FOOTNOTES

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S. Wells Williams

[1] An alphabetical arrangement of all the tables scattered throughout the work may be found under this word in the Index.

[2] D’Herbelot, BibliothÈque Orientale, quarto edition, 1779, Tome IV., p. 8. Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, Vol. I., pp. xxxiv., lxviii. Edkins, Chinese Buddhism, p. 93.

[3] Or 21,759,974 sq. km.—Gotha Almanach.

[4] Klaproth (MÉmoires sur l’Asie, Tome II., p. 295) observes that the name is derived from the abundance of onions found upon these mountains. M. Abel-RÉmusat prefers to attribute it to the “bluish tint of onions.”

[5] Compare RÉmusat, Histoire de la Ville de Khotan, p. 65, ff.

[6] One among many native names given to the Kwanlun, or Koulkun Mountains, is Tien chu, ?? ‘Heaven’s Pillar,’ which corresponds precisely with the Atlas of China.

[7] Another interpretation makes Gobi (Kopi) to apply to the stony, while Sha-moh denotes the sandy tracks of this desert, in which case the name would more correctly read, “Great Desert of Gobi and Sha-moh.”

[8] Col. Prejevalsky, Travels in Mongolia, etc. Vol. II., p. 22. London, 1876.

[9] Von Richthofen, China. Ergebnisse eigener Reisen, Band I. Berlin, 1877.

[10] Report by Dr. W. A. P. Martin in Journal of N. C. Branch of R. A. Society, Vol. III., pp. 33-38; 1866. Same journal, Vol. IV., pp. 80-86; 1867; Notes by Ney Elias. Pumpelly’s Researches, 1866, chap. v., pp. 41-51.

[11] See the account of PÈre Laribe’s voyage on this river in 1843, Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, Tome XVII., pp. 207, 286, ff. Five Months on the Yang-tsze, by Capt. Thos. W. Blakiston; London, 1862. Pumpelly’s Researches, chap. ii., pp. 4-10. Capt. Gill, The River of Golden Sand.

[12] Staunton’s Embassy, Vol. III., p. 233. Blakiston’s Yang-tsze, p. 294, etc. Chinese Repository, Vol. II., p. 316.

[13] Prejevalsky, From Kulja Across the Tien shan to Lob-nor, p. 99.

[14] Chinese Repository, Vol. V., p. 337; Vol. X., pp. 351, 371. Williams’ Chinese Commercial Guide, fifth edition, second part, 1863.

[15] RÉmusat (Nouveaux MÉlanges, Tome I., p. 9) adds a fourth basin, that of the Sagalien. The latter, however, scarcely deserves the name, having so many interrupting cross-chains.

[16] Penny CyclopÆdia, Vol. VII., p. 74. McCulloch’s Geographical Dictionary, Vol. I., p. 596.

[17] Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 136.

[18] Sketches of China, Vol. I., p. 245.

[19] Klaproth, MÉmoires, Tome III., p. 312 sqq. De Guignes’ Voyages À Peking, Tome II., p. 195. Davis’s Sketches, Vol. I., passim.

[20] Voyages À Peking, Vol. II., p. 214. Compare the letter of a Jesuit missionary (Annales de la Foi, Tome VII., p. 377), who describes houses of rest on the wayside. These singular road-gullies of the loess region have been very thoroughly examined by Baron von Richthofen, from whose work the cut above is taken.

[21] Penny CyclopÆdia, Vol. XXVII., p. 656.

[22] Chinese Repository, Vol. XIV., p. 105. Shanghai Journal, No. III., 1859. Journal of Indian Archipelago, 1852. Missionary Recorder, Vol. III., pp. 33, 62, 149, etc. T. T. Cooper, Travels of a Pioneer of Commerce, passim.

[23] For observations on the Chinese as compared with other nations, see Schlegel’s Philosophy of History, p. 118, Bohn’s edition.

[24] Bridgman’s Chinese Chrestomathy, p. 420. Macao, 1841.

[25] Compare an article in the China Review for September-October, 1881, by H. Fritsche: The Amount of Rain and Snow in Peking.

[26] Annales de la Foi, Tome XVI., p. 293.

[27] Chinese Repository, Vol. VIII., p. 230; Vol. IV., p. 197. See also Fritsche’s paper in Journal of N. C. Branch Royal Asiatic Society, No. XII., 1878, pp. 127-335; also Appendix II. in No. X., containing observations taken at Zi-ka-wei.

[28] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 54.

[29] This word should not be written Pekin; it is pronounced Pei-ching by the citizens, and by most of the people north of the Great River.

[30] “You would think them all made of, or at least covered with, pure gold enamelled in azure and green, so that the spectacle is at once majestic and charming.” Magaillans, Nouvelle Description de la Chine, p. 353.

[31] See also L’Univers Pittoresque, Chine Moderne, par MM. Pauthier et Bazin, Paris, 1853, for a good map of Peking, with careful descriptions. Yule’s Marco Polo, passim. De Guigues, Voyages, Tome I. Williamson, Journeys in North China, Vol. II. Dr. Rennie, Peking and the Pekingese. Tour du Monde for 1864, Tome II.

[32] Chinese Repository, Vol. IX., p. 259.

[33] Dr. Martin, The Chinese (New York, 1881), p. 85.

[34] Compare Kircher, China Illustrata, where an engraving of it may be seen. A bell near Mandalay, mentioned by Dr. Anderson, is 12 feet high, 16 feet across the lips, and weighs 90 tons—evidently a heavier monster than this in Peking. (Mandalay to Momien, p. 18.)

[35] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 181.

[36] Compare the Annales de la Foi, Tome X., p. 100, for interesting details concerning the Romish missionaries in Peking. Also Pauthier’s Chine Moderne, pp. 8-36 (Paris, 1852), containing an excellent map. Bretschneider’s Archeological and Historical Researches on Peking, etc., published in the Chinese Recorder, Vol. VI. (1875, passim). MÉmoires concernant l’Histoire, les Sciences, les Arts, les Moeurs, les Usages, etc., des Chinois, par les Missionnaires de Pekin; 16 vols., Paris, 1797-1814. N. B. Dennys, Notes for Tourists in the North of China; Hongkong, 1866.

