40. NO GOVERNMENT IS PERFECT.—All government is a compromise, in that it is adopted or created for the purpose of harmonizing the interests of the individual with the interests of the group. The types of government are numerous, varying with the character of the group, and with the particular conditions under which it exists. But we know of no government which is perfect: all have shortcomings, some very serious, others less so. There is nothing to be gained, therefore, by debating whether or not American government is imperfect. A much more profitable question is this: What are the faults of American democracy, and how may they be eliminated or minimized? The most constructive work which the American citizen is called upon to do is to grasp the character of the problems confronting his country, and then to attempt their solution.

41. THE WIDENING CIRCLE OF PROBLEMS.—The last two centuries have constituted an age of rapid change and development in all of the major phases of civilization. There have been rapid shifts in population, particularly in the younger countries of the world. Important discoveries have greatly increased our knowledge of natural science; epoch-making inventions have revolutionized manufacturing, commerce and transportation. In every civilized land there have been readjustments of political beliefs, as well as important changes in intellectual, religious, and social standards. Such an age is peculiarly an age of problems: it is a period of change and stress, a time of readjustment, of adaptation to changed conditions, of growth, and of development.

We in America are confronted by an ever widening circle of problems, and this chiefly for two reasons. In the first place, we have felt the impact of those forces which for the last two centuries have been creating problems the world over. In the second place, the whole period of our national development has fallen within this age of change and readjustment This means that we have had to grapple with the problems common to all modern countries during a period in which the origin and development of American democracy have been creating purely domestic problems. These facts at least partially explain the growing importance of the problems of American democracy during the past century.

42. EFFECT OF AN ENLARGED SOCIAL CONSCIENCE.—Many of the issues of contemporary American life have come into prominence because we have enlarged the concept of democracy within the last century. The term democracy has come to imply, not merely a form of government, but actually a philosophy of life stressing justice and happiness for the individual, whether in his political, social, or economic capacity. The more humanitarian our view, the more situations calling for remedy fall within it. Child labor, to give a single example, was not generally considered an evil a century ago, but to-day an enlarged social conscience condemns it.

43. NECESSITY OF AVOIDING PATERNALISM.—The solution of many national problems implies an extension of government control. Now, it is not generally appreciated that while an enlarged social conscience has increased the number of our problems, the individualistic strain in the American nature resists that paternalism which at present appears necessary to an effective treatment of certain problems. We are behind Germany in legislation designed to prevent industrial accidents, lessen the evils of unemployment, and otherwise protect the worker against the risks of industry. But Germany has built up this system of social insurance by restricting personal liberty, and by greatly extending the power of government over the individual. The great task confronting our government is to do as much for the individual as any paternalistic government, without endangering his rights by an undue extension of governmental control.

44. THE COMPLEXITY OF OUR PROBLEMS.—The mistake is sometimes made of thinking that national issues can be nicely defined, and separated from one another. The human mind has its limitations, and we are prone to emphasize the outline and content of particular problems in order to perceive their essential character the more clearly. But though this is permissible for purposes of study, we must bear in mind that the questions which we are to discuss are connected with one another in a most baffling way. To understand the administration of charity, for example, we ought to know the social, economic, and political background of the community under observation. The thorough study of this background would lead us to crime, education and other problems, which in turn have their connections with issues still further removed from the immediate problem of charity. The thorough understanding of a specific question thus implies consideration of many inter-related questions. Likewise, the solution of a particular question affects and is affected by the whole mass of related phenomena.

45. IMPORTANCE OF THE ECONOMIC BACKGROUND.—It would be unwise, perhaps, to claim that any definite group of problems is of greater importance than any other group. But at least we may say that some problems are primary in origin, while others appear to be secondary, i.e. derived from those called primary. In the chapters which follow, the attempt has been made to arrange the groups of problems with some regard to their primary or secondary origin. Probably the most fundamental problems which face us to-day are those of economic organization. Properly to understand these problems the student must first grasp the essential facts of American industry. We shall begin our study of the problems of American democracy, therefore, with a survey of the economic life of the nation. Only after we have mastered the principles upon which American industry is based, shall we be in a position to solve the problems which arise directly from the nature of our economic organization.

