem of Americanization, chapters iii and iv.

QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS

1. Define a foreigner. (Annals, page 135.)

2. What is Professor Walker's theory of immigration? (Burch and Patterson, pages 95-96.)

3. Compare the "old" and the "new" immigration in 1882. (Ellwood, page 217.)

4. Compare the "old" and the "new" immigration in 1907. (Ellwood, page 218.)

5. What are the three most important groups of immigrants at the present time? (Burch and Patterson, pages 108-111.)

6. What is the extent of illiteracy among the immigrant population? (Burch and Patterson, pages 115-116.)

7. Discuss the occupational distribution of immigrants. (Ellwood, pages 223-224.)

8. What is the "racial" argument against unrestricted immigration? (Ellwood, pages 234-235.)

9. How can the average citizen help in the Americanization movement? (Roberts, pages 45-47.)

10. Why should the Americanization worker make himself familiar with the condition under which the immigrant works? (Roberts, pages 48-53.)

11. What is the significance of the club life of immigrant groups? (Roberts, pages 57-61.)

12. What is the importance of the "advisory council" in Americanization work? (Roberts, pages 86-87.)

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT

1. Classify the residents of your community according as they are (a) Foreign born (b) Native-born children of foreign-born parents, or (c) Natives.

2. Study your community with the aim of determining whether or not the character of its immigrant class has changed within the last twenty- five years.

3. Classify the immigrant groups of your community on the basis of occupation. Notice in particular the proportion of immigrants engaged in agriculture and in the trained professions.

4. Make a visit to a near-by foreign colony, and report to the class upon your observations.

5. Interview the officials of a trade union on the effect of Unrestricted immigration upon wages.

6. Draw up a workable plan for the redistribution of immigrants in your state.

7. Draw up a plan for an Americanization survey in your state. (Write to the Bureau of Education in the U. S. Department of the Interior, for Bulletin, 1919, No. 77, on State Americanization.)

8. Race elements in the population of the American colonies. (Commons, Races and Immigrants in America, chapter ii.)

9. History of immigration to the United States. (Any standard text on immigration.)

10. The journey to America. (Abbot, The Immigrant and the Community, chapter i; Steiner, On the trail of the Immigrant; Antin, They Who Knock at Our Gates. See also Miss Antin's The Promised Land.)

11. Assisted immigration. (R. Mayo Smith, Emigration and Immigration, chapter ix.)

12. Geographical distribution of immigration. (Semple, American History and its Geographic Conditions, chapter xv.)

13. Economic aspects of immigration. (Consult any standard text on immigration.)

14. "Birds of passage." (Consult any standard text on immigration.)

15. Immigration and the trade unions. (Carlton, History and Problems of Organized Labor, chapter xi. See also any standard text on immigration.)

16. Social aspects of immigration. (Consult any standard text on immigration.)

17. Political aspects of immigration. (Consult any standard text on immigration.)

18. Chinese immigration. (Coolidge, Chinese Immigration; Hall, Immigration, chapter xv; Jenks and Lauck, The Immigration Problem, pages 231-237; Annals, vol. xciii, pages 7-13; Gulick, American Democracy and Asiatic Citizenship.)

19. Japanese immigration. (Annals, vol. xciii, part i; Jenks and
Lauck, The Immigration Problem, pages 241-252; Steiner, The
Japanese Invasion; Gulick, American Democracy and Asiatic
Citizenship.)

20. Americanization. (Annals, vol. xciii, part in; Woods, Americans in Process; Steiner, From Alien to Citizen; Bogardus, Essentials of Americanization; Roberts, The Problem of Americanization)

FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION

21. Is assisted immigration an evil?

22. Can immigrants be redistributed effectively by governmental agencies?

23. Should we retain the literacy test as part of our immigration policy?

24. At the present time many aliens journey across the Atlantic only to find that, for various reasons, they cannot be admitted to this country. How might the resulting disappointment and loss of time and money be avoided?