[37] Journal of Lord Amherst’s Embassy to China, 2d ed., p. 22. London, 1840.

[38] Travels of the Russian Mission through Mongolia to China, Vol. I., p. 293. London, 1827.

[39] Williamson, Journeys in North China, Vol. II., p. 90.

[40] Journal of the Roy. Geog. Soc., 1874. Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., pp. 263-268. Cathay and the Way Thither, Vol. I., p. 134. Gerbillon, MÉmoires concernant les Chinois (Astley’s ed.), Vol. IV., pp. 701-716. Journal Asiatique, Ser. II., Tome XI., p. 345. Huc, Tartary, etc., Vol. I., p. 34, 2d ed., London.

[41] Sir G. L. Staunton, Account of an Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China. 2 vols. Lond., 1796.

[42] Annales de la Foi, 1844, Tome XVI., p. 421.

[43] Sketches of China, Vol. I., p. 257.

[44] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 308-335. W. H. Medhurst’s China, chaps. xv.-xix.

[45] Richthofen, China. Band I. S. 68. Rev. Arthur Smith, Glimpses of Travel in the Middle Kingdom. Shanghai, 1875.

[46] The curious reader can consult the article by Mayer, in Vol. XII. of the North China Branch Royal Asiatic Society’s Journal, 1878, for the meaning of these various objects.

[47] Five Years in China, Nashville, Tenn., 1860. See also Voyages of the Nemesis, pp. 450-452, for further details of this city in 1842; the Chinese Repository, Vols. I., p. 257, and XIII., p. 261, contain more details on the Pagoda.

[48] Travels in China.

[49] Capt. G. G. Loch, Events in China, p. 74.

[50] Mentioned by Marco Polo. Yule’s edition, Vol. II., p. 137.

[51] Fortune’s Wanderings in China, p. 120.

[52] Davis’s Sketches, Vol. II., p. 55.

[53] See Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 488; Journal of N. C. Br. R. A. Society, Vol. VI., pp. 123-128; and Chinese Recorder, Vol. I., 1869, pp. 241-248. These people are relics of tribes of Miaotsz’.

[54] Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 145.

[55] Travels in China, p. 522.

[56] Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 146.

[57] De Guignes, Voyages À Peking, Vol. II., pp. 65-77.

[58] Compare R. M. Martin’s China (Vol. II., p. 304), who gives considerable miscellaneous information about the open ports, previous to 1846; also Dennys’ Treaty Ports of China, 1867, pp. 326-349; Richthofen’s Letters, No. 5, 1871; Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 181; Missionary Recorder, 1869, pp. 156, 177.

[59] Milne, in Chinese Repository, Vol. XIII., p. 22, and in his Life in China, part second. London, 1857.

[60] Medhurst’s China, its State and Prospects, p. 393.

[61] Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 149. Cathay and the Way Thither, p. cxciii. Reinaud, Relations des Voyages faits par les Arabes dans l’Inde et À la Chine, etc. (Paris, 1845), Tome I., p. 19.

[62] Borget, La Chine Ouverte, p. 126.

[63] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 92.

[64] Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., pp. 183-185, etc. A Turkish geography, printed at Constantinople, describes this port under the name of Zeitoun. Compare Klaproth, MÉmoires sur l’Asie, Tome II., p. 208. See further, Chinese Recorder, Vol. III., p. 87; Vol. IV., p. 77; Vol. V., p. 327, and Vol. VI., p. 31, sqq.

[65] Chinese Repository, Vol. XV., pp. 185, 225.

[66] The Boston Missionary Herald for 1845 (p. 87) contains a notice of the “White Deer Cavern,” in the neighborhood.

[67] Chinese Repository, Vol. XI., p. 506.

[68] Chinese Repository, Vol. XII., p. 530; Fortune’s Tea Districts, chaps. xiv. and xv.

[69] Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 186.

[70] Commercial Relations between the U. S. and Foreign Nations. 1869.

[71] “An Historical and Geographical Description of Formosa, an Island subject to the Emperor of Japan,” etc. Klaproth (MÉmoires sur l’Asie, Tome I., p. 321) translates an account of this island from Chinese sources. E. C. Taintor, The Aborigines of Northern Formosa—Shanghai, 1874—read before the North China branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Chinese Repository, Vol. II., p. 408, and Vol. V., p. 480.

[72] Annales de la Foi, 1845, Tome XVII., pp. 287, 290. See also Huc’s Travels in the Chinese Empire, Harper’s Ed., 1855, Vol. II., pp. 142-144. Pumpelly, pp. 224-226; Blakiston’s Yangtsze, p. 65; Treaty Ports of China, 1867, Art. Hankow.

[73] Usually known as the Ta-pa ling; but Baron von Richthofen found that the natives of that region “call those mountains the Kiu-tiao shan, that is the ‘nine mountain ridges,’ designating therewith the fact that the range is made up of a number of parallel ridges. This name should be retained in preference to the other.” Letter on the Provinces of ChihlÍ, ShansÍ, ShensÍ, etc. Shanghai, 1872. See also his China, Band II. S. 563-576; Alex. Wylie, Notes of a Journey from Chingtoo to Hankow, Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc. Vol. XIV., p. 168.

[74] See Kreitner, Im fernen Osten, p. 504. Wien, 1881.

[75] Prejevalsky’s Travels in Mongolia, Vol. II., pp. 256-266.

[76] Dip. Cor., 1874, p. 251.

[77] That this insurrection was not unprecedented we learn from a notice of a similar Mohammedan revolt here in 1784. Nouvelles Lettres Edifiantes des Missions de la Chine, Tome II., p. 23.

[78] Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 23.

[79] Chinese Repository, Vol. XIX., pp. 317 and 394. Annales de la Foi, Tome III., pp. 369-381, and Tome IV., pp. 409-415. Letter by Baron Richthofen on the Provinces of ChihlÍ, ShansÍ, ShensÍ, Sz’chuen, etc. Shanghai, 1872. Kreitner, Im fernen Osten, pp. 780-829.

[80] French bishop Palafox gives still another account of the capture of Canton; his statement contains, however, one or two glaring errors. Vid. Histoire de la ConquÊte de la Chine par les Tartares, pp. 150 ff.

[81] Dr. Kerr, Canton Guide.

[82] Chinese Repository, Vol. II., pp. 145, 191, &c.

