520. DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEDERAL EXECUTIVE.—The President is the head of the Federal executive, but in the performance of his numerous administrative duties he is aided by a number of subordinate officers.

No executive departments were directly established by the Constitution, but that document evidently assumes their existence, for it clearly states that the President "may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices." [Footnote: Article II, Section II, of the Constitution.]

President Washington was authorized by Congress to appoint three assistants: a Secretary of State, a Secretary of the Treasury, and a Secretary of War. With the development of governmental functions, additional departments have been created. Congress established the Post Office Department in 1794, the Navy Department in 1798, the Department of the Interior in 1849, the Department of Justice in 1870, the Department of Agriculture in 1889, the Department of Commerce in 1903, and the Department of Labor in 1913. At present, then, there are ten Federal executive departments, all of them under the direct control of the President.

521. THE CABINET.—The heads of these ten departments are appointed by the President, nominally with the consent of the Senate. They may be removed only by the President, and by him at will. Neither in the Constitution nor in the statutes of Congress is there provision for a Cabinet, but as the result of custom which has been formulating since Washington's second term the heads of the Federal executive departments have come to constitute, in their collective capacity, the President's Cabinet. Cabinet meetings are generally held twice a week, or oftener, as the President desires.

The American Cabinet should not be confused with the Cabinet in Great Britain and other European countries. In Europe the Cabinet is generally a parliamentary ministry, that is to say, a group of men chosen from the majority party in the legislature. These Cabinet members, or ministers, sit in the legislature, propose laws, and defend their measures on the floor. They are held responsible for the national administration. This means that when the majority of the legislature fails to support them they are expected to resign, in order that the opposition party may form a new Cabinet.

Quite different is the American Cabinet. This body is advisory only, and the President may disregard the advice of any or all of its members. The Cabinet in this country is accountable only to the President. The attitude of Congress toward Cabinet officers has nothing to do with the tenure of office of these executive heads. Cabinet members do not sit in Congress; they do not, in the capacity of Cabinet officers, introduce or defend legislation; and they are not held responsible for the administration.

522. HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS AS ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS.—Collectively the heads of the ten executive departments act as the President's Cabinet; individually they administer their respective departments. Though responsible to the President and at all times working under his direction, the heads of departments are allowed a wide range of independence. Department heads may appoint and remove at will a large number of minor officers in their respective departments, though of late years this power has been considerably restricted by Civil Service rules. The exact scope of the work of the various departments is largely denned by law. Within the limits thus set, the head of the department is free to make regulations affecting the conduct of departmental business. To expedite business, the work of each department is divided and subdivided among numerous bureaus, boards, and commissions, functioning under the general direction of the head of the department.

523. THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE.—Without doubt the most important of the subordinate executive officers is the Secretary of State. His most pressing duty is to conduct foreign affairs in accordance with the wishes of the President. In pursuance of this duty, the Secretary of State issues instructions to diplomatic and consular officers, issues passports to American citizens going abroad, and otherwise exercises control of matters touching foreign relations.

Important domestic duties devolve upon the Secretary of State. When the President desires to communicate with the Governors of the several states, he acts through the Secretary of State. The Secretary is the custodian of the Great Seal of the United States. It is he who oversees the publication of the Federal statutes. The Secretary of State likewise has charge of the archives containing the originals of all laws, treaties, and foreign correspondence.

Much of the work of the Department of State is performed through bureaus, the titles of which indicate their respective functions. Of these bureaus the following are the more important: the diplomatic bureau, the consular bureau, the bureau of accounts, the bureau of indexes and archives, the bureau of rolls and library, the bureau of appointments, and the bureau of citizenship. Each of these bureaus is headed by a chief who is directly responsible to the Secretary of State. In addition to these chiefs of bureaus, the Secretary is aided by three assistant secretaries of state.

524. DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY.—Supervision of the national finances is the chief business of the Secretary of the Treasury. The Secretary annually submits to Congress estimates of probable receipts and expenditures, and supervises the collection of customs and internal revenues. He also issues warrants for all moneys paid out of the treasury.

The scope of the department's work may be indicated by an enumeration of its chief officers. These include the Secretary himself, three assistant secretaries, six auditors, the treasurer, the comptroller of the treasury, the director of the mint, the register, the comptroller of the currency, the commissioner of internal revenue, the director of the bureau of engraving and printing, the chief of the secret-service department, the captain commandant of the coast guard, the superintendent of the life-saving service, the surgeon-general of the public health service, the supervising architect, and the farm loan commissioner.

525. THE DEPARTMENT OF WAR.—National defense is the chief concern of the Secretary of War. Coast fortifications, the supervision of navigation, and river and harbor improvements fall within the scope of the department. Our insular possessions are administered by the Secretary of War. It is also the duty of this officer to prepare estimates of the expenses of his department, to supervise all expenditures for the support and transportation of the army, and to take charge of the issuance of orders for the movement of troops. In addition, he has charge of the Military Academy at West Point, and recommends all appointments and promotions in the army service.

Under the Secretary of War are grouped a number of administrative bureaus, each headed by an army officer detailed for a period of four years. Of these officers the following are the more important: the inspector-general, the quartermaster-general, the adjutant general, the surgeon-general, the chief of engineers, the chief of ordnance, the chief signal officer, the chief of the coast artillery, the judge advocate general, the provost-marshal general, and the chief of the bureau of insular affairs.

526. THE DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY.—The Department of the Navy is likewise concerned with national defense. While less important than the Department of War, the Department of the Navy is steadily gaining in prestige. The Department is in charge of a Secretary, aided by an assistant secretary. It is the duty of the Department of the Navy to superintend the construction and armament of war vessels, and in addition exercise a supervisory control over the naval service. The Naval Academy at Annapolis and the Naval War College at Newport are in charge of the Department of the Navy.

The administrative work of the Department is carried on by seven bureaus, most of them in charge of line officers of the Navy, working directly under the Secretary. These bureaus are as follows: the bureau of navigation, the bureau of ordnance, the bureau of yards and docks, the bureau of supplies and accounts, the bureau of steam engineering, the bureau of medicine and surgery, and the bureau of construction and repairs.

527. THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE.—This Department is headed by the Attorney-General, who acts as the chief legal adviser of the National government. It is his duty to represent the government in all cases to which the United States is a party. It is he who conducts proceedings against corporations or individuals who violate the Federal laws. General supervision over all Federal district attorneys and marshals is exercised by the Attorney-General. This officer likewise examines the titles of lands which the government intends to purchase. The Attorney-General has a supervisory charge of the penal and reformatory institutions which are Federal in character. Applications for pardons by the President are investigated by the Attorney-General. Still another of his duties is to superintend the codification of the Federal criminal laws.

In these various duties the Attorney-General is assisted by an under- officer known as the solicitor-general.

528. THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT.—This Department, headed by the Postmaster-General, has general charge of the postal service. The Postmaster-General awards contracts for the transportation of the mails, and directs the management of the domestic and foreign mail service. The handling of money orders, the parcels post system, and the postal savings banks come under the control of the Postmaster- General. Of great importance is the power of this officer to bar from the mails publications which are fraudulent or otherwise obnoxious.

Working under the Postmaster-General are four assistant postmasters- general, each in general charge of a group of services within the department.

529. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.—Aided by two assistant secretaries, the Secretary of the Interior performs a number of important functions. He has charge of all public lands, including national parks. The handling of Indian affairs constitutes one of his duties. The territories of Alaska and Hawaii come under the direct supervision of this department.

Many miscellaneous functions are performed by the various bureaus within the department. Patents, pensions, and the geological survey come within the purview of the department. The Secretary of the Interior has charge of the distribution of government appropriations to various educational institutions. A general supervision over a number of charitable institutions within the District of Columbia is also exercised by this officer.

530. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.—All matters pertaining to agriculture in the widest sense are the concern of the Department of Agriculture. Under the direction of the Secretary the Department issues a large number of scientific and technical publications, including the Agricultural Yearbook, the series of Farmers' Bulletins, the Monthly Weather Review, and the Crop Reporter. Quarantine stations for imported cattle, and the inspection of domestic meats and imported food products are concerns of the various bureaus within the Department. Of great importance is the work of the weather bureau in sending out storm, flood, frost, and drought warnings.

An increasingly important phase of the Department's work is the Forest Service, the work of which has been described in Chapter XXX. An important bureau is the bureau of animal industry, which combats animal diseases and gives advice concerning the best breeds of poultry and cattle. The bureau of plant industry ransacks the world for new crops suitable for our soils, and gives fruit-growers and farmers advice concerning plant parasites. Insect pests are the concern of the entomology division. Additional functions of the Department of Agriculture may be indicated by an enumeration of some of the more important of its remaining bureaus and divisions. These include the bureau of chemistry, the bureau of soils, the bureau of statistics, the bureau of crop estimates, the office of public roads and rural engineering, the Federal horticultural board, and the bureau of markets.

531. THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE.—In 1913 what for ten years had been known as the Department of Commerce and Labor was divided into two separate departments, a Department of Commerce and a Department of Labor.

The chief duty of the Department of Commerce is to foster the foreign and domestic commerce of the United States. To promote our mining, manufacturing and fishing industries, and to develop our transportation facilities are, therefore, among the aims of this department. The census, the coast survey and lighthouses, and steamboat inspection are concerns of the Department of Commerce. The scope of the Department, which is increasing rapidly, may be indicated by an enumeration of the more important bureaus grouped within it. These include the bureau of foreign and domestic commerce, the bureau of census, the bureau of lighthouses, the bureau of coast and geodetic survey, the steamboat inspection service, the bureau of navigation, the bureau of standards, and the bureau of fisheries.

532. THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.—Though at present the functions of the Department of Labor are fewer than those of the other Departments, they are being rapidly expanded by the extension of government interest in industry. The Department is concerned with practically all matters which affect labor conditions in the United States.

The Department of Labor collects and publishes information upon all subjects connected with labor and capital, the hours and wages of labor, and methods of improving the condition of the working classes. It seeks to encourage industrial good will, and to adjust labor disputes peaceably. An important bureau within the Department is the bureau of immigration, which, under the direction of the commissioner- general of immigration, is concerned with the administration of our immigration laws. The bureau of naturalization keeps a record of immigrants, and supervises their naturalization. Of growing importance is the children's bureau, which investigates matters having to do with child labor, infant mortality, orphanage, and the work of the juvenile courts.

533. MISCELLANEOUS BOARDS AND COMMISSIONS.—In addition to the executive departments which have been briefly discussed, the Federal administration includes many independent boards, bureaus, and commissions which perform duties not assigned to any of the ten departments. These agencies have been established from time to time under the authority of Congressional statutes. The chiefs of the bureaus and the members of the boards and commissions are appointed by the President and the Senate, most of them for a term ranging between six and twelve years. These officials are largely experts, who happily are sufficiently exempt from the spoils system to stand a fair chance of surviving a change of administration.

Among the more important of these boards and commissions are the following: The Federal Reserve Board, the Federal Farm Loan Board, the Federal Board for Vocational Education, the Federal Trade Commission, the Interstate Commerce Commission, the United States Tariff Commission, and the Civil Service Commission. The nature and functions of most of these administrative agencies have been discussed elsewhere in the text, and need not be gone into here.

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. Trace briefly the development of the Federal executive departments.