46. INDUSTRIAL REFORM.—Our industrial life is so clearly based upon certain fundamental institutions, such as private property, free contract, and free competition, that an industrial "system" is said to exist. Certain great evils, notably poverty, have accompanied the development of this system. We shall discuss a number of programs designed to eliminate these evils. The doctrine of single tax is of interest as advocating the abolition or confiscation of land value. The coÖperative conduct of industry is of increasing importance of late years. We must also reckon with socialism as a movement which seeks the redistribution of wealth. Under the general head of socialism we shall have occasion to notice a small but active group known as the Industrial Workers of the World, and the larger, though related, group which recently conducted a socialist experiment in Russia. The discussion of socialism completed, we shall sum up the attitude of American democracy toward the whole problem of industrial reform.

47. SOCIAL PROBLEMS.—Of the social problems which grow out of a bad economic situation, none is more vital than the fostering of peace and good will between labor and capital. Following the discussion of industrial relations, we shall have occasion to notice a whole series of social questions which have either been derived from, or accentuated by, the rapid industrialization of our country. Grave questions arise in connection with immigration, health, and the cityward drift. The consideration of the problems of the city in turn directs attention to the necessity of a normal rural life, and to the importance of safeguarding the American home. Dependency is a familiar problem, but one which, in the light of an awakened community spirit, is now being studied from new and interesting angles. Last among social problems is the fundamental matter of education. It is not too much to claim that the ultimate fate of American democracy depends, to a great extent, upon the vigor and intelligence with which we improve and extend our educational system.

48. RELATION OF GOVERNMENT TO BUSINESS.—Since our material well-being rests upon an economic basis, the public has a vital interest in business. The rise of great corporations and the necessity of safeguarding the public from monopolistic abuses make necessary a careful examination into the relation of government to business. We shall meet with this question: Shall the government regulate, or actually own, businesses of vital importance to the public? Equally knotty, but fully as interesting, is the tariff question. Should Congress tax foreign goods entering this country, and, if so, upon what principles should this tax be determined? This will bring us to the general problem of taxation, a subject to which the American people will probably devote an increasing amount of attention in the next few decades. The question of conserving our natural resources must also be discussed. Last in this group of problems may be mentioned the question of money and banking. In discussing this important subject we shall notice, among other things, the interesting Federal reserve system, which, it is hoped, will protect us from panics in the future.

49. PROBLEMS IN EFFECTIVE GOVERNMENT.—The economist has good reason for declaring that the getting of a living is one of the most fundamental concerns in life; on the other hand, no people can long get a comfortable living without the aid of a helpful system of government. Government must be made effective. This introduces us to another series of problems. First of all, who shall share in government? And how may we improve the methods by which we select the agents of government? How may corruption and inefficiency be eliminated from American government? What is the significance of the Initiative, the Referendum, and the Recall?

These questions must prove of fascinating interest to those who think of democracy as a living institution which is constantly growing, developing, adapting itself to changed conditions.

50. WHAT IS THE PROMISE OF AMERICAN LIFE?—Rich in natural resources, ample in extent, encouraging to man's helpful efforts, America fulfills the first condition of national greatness. Intelligent and industrious, law-abiding and, devoted to the building of homes, our population fulfills the second condition.

Here we have all the raw materials out of which to build a great nation. Already we have made marked contributions to civilization, and yet it should not be forgotten that our chief claim to national greatness rests upon the promise which we show of being able to perfect American democracy.

To what extent will this promise actually be realized? As a nation we are yet young, as a people we have scarcely begun the greatest experiment in democracy which the world has ever seen. Shall we endure, shall we attain to a half-success, shall we succeed gloriously?

Much depends upon the extent to which each of us assumes the responsibilities of citizenship. Those who have gone before us conquered a wilderness, expanded and preserved the Union. But it is not for us complacently to accept the result. Much has been done, but much more remains to be done. Our goal is the greatest possible perfection of our economic, social and political life. Each age may be said to have its peculiar burdens and responsibilities: the prime task of the colonist was to foster the tender shoot of democracy; that of the western pioneer was to fashion homes out of a wilderness; the burden of our generation is to grapple with the present-day problems of American democracy. Without a high sense of personal responsibility, coupled with an intelligent and consistent effort, we can never reach the high goal admittedly possible.