[83] This word is derived from the Chinese hong or hang, meaning a row or series, and is applied to warehouses because these consist of a succession of rooms. The foreign factories were built in this manner, and therefore the Chinese called each block a hong; the old security-merchants were dubbed hong-merchants, because they lived in such establishments.

[84] Chinese Repository, passim. An Historical Sketch of the Portuguese Settlements in China. By Sir A. Ljungstedt. Boston, 1836.

[85] Palafox, ConquÊte de la Chine, p. 172.

[86] Embassy (of Lord Amherst) to China, Moxon’s ed., 1840, p. 98.

[87] E. C. Taintor, Geographical Sketch of the Island of HaÏnan, with map. Canton, 1868. Journal N. C. Br. R. A. S., No. VII., Arts. I., II., and III. China Review, Vols. I., p. 124, and II., p. 332. N. B. Dennys, Report on the newly-opened ports of Kiungchow (Hoihau) in Hainan, and Haiphong in Tonquin. Hongkong, 1878.

[88] Chinese Repository, Vol. XIV., pp. 171 ff.

[89] Chinese Repository, Vol. I., p. 29; Vol. XIV., pp. 105-117; G. T. Lay, Chinese as They Are, p. 316; Journal of N. C. Branch of Royal Asiatic Society, No. III., 1859, and No. VI., 1869. Chinese Recorder, Vols. II., p. 265, and III., pp. 33, 74, 96, 134 and 147. Peking Gazette for 1872. China Review, Vol. V., p. 92.

[90] Known as Widiharit in Pali records. Chinese Recorder, Vol. III., pp. 33, 74, sqq.; see also pp. 62, 93, 126, for the record of a visit.

[91] Annales de la Foi, Tome VIII., p. 87.

[92] Two thousand Chinese families live in Amerapura.

[93] Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II. Anderson, Mandalay to Momien.

[94] Proced. Roy. Geog. Soc., Vols. XIII., p. 392, XIV., p. 335, XV., pp. 163 and 343. Col. Yule, Trade Routes to Western China—The Geographical Magazine, April, 1875. Richthofen, Recent Attempts to find a direct Trade-Road to Southwestern China—Shanghai Budget, March 26, 1874. Journey of A. R. Margary from Shanghae to Bhamo. London, 1875. Col. H. Browne in Blue Books, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 (1876-77).

[95] Klaproth (MÉmoires Relatifs À l’Asie, Tome I., Paris, 1824) has translated from the Manchu a narrative of a visit made in 1677 by one of the grandees of KanghÍ’s court to a summit in this range. Chinese Repository, Vol. XX., p. 296.

[96] Voyage Down the Amur, by Perry McD. Collins, in 1857. New York, 1860, chaps. xxxii.-lx., passim. Ravenstein’s Amur. Chinese Repository, Vol. XIX., p. 289. Rev. A. Williamson, Journeys in North China, Vol. II., chaps. x.-xiii.

[97] The Chinese and their Rebellions. London, 1856.

[98] Also called Yenden; Klaproth, MÉmoires, Tome I., p. 446. RÉmusat informs us that this name formerly included all of Kirin, or that which was placed under it.

[99] Voyages Along the Coast of China. New York, 1833.

[100] Annales de la Foi, Tome XVIII., 1846, p. 302.

[101] Annales de la Foi, Tome XVI., p. 359.

[102] The inhabitants of ancient Gedrosia, now Beloochistan, are said to have clothed themselves in fish-skins. Heeren, Historical Researches among Asiatic Nations, Vol. I., p. 175.

[103] Rev. Alex. Williamson, Travels in Northern China. London, 1870. Vol. II., Chaps. I. to XIV.; Chinese Repository, Vols. IV., p. 57; XV., p. 454; Chinese Recorder, Vol. VII., 1876, “The Rise and Progress of the Manjows,” by J. Ross, pp. 155, 235, and 315.

[104] Compare Niebuhr’s History of Rome, Vol. II, Sect. “Of the Colonies,” where can be observed the essential differences between Roman settlements abroad and those of the Chinese; and still greater differences will be found in contrasting these with the offsets of Grecian States.

[105] Abulgasi-Bayadur-chan (Histoire GenÉalogique des Tatars, traduite du Manuscript Tartare; Leyde: 1726), gives another derivation for these two names. “AlÄnzÄ-chan eut deux fils jumeaux l’un appelle Tatar and l’autre Mogull ou pour bien dire Mung’l, entre les quels il partagea ses Estates lorsqu’il se vit sur la fin de sa vie.” It is the first prince, he adds, from whom came the name Tartar—not from a river called Tata, as some have stated—while of the second: “Le terme Mung’l a estÉ changÉ par une corruption generale en Mogull; Mung veut dire triste ou un homme triste, et parceque ce prince estoit naturellement d’une humeur fort triste, il porta ce nom dans la veritÉ”—(pp. 27-29). But Visdelon (D’Herbelot, ed. 1778, Tome IV., p. 327) shows more acquaintance with their history in producing proofs that the name Tatar was applied in the eighth century by the Chinese to certain tribes living north of the Ín shan, Ala shan, and River Liau. In the dissensions following upon the ruin of the Tang dynasty, some of them migrated eastwards beyond the Songari, and there in time rallied to subdue the northern provinces, under the name of Nu-chih. These are the ancestors of the Manchus. Another fraction went north to the marshy banks of Lakes Hurun and Puyur, where they received the name of Moungul Tahtsz’, i.e., Marsh Tatars. This tribe and name it was that the warlike Genghis afterwards made conspicuous. The sound Mogul used in India is a dialectal variation.

[106] Abulgasi (p. 83) furnishes a notice of these aimaks and their origin.

[107] MÉmoires, Tome I., p. 2.

[108] Prejevalsky, Mongolia, Vol. I.; Pumpelly, Across America, pp. 382-385; Michie, Across Siberia.

[109] Cottrell’s Recollections of Siberia, Chap. IX., p. 314; Timkowski’s Travels, Vol. I., pp. 4-91, 1821; Pumpelly, Across America and Asia, p. 387, 1871; Klaproth, MÉmoires, Tome I., p. 63; Ritter, Die Erdkunde von Asien, Bd. II., pp. 198-226.