2. What is the nature of the President's Cabinet?

3. Contrast the American with the European cabinet.

4. What function do the heads of departments perform individually?

5. What are the chief functions of the Secretary of State?

6. Enumerate the more important officers working under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury.

7. Describe the work of the Department of War.

8. What are the chief functions of the Secretary of the Navy?

9. What are the chief duties of the Attorney-General?

10. Describe the work of the Post Office Department.

11. What types of work are the concern of the Department of the Interior?

12. Discuss briefly the work of the Department of Agriculture.

13. What is the function of the Department of Commerce? Of the Department of Labor?

14. Name some of the more important boards and commissions which are independent of the ten executive departments.

REQUIRED READINGS

1. Beard, American Government and Politics, chapter ii.

2. Guitteau, Government and Politics in the United States, chapter xxvii.

3. Munro, The Government of the United States, chapter ix.

4. Reed, Form and Functions of American Government, chapter xxiv.

QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS

1. Outline the duties which are common to the heads of all of the executive departments. (Beard, pages 216-218.)

2. Contrast the National administration with the state administration. (Reed, pages 286-287.)

3. What is the purpose of the Library of Congress? (Reed, pages 298- 299.)

4. Describe the work of the General Land Office under the Department of the Interior. (Guitteau, pages 318-319.)

5. What is the function of the Commissioner of Patents? (Guitteau, page 319.)

6. What are the duties of the Commissioner of Education, under the Secretary of the Interior? (Guitteau, page 320.)

7. Name some of the more important boards and commissions created during the World War. (Guitteau, pages 325-326.)

8. Compare our Department of the Interior with the Department of the Interior in France. (Munro, pages 136-137.)

9. What is meant by the statement that the National administration is decentralized? (Munro, page 142.)

10. Describe briefly the work of the Civil Service Commission. (Beard, pages 222-224.)

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT

1. Membership of the President's Cabinet at the present time.

2. The biography of some one member of the President's Cabinet.

3. The work of some bureau or department in the National administration. (Reports on the work of the various departments may be secured by writing to the respective departments at Washington, D. C. See also Fairlie, The National Administration of the United States of America.)

4. Compare the National administration with the administrative department in your state, with respect to

(a) Scope of work

(b) Centralization

(c) Efficiency

(d) Control by the people.

II

5. Evolution of the executive. (Gettell, Introduction to Political Science, chapter xix.)

6. Functions of the Federal executive. (Kimball, The National Government of the United States, chapter x.)

7. A history of the President's Cabinet. (Consult an encyclopedia.)

8. Membership of the Cabinet. (Fairlie, The National Administration of the United States, chapter iv.)

9. An Englishman's view of the American Cabinet. (Bryce, The American Commonwealth, vol. i, chapter ix.)

10. The Department of State. (Fairlie, The National Administration of the United States, chapter vi.)

11. The Department of the Treasury. (Fairlie, The National Administration of the United States, chapters vii and viii.)

12. The Department of War. (Fairlie, The National Administration of the United States, chapter ix.)

13. The Department of the Navy. (Fairlie, The National Administration of the United States, chapter x.)

14. The Department of Justice. (Fairlie, The National Administration of the United States, chapter xi.)

15. The Post Office Department. (Fairlie, The National Administration of the United States, chapter xii.)

16. The Department of the Interior. (Fairlie, The National Administration of the United States, chapters xiii and xiv.)

17. The Department of Agriculture. (Fairlie, The National Administration of the United States, chapter xv.)

18. The Department of Commerce. (Fairlie, The National Administration of the United States, chapter xvi.)

19. The Department of Labor. (Fairlie, The National Administration of the United States, chapter xvi.)

FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION

20. The American Cabinet compared with the English Cabinet, (See Munro, The Government of the United States, pages 143-145.)

21. Should the President be obliged to act in accordance with the wishes of a majority of his Cabinet?

22. To what extent should promotion in the civil service be on the basis of length of service? To what extent should promotion be determined by periodic examinations?

23. Do you favor the creation of a new executive department, to be called the Department of Public Welfare?