51. THE POINT OF VIEW IN PROBLEM STUDY.—To see American democracy and to see it as a whole should be our aim throughout the remainder of this book. Now this is not easy. The danger is that the unwary student will interpret the large amount of space devoted to "problems" as meaning that American life is preeminently unsettled and defective. This is a temptation to be guarded against. Though we shall uncover many defects, it should be remembered that we are predominantly a normal, healthy, prosperous people. But our virtues demand our attention less urgently than do our defects. If we seem to be overconcerned with the defects of American life, the student should not conclude that American life is primarily defective. Rather, he ought to realize that it is precisely because a situation involves a problem that our attention is challenged.

Nor should problems be looked upon as something to be ashamed of. Where life is dull and civilization static, there are relatively few problems; where life is progressive and civilization steadily advancing, problems are numerous and pressing. Problems imply adjustment, development, the desire for improvement and advancement. They are signs of progress, the growing pains of civilization. If we bear this in mind, we shall be in a fair position to see American democracy in true perspective, without undue distortion of our viewpoint, and without prejudice to our judgment.

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. Why is there nothing to be gained by debating whether or not American democracy is imperfect?

2. Why has the circle of our problems been steadily widening during the last century?

3. Trace the relation between an enlarged social conscience and the number of problems confronting us.

4. What is one danger of paternalism?

5. Give a definite example to illustrate the complexity of our modern problems.

6. Discuss the importance of the economic background in problem study.

7. What problems may be included under the term "industrial reform"?

8. What problems arise in connection with public interest in business?

9. Name some of the problems arising in connection with the need for effective government.

10. What is the importance of individual responsibility in studying the problems of American democracy?

11. Outline clearly the point of view to be maintained in studying these problems.

REQUIRED READINGS

1. Williamson, Readings in American Democracy, chapter v.

Or all of the following:

2. Bryce, The American Commonwealth, vol. ii, chapters ci, cxiv, cxix, and cxxii.

3. Dunn, The Community and the Citizen, pages vii-xii.

4. McLaughlin, Steps in the Development of American Democracy, chapter viii.

QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS

1. What, according to Lord Bryce, are the essential intellectual traits of the masses of the American people? (Bryce, pages 825-826.)

2. Lord Bryce says that "there are elements in the life of the United States which may well make a European of any class prefer to dwell there rather than in the land of his birth." What are these elements? (Bryce, pages 870-873.)

3. What comment does Lord Bryce make upon the quality of humor in the American character? (Bryce, page 876.)

4. What three advantages does the United States have over European countries in the matter of grappling with modern problems? (Bryce, page 912.)

5. Explain the statement that "Democracy rests on faith." (McLaughlin, pages 181-182.)

6. What is meant by the statement that "Democracy is fundamentally a matter of human relationships"? (McLaughlin, pages 189-190.)

7. What, according to Lord Bryce, are the four chief defects of American democracy? (Bryce, page 632.)

8. What are the essential qualities which civic education should aim to cultivate? (Dunn, pages xi-xii.)

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT

I

1. Make a list of the problems which in any way affect you as a citizen in the community. List these problems in the order in which they occur to you, or are discovered by you. Comment upon the confused and disorderly appearance of the problems so listed.

2. Classify the problems on your list according as they are economic, social or political.

3. Classify the problems on your list according as they are local, state or national.

4. Comment upon the complexity and inter-relationship of the problems so classified.

5. What agencies, public, semi-public, or private, are studying the problems on your list?

6. What difference of interest do the citizens of your community show in local, state and national problems?

II

7. Defects of democratic government the world over. (Bryce, Modern Democracies, vol. ii, pages 452-454.)

8. The background of the problems of American democracy. (Merriam, American Political Ideas, chapter i.)

9. The hindrances to good citizenship. (Bryce, Hindrances to Good Citizenship.)

10. The promise of American life. (Croly, The Promise of American Life, chapter i.)

11. Attitude of the individual in a democracy. (Hughes, Conditions of Progress in Democratic Government.)

12. The power of ideals in American history. (Adams, The Power of Ideals in American History.)

13. Ideals of citizenship. (Woodburn and Moran, The Citizen and the Republic, chapter xx.)

14. The future of democracy. (Bryce, Modern Democracies, vol. ii, chapter lxxx.)