[110] Compare Richthofen, China, Band I., 2er Theil.; Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, passim.

[111] The wild ass is called by Prejevalsky the most remarkable animal of these steppes. Compare Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 220 (2d edition).

[112] For a notice of the Ouigours, who formerly ruled Tangout, consult Klaproth, MÉmoires, Tome II., p. 301, ff. See also RÉmusat, Nouveaux MÉlanges Asiatiques, Tome II., p. 61, for a notice of the Ta-ta-tung’o, who applied their letters to write Mongolian.

[113] Chinese Repository, Vol. IX., p. 113; Vol. I., p. 118. Penny CyclopÆdia, Arts. Bayan Kara, Tangut. Kreitner, Im fernen Osten, p. 702. Huc, Travels, passim.

[114] Lieut. Kreitner, Im fernen Osten.

[115] In RÉmusat’s Histoire de la Ville de Khotan (p. 76) there is an account of a journey made in the 10th century between Kanchan and Khoten.

[116] RÉmusat calls it Pentalope. Nouveaux MÉlanges, Tome I., p. 5.

[117] The recent treaty between Russia and China (ratified in 1881), marks the boundaries between ÍlÍ and Russian territory in the following sections:

Art. VII. A tract of country in the west of ÍlÍ is ceded to Russia, where those who go over to Russia and are thereby dispossessed of their land in ÍlÍ may settle. The boundary line of Chinese ÍlÍ and Russian territory will stretch from the Pieh-chÊn-tao [Bedschin-tau] Mountains along the course of the Ho-Êrh-kwo-ssÜ [Yehorsos] River, to its junction with the ÍlÍ River, thence across the ÍlÍ River, and south to the east of the village of Kwo-li-cha-tÊ [Kaldschat] on the Wu-tsung-tau range, and from this point south along the old boundary line fixed by the agreement of Ta-ChÊng [Tashkend] in the year 1864.

Art. VIII. The boundary line to the east of the Chi-sang lake, fixed in the year 1864 by the agreement of Ta-ChÊng [Tashkend], having proved unsatisfactory, high officers will be specially deputed by both countries jointly to examine and alter it so that a satisfactory result may be attained. That there may be no doubt what part of the Khassak country belongs to China and what to Russia, the boundary will consist of a straight line drawn from the Kwei Tung Mountains across the Hei-i-Êrh-te-shih River to the Sa-wu-Êrh range, and the high officers deputed to settle the boundary will fix the new boundary along such straight line which is within the old boundary.

Art. IX. As to the boundary on the west, between the Province of Fei-Êrh-kan [Ferghana], which is subject to Russia, and Chinese Kashgar, officials will be deputed by both countries to examine it, and they will fix the boundary line between the territories at present actually under the jurisdiction of either country, and they will erect boundary stones thereon.

[118] Compare also Schuyler, Turkistan, Vol. II., pp. 127 ff.

[119] 175,000 perished in Kuldja alone.

[120] The question of the existence of volcanoes in Central Asia, especially on the Kuldja frontier, has always been a matter of doubt and discussion among geologists and Russian explorers. The Governor of Semiretchinsk, General Kolpakofsky, was, in 1881, able to report the discovery of the perpetual fires in the Tien shan range of mountains. The mountain Bai shan was found twelve miles northeast of Kuldja, in a basin surrounded by the massive Ailak mountains; its fires are not volcanic, but proceed from burning coal. On the sides of the mountain there are caves emitting smoke and sulphurous gas. Mr. Schuyler, in his Turkistan, mentions that these perpetual fires in the mountains, referred to by Chinese historians, were considered by Severtzoff, a Russian, who explored the region, as being caused by the ignition of the seams of coal, or the carburetted hydrogen gas in the seams. The same author further mentions that Captain Tosnofskey, another Russian explorer, was told of a place in the neighborhood from which steam constantly rose, and that near this crevice there had existed, from ancient times, three pits, where persons afflicted with rheumatism or skin diseases were in the habit of bathing.

[121] Wood, Journey to the Source of the River Oxus, p. 356. From the hills that encircle Lake Sir-i-kol rise some of the principal rivers in Asia: the Yarkand, Kashgar, Sirr, Kuner, and Oxus.

[122] Richthofen’s Remarks in Prejevalsky’s Lob-nor, p. 138. London, 1879.

[123] Called also Pourouts. Compare Klaproth (MÉmoires, Tome III., p. 332), who has a notice of these tribes.

[124] H. W. Bellew, Kashmir and Kashgar. A Narrative of the Journey of the Embassy to Kashgar in 1873-4, p. 2.

[125] But RÉmusat says that Karakash is a river and no town.

[126] Wood (Journey to the Oxus, p. 279) refers to a frontier town by the name of Ecla.

[127] Penny CyclopÆdia, Art. Thian Shan nan lu.

[128] RÉmusat, Histoire de Khotan, p. 35.

[129] Concerning the nomenclature of this region compare RÉmusat, Histoire de Khotan, p. 66. See, moreover, ib., p. 47 ff., the legend of a drove of desert rats assisting the king of this land against the army of his enemies.

[130] “Galdan, better known by his title of ContaÏsch”—RÉmusat, Nouveaux MÉlanges, Tome II., p. 29. See also Schuyler’s Turkistan, Vol. II., p. 168.

[131] Compare RÉmusat (Nouveaux MÉlanges, Tome II., p. 102), who has compiled a brief life of their leader Ubusha. De Quincey’s essay, The Flight of a Tartar Tribe. Ritter, Asien, Bd. V. pp. 531-583: Welthistorischer Einfluss des chinesischen Reichs auf Central- und West-Asien.

[132] Chinese Repository, Vol. V., pp. 267, 316, 351, etc.; Vol. IX., p. 113. Penny CyclopÆdia, Art. Songaria. Boulger, Russia and England in Central Asia, 2 Vols., London, 1879. Schuyler, Turkistan, 2 vols., N. Y., 1877. Petermann’s Mittheilungen, Appendices XLII. and XLIII., 1875.

[133] This derivation is explained somewhat differently in RÉmusat, Nouveaux MÉlanges, Tome I., p. 190.

[134] To these Ritter adds the names of Wei, Dzang, Nga-ri, Kham, Bhodi, Peu-u-Tsang, Si-Dzang, Thupho, Tobbat, TÖbÖt, TÜbet, Tibet, and Barantola, as all applying to this country. Asien, Bd. III., S. 174-183.

[135] See RÉmusat, Nouveaux MÉlanges, I., p. 190, for notices of tribes anciently inhabiting this district and Bokhara. Compare also Heeren (Historical Researches, Vol. I., pp. 180-186), who gives in brief the accounts of Herodotus and Ctesias.

[136] Introduction by Col. Yule, in Gill’s River of Golden Sand.

[137] Called by Wood Kash-gow (Journey to the Oxus, p. 319). Chauri gau, sarlyk, and sarlac, are other names.

[138] This cross is mentioned by Marco Polo, Yule’s ed., Vol. I., p. 241.

[139] Prejevalsky, Travels in Mongolia, etc., Vol. I., p. 187.

[140] B. H. Hodgson, Notice of the Mammals of Tibet, Journal As. Soc. of Bengal, Vol. XI., pp. 275 ff.; also ib. Vols. XVI., p. 763, XIX., p. 466, and XXVI., No. 3, 1857. AbbÉ Armand David, Notes sur quelques oiseaux de Thibet, Nouv. Arch. du Museum, Bull., V. 1869, p. 33; ib. Bull., VI., pp. 19 and 33. Bull., VIII., 1872, pp. 3-128, IX., pp. 15-48, X., pp. 3-82. Recherches pour servir À l’histoire naturelle des mammifÈres comprennant des considÉrations sur la classification de ces animaux, etc., des Études sur la faune de la Chine et du Tibet oriental, par MM. Milne-Edwards, etc., 2 vols. Paris, 1868-74.

[141] Klaproth, Description du Tubet, p. 246.

[142] Mission of George Bogle to Tibet and Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa. Edited by C. R. Markham. London, 1876, p. 265.

[143] Compare, for further discussion of this subject, Timkowski’s Mission to Peking, London, 1827, Vol. II., p. 349. Wilson’s Abode of Snow, p. 329.

[144] Essay towards a Dictionary, Tibetan and English. A Grammar of the Tibetan Language in English. Calcutta, 1834.

[145] Essays on the Language, Literature, and Religion of Nepal and Tibet, etc. London, 1874.

[146] RÉmusat, Observations sur l’Histoire des Mongols orienteaux de Sanang Setsen, Paris, l’an 8. Ssanang Ssetsen, Geschichte der Mongolen, Uebers., von. J. J. Schmidt, Petersb., 1829.

[147] RÉmusat relates the story of his origin, MÉlanges Posthumes, p. 400.

[148] Klaproth, Description du Tubet.

[149] Authorities on Tibet besides those already referred to: Journal Asiatique, Tomes IV., p. 281; VIII., p. 117; IX., p. 31; XIV., pp. 177, ff. 277, 406, etc. Du Halde, Description of China, Vol. II., pp. 384-388. Capt. Samuel Turner, Account of an Embassy to the Court of Teshoo Lama in Tibet, London, 1800. Histoire de ce qui s’est passÉ au Royaume du Tibet, en l’annÉe 1626; trad. de l’Italien. Paris, 1829. P. Kircher, China Illustrata. MM. PÉron et Billecocq, Recueil de Voyages du Thibet, Paris, 1796. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, passim. Chinese Repository, Vols. VI., pp. 28, 494, IX., p. 26, and XIII., p. 505. Ritter, Asien, Bd. II., 4er Abschnitt, and Bd. III., S. 137-424. Richthofen, China, Bd. I., S. 228, 247, 466, 670, 683, etc. C. H. Desgodin, La mission du Tibet de 1855 À 1870, comprennant l’exposÉ des affaires religieuses, etc. D’aprÈs les lettres de M. l’abbÉ Desgodins, missionaire apostolique, Verdun, 1872. Lieut. Kreitner, Im fernen Osten, pp. 829 ff., and in The Popular Science Monthly, for August, 1882. Emil Schlagintweit, Tibetan Buddhism, Illustrated by Literary Documents and Objects of Religious Worship, London, 1863. AbbÉ Huc, Travels through Tartary, Tibet and China, 2 vols.

[150] This careful digest is contained in the Journal Asiatique for 1836 (April and May), and will repay perusal.

[151] The population of the Roman Empire at the same period is estimated at 85,000,000 by Merivale (Vol. IV., pp. 336-343), but the data are less complete than in China; he reckons the European provinces at 45,000,000, and the Asiatic and African colonies at the remainder, giving 27,000,000 to Asia Minor and Syria. The area of China, at this time, was less than Rome by about one-fourth.

[152] Sir G. Staunton, Embassy to China, Vol. II., Appendix, p. 615: “Table of the Population and Extent of China proper, within the Great Wall. Taken in round numbers from the Statements of Chow ta-zhin.”

[153] This interesting subject can then be left with the reader, who will find further remarks in Medhurst’s China, De Guignes’ Voyages À Peking, The Missionaries, in Tomes VI. and VIII. of MÉmoires, Ed. Biot, in Journal Asiatique for 1836. The Numerical Relations of the Population of China during the 4,000 Years of its Historical Existence; or the Rise and Fall of the Chinese Population, by T. Sacharoff. Translated into English by the Rev. W. Lobscheid, Hongkong, 1862. Notes and Queries on China and Japan, Vol. II., pp. 88, 103, and 117.

[154] Sacred Edict, pp. 51, 60.

[155] China: Its State and Prospects, p. 42.

[156] Ta Tsing Leu Lee; being the Fundamental Laws, etc., of the Penal Code of China, by Sir G. T. Staunton, Bart., London, 1810. Section CCXXV.

[157] Chinese Repository, Vol. I., p. 332.

[158] Ibid., Vol. VII., p. 503; Vol. II., p. 161.

[159] Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 152.

[160] Penal Code, p. 79, Staunton’s translation.

[161] Voyages À Peking, Tome III., pp. 55-86.

[162] The shih, says Medhurst, is a measure of grain containing 3,460 English cubic inches. China: Its State and Prospects, p. 68. London, 1838.

[163] Annales de la Foi, Tome XVI., p. 440.

[164] Chinese Commercial Guide, 2d edition, 1842, p. 143.

[165] Chinese Repository, Vol. I., p. 159.

[166] Chinese Repository, Vol. II., p. 431.

[167] The Chinese, Vol. II., pp. 333-343.

[168] Journal of the Geolog. Soc., London, for 1871, p. 379.

[169] Im fernen Osten, p. 462.

[170] China: Ergebnisse eigener Reisen. Band I., S. 74. Berlin, 1877.

[171] Compare Kingsmill, in the Quar. Journal of the Geol. Soc. of London, 1868, pp. 119 ff., and in the North China Herald, Vol. IX., 85, 86.

[172] Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 395.

[173] Across America and Asia, pp. 291 ff.

[174] Five Months on the Yang-tsze, p. 265. Annales de la Foi, Tome IX., p. 457.

[175] N. C. Br. R. A. Soc. Journal, New Series, No. III., pp. 94-106, and No. IV., pp. 243 ff. Notes by Mr. Hollingworth of a Visit to the Coal Mines in the Neighborhood of Loh-Ping. Blue Book, China, No. 2, 1870, p. 11. Notes and Queries on China and Japan, Vol. II., pp. 74-76. North China Herald, passim. Richthofen’s Letters, and in Ocean Highways, Nov., 1873. Chinese Repository, Vol. XIX., pp. 385 ff.

[176] Compare RÉmusat, Histoire de Khotan, pp. 163 ff., where there is an extended list of Chinese precious stones drawn from native sources.

[177] Murray’s China, Edinburgh, 1843, Vol. III., p. 276; compare also an article on this stone by M. Blondel, of Paris, published in the Smithsonian Report for 1876. MÉmoires concernant les Chinois, Tome XIII., p. 389. RÉmusat in the Journal des Savans, Dec., 1818, pp. 748 ff. Notes and Queries on C. and J., Vol. II., pp. 173, 174, and 187; Vol. III., p. 63; Vol. IV., pp. 13 and 33. Macmillan’s Magazine, October, 1871. Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, Vol. II., p. 564.

[178] Nephrit und Jadeit, nach ihren mineralogischen Eigenschaften sowie nach ihrer urgeschichtlichen und ethnographischen Bedeutung. Heinrich Fischer, Stuttgart, 1880. An exhaustive treatise on every phrase and variety of the mineral.

[179] Obtained from Badakshan. Wood, Journey to the Oxus, p. 263.

[180] Geological Researches in China, Chap. X.

[181] Humboldt, Fragmens Asiatiques, Tome I., p. 196. Annales de la Foi, Janvr., 1829, pp. 416 ff.

[182] Breton, China, its Costumes, Arts, etc., Vol. II.

[183] Bridgman’s Chinese Chrestomathy, p. 469.

[184] Chinese Repository, Vol. VII., p. 90.

[185] ZoÖl. Soc. Proc., 1870, p. 626.

[186] Borget, La Chine Ouverte, p. 147.

[187] Chinese Repository, Vol. XII., p. 608.

[188] Ibid., Vol. VI., p. 411.

[189] Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 353.

[190] Wars and Sports of the Mongols and Romans.

[191] Oriental and Western Siberia, p. 416.

[192] Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, May, 1859, p. 289.

[193] Journal N. C. Br. R. A. Soc., Vol. IV., 1867, Art. XI., by T. Watters.

[194] Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 237.

[195] Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 246—where there is an admirable wood-cut of one from Wood.

[196] From Kulja to Lob-nor, p. 116.

[197] John Gould, Century of Birds. London, 1831-32.

[198] On the birds of China, see in general Les Oiseaux de la Chine, par M. l’AbbÉ Armand David, avec un Atlas de 124 Planches dessinÉes et lith. par M. Arnoul. Paris, 1877. R. Swinhoe, in the Proceedings of the Scientific Meetings of the ZoÖlogical Soc. of London, and in The Ibis, a Magazine of General Ornithology, passim. Journ. N. C. Br. R. A. Soc., Nos. II., p. 225, and III., p. 287.

[199] Chinese Repository, Vol. VII., p. 213. Compare Yule’s note, Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 232. Huc, Travels in Tartary, etc., Vol. II., p. 246. Bell, Journey from St. Petersburgh in Russia to Ispahan in Persia, Vol. I., p. 216. Also Heeren, Asiatic Nations, Vol. I., p. 98, where there is a rÉsumÉ of Ctesias’ account of the unicorn.

[200] Chinese Repository, Vol. VII., p. 250. For a careful analysis of this relic of ancient lore, see the Nouveau Journal Asiatique, Tome XII., pp. 232-243, 1833; also Tome VIII., 3d Series, pp. 337-382, 1839, for M. Bazin’s estimate of its value.

[201] Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 46.

[202] Vol. III., p. 445.

[203] Conspectus of collections made by Dr. Cantor, Chinese Repository, Vol. X., p. 434. General features of Chusan, with remarks on the Flora and Fauna of that Island, by T. E. Cantor, Annal. Nat. Hist., Vol. IX. (1842), pp. 265, 361, and 481. Journal As. Soc. of Bengal, Vol. XXIV., 1855.

[204] Hanbury’s notes on Chinese Materia Medica, 1862; Pharmaceutical Journal, Feb., 1862.

[205] Baron Richthofen’s Letters, No. VII., to Shanghai Chamber of Commerce, May, 1872, p. 52.

[206] Darwin, Naturalist’s Voyage, p. 35, notices a similar habit of the sphex in the vicinity of Rio Janeiro. The insect partially kills the spider or caterpillar by stinging, when they are stored in a rotting state with her eggs.

[207] Compare Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 271; A. R. Wallace, The Malay Archipelago, pp. 87-91, American Ed.

[208] See also in Notes and Queries on C. and J., Vol. III., pp. 115, 129, 139, 147, 150, 170.

[209] From calculations of Humboldt it was estimated that the productiveness of this plant as compared with wheat is as 133 to 1, and as against potatoes, 44 to 1.

[210] Compare Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 197.

[211] The application of this name to the jujube plum by foreigners, because the kind cured in honey resembled Arabian dates in color, size, and taste when brought on the table, is a good instance of the manner in which errors arise and are perpetuated from mere carelessness.

[212] Compare Dr. H. F. Hance, in Journal of Botany, Vol. IX., p. 38.

[213] Travels in Siberia, Vol. II., p. 151.

[214] Wanderings in China.

[215] Chinese Repository, Vol. VII., p. 393.

[216] MÉlanges Orientales, Posthumes, p. 215.

[217] 2357 and 2255 before Christ.

[218] Penal Code, Introduction, p. xxviii.

[219] Vol. XVI., 1810.

[220] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 24-29.

[221] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 12; Chinese Chrestomathy, p. 558.

[222] The attributes ascribed to a chakrawartti in the Buddhist mythology have many points of resemblance to the hwangtÍ, and Hardy’s Manual of Buddhism (p. 126) furnishes an instructive comparison between the two characters, one fanciful and the other real.

[223] The remark of Heeren (Asiatic Nations, Vol. I., p. 57), that the names by which the early Persian monarchs, Darius, Xerxes, and others, were called, were really titles or surnames, and not their own personal names, suggests the further comparison whether those renowned names were not like the kwoh hao of the Chinese emperors, whose adoption of the custom was after the extinction of the Persian monarchy. Herodotus (Book VI., 98) seems to have been familiar with these names, not so much as being arbitrary and meaningless terms as epithets whose significations were associated with the kings. The new names given to the last two sons of Josiah, who became kings of Judah by their conquerors (2 Kings, 23: 34, and 24: 17), indicate even an earlier adoption of this custom.

[224] Chinese Repository, Vol. X., pp. 87-98. Indo-Chinese Gleaner, February, 1821.

[225] Staunton’s Embassy, 8vo edition, London, 1797, Vol. III., p. 63.

[226] Chinese Repository, Vol. XIV., p. 521; N. C. Br. R. As. Soc. Journal, No. XI.

[227] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 576.

[228] Missionary Chronicle, Vol. XIV., p. 324; Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, p. 69; Heeren, Asiatic Nations, Vol. I., p. 246.

[229] M. Ed. Biot furnished a good account to the Journal Asiatique (3d series, Vol. III.) of the legal condition of slaves in China; see also Chinese Repository, Vol. XVIII., pp. 347-363, and passim; Archdeacon Gray’s China.

[230] Chinese Chrestomathy, Chap. XVII., Sec. 4, p. 570.

[231] A still more common designation for officers of every rank in the employ of the Chinese government has not so good a parentage; this is the word mandarin, derived from the Portuguese mandar, to command, and indiscriminately applied by foreigners to every grade, from a premier to a tide-waiter; it is not needed in English as a general term for officers, and ought to be disused, moreover, from its tendency to convey the impression that they are in some way unlike similar officials in other lands. Compare Notes and Queries on China and Japan, Vol. III., p. 12.

[232] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 138. Chinese Chrestomathy, p. 573.

[233] Fraser’s Magazine, February, 1873. China Review, Vol. III., p. 13. Note on the Condition and Government of the Chinese Empire in 1849. By T. F. Wade. Hongkong, 1850. Translations of several years of the Gazette have appeared since 1872, reprinted from the columns of the North China Herald.

[234] Essai sur l’Instruction en Chine, pp. 540-589.

[235] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 188, 276-287; Vol. V., pp. 165-178; Vol. XX., pp. 250, 300, and 363. MÉmoires concernant les Chinois, par les Missionaires À Pekin, Tomes VII. and VIII., passim.

[236] Compare an article by E. C. Taintor, in Notes and Queries on China and Japan. Chinese Repository, Vols. IV., pp. 148, 164, and 177, and XII., pp. 32 and 67.

[237] Dr. W. A. P. Martin, The Chinese.

[238] Mayers’ Manual of Chinese Titles furnishes the best compend for learning their duties and names.

[239] Rollin’s Ancient History, Chap. IV. Manners of the Assyrians. Heeren’s Asiatic Researches, Vol. I., Chap. II.

[240] Chinese Repository, Vol. VI., p. 48.

[241] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 59.

[242] Embassy to China, Vol. III., p. 26.

[243] Chinese Repository, Vol. III., p. 241.

[244] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 61-66.

[245] Compare Dr. Bowring in N. C. Br. R. A. Soc. Journal, Part III., Art. VII. (Dec., 1852).

[246] Chinese Repository, passim. Oliphant, Lord Elgin’s Mission to China and Japan, Chap. XVII. Minister Reed, in U. S. Dip. Correspondence, 1857-58.

[247] The Chinese have a great affection for the place of their nativity, and consider a residence in any other province like being in a foreign settlement. They always wish to return thither in life, or have their remains carried and interred there after death.

[248] A district in the province of KwangsÍ.

[249] Kiuh Kiang was an ancient minister of state during the Tang dynasty. His imperial master would not listen to his advice and he therefore retired. Rebellion and calamities arose. The Emperor thought of his faithful servant and sent for him; but he was already dead.

[250] Governor Loo.

[251] In permitting Chu to retire from public life.

[252] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 71.

[253] Annales de la Foi, No. 6, 1823, pp. 21-24.

[254] Chinese Repository, Vol. I., p. 236.

[255] Easy Lessons in Chinese, pp. 223-227. The effect of these instructions relating to grasshoppers does not appear to have equalled the zeal of the officers composing them; swarms of locusts, however, are in general neither numerous nor devastating in China.

[256] A new History of China, containing a description of the most considerable particulars of that Empire, written by Gabriel Magaillans, of the Society of Jesus, Missionary Apostolick. Done out of French. London, 1688, p. 249.

[257] Compare the Chinese Repository, Vol. XVIII., p. 207.

[258] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 218.

[259] Compare Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, Vol. I., p. 330.

[260] Heeren, Asiatic Nations, Vol. II., p. 259. Raffles, Java, Vol. II. App. Biot, L’Instruction publique, pp. 59, 200.

[261] Chinese Repository, Vol. XI., p. 630.

[262] Compare Dr. Milne, in Transactions R. A. S. of Gr. Brit. and Irel., Vol. I., p. 240 (1825). Journal of the R. A. S., Vol. I., p. 93, and Vol. VI., p. 120. Chinese Repository, Vol. XVIII., pp. 280-295. A. Wylie, in the Shanghai Almanac for 1854. Notes and Queries on C. and J., Vol. III., p. 55. T. T. Meadows, The Chinese and their Rebellions, London, 1856. Gustave Schlegel, Thian Ti Hwui, the Hung-League or Heaven-Earth-League. A Secret Society with the Chinese in China and India, Batavia, 1866.

[263] Missionary Chronicle, Vol. XIV., p. 140. Smith’s China, p. 250.

[264] For cases of this sort in Cambodia, RÉmusat makes mention of a variety of ordeals which curiously resemble those resorted to on the continent of Europe during the Middle Ages. Nouveaux MÉlanges, Tome I., p. 126.

[265] Heeren informs us that a similar insignia was used in Persia in early days.

[266] W. C. Milne, Life in China, London, 1857, p. 99.

[267] Dr. H. M. Field, From Egypt to Japan, Chap. XXIV., passim. New York, 1877. Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 214, 260.

[268] Persons who commit suicide also dress themselves in their best, the common notion being that in the next world they will wear the same garments in which they died.

[269] Compare Du Halde, Description de l’Empire de la Chine, Tome II., pp. 365-384; A. Wylie, Notes, p. 68; Chinese Repository, Vols. V., p. 81, and VI., pp. 185, 393, and 562; China Review, Vol. VI., pp. 120, 195, 253, 328, etc.; New Englander, May, 1878.

[270] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 83-87, 306-316.

[271] Morrison’s Chinese Dictionary, Vol. I., Part I., pp. 749-758.

[272] This custom obtains also in Bokhara.

[273] Compare Dr. Morrison in the HorÆ SinicÆ, pp. 122-146; B. Jenkins, The Three-Character Classic, romanized according to the Shanghai dialect, Shanghai, 1860. The Classic has also been translated into Latin, French, German, Russian, and Portuguese. For the Trimetrical Classic of the Tai-ping rÉgime see a version in the North China Herald, No. 147, May 21, 1853, by Dr. Medhurst; also a translation by Rev. S. C. Malan, of Balliol College, Oxford. London, 1856.

[274] E. C. Bridgman in the Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 152. Livre de Cent familles, Perny, Dict., App., No. XIV., pp. 156 ff.

[275] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 229.

[276] Compare Das TsiÄn dsÜ wen, oder Buch von Tausend WÖrtern, aus dem Schinesischen, mit BerÜcksichtigung der Koraischen und Japanischen Uebersetzung, ins Deutsche Übertragen, Ph. Fr. de Siebold, Nippon, Abh. IV., pp. 165-191; B. Jenkins, The Thousand-Character Classic, romanized, etc. Shanghai, 1860; Thsien-Tseu-Wen, Le Livre des Mille Mots, etc., par Stanislas Julien (with Chinese text), Paris, 1864; China Review, Vol. II., pp. 182 ff.

[277] Chinese Repository, Vol. X., p. 614.

[278] Compare PÈre Cibot in MÉmoires concernant les Chinois, Tome IV., pp. 1 ff.; Dr. Legge, The Sacred Books of China, Part I. The ShÛ-king, Religious Portions of the Shih-king, the HsiÂo-king, Oxford, 1879; Asiatic Journal, Vol. XXIX., pp. 302 ff., 1839.

[279] Chinese Repository, Vol. VI., p. 131.

[280] Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 414. See also Vol. VI., pp. 229-241; Vol. IV., pp. 1-10; Vol. XI., pp. 545-557; and Vol. XIII., pp. 626-641, for further notices of the modes and objects of education; Biot, Essai sur l’Histoire de l’Instruction Publique en Chine, and his translation of the Chao-lÍ, Vol. II., p. 27, Paris, 1851. Chinese Recorder, September, 1871.

[281] Chinese Repository, Vol. II., p. 249; Vol. XVI., pp. 67-72. Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, Vol. I., pp. 376-443. Dr. Martin, The Chinese.

[282] The Chinese, p. 50.

[283] Biot, Essai sur l’Instruction en Chine, p. 603.

[284] Chinese Repository, Vol. IX., p. 541; Vol. III., p. 118.

[285] See Morrison’s Chinese Dictionary, Vol. I., Part I., pp. 759-779, for the laws and usages of the several trials. Also Doolittle’s Social Life, Vol. I., Chaps. XV., XVI., and XVII.; Biot, Essai sur l’Histoire de l’Instruction Publique en Chine; W. A. P. Martin, The Chinese, pp. 39 ff.; Journal Asiatique, Tomes III., pp. 257 and 321, IV., p. 3, and VII. (3d Series, 1839), pp. 32-81; Journal Asiatic Soc. Bengal, Vol. XXVIII., No. 1, 1859; Journal N. C. Br. B. As. Soc., New Series, Vol. VI., pp. 129 ff.; China Review, Vol. II., p. 309.

[286] Ellis, Embassy to China, p. 87; Chinese Repository, Vol. XVI., p. 62; Vol. IV., p. 125.

[287] Davis, Sketches, Vol. I., pp. 99, 101.

[288] Archdeacon Gray, China, Vol. I., p. 167.

[289] Chinese Repository, Vol. IX., p. 542.

[290] Professor H. A. Sayce, of Oxford, in reference to a suggested possible connection between the Chinese and primitive Accadian population of Chaldea, says in a letter to the London Times: “I would mention one fact which may certainly be considered to favor it. The cuneiform characters of Babylonia and Assyria are, as is well known, degenerated hieroglyphics, like the modern Chinese characters. The original hieroglyphics were invented by the Accadians before they descended into Babylonia from the mountains of Elam, and I have long been convinced that they were originally written in vertical columns. In no other way can I explain the fact that most of the pictures to which the cuneiform characters can be traced back stand upon their sides. There is evidence to show that the inventors of the hieroglyphics used papyrus, or some similar vegetable substance, for writing purposes before the alluvial plain of Babylonia furnished them with clay, and the use of such a writing material will easily account for the vertical direction in which the characters were made to run.”

[291] Biot has a brief note upon the methods employed by native scholars for studying pronunciation. Essai sur l’instruction en Chine, p. 597.

[292] Easy Lessons in Chinese, pp. 3-29; Chinese Repository, Vol. III., pp. 1-37.

[293] One may gain some idea of this difficulty by referring to the geographical names contained in the Russo-Chinese Treaty, quoted on page 215.

[294] The writer has an edition of the Thousand Character Classic, containing each couplet of eight words in a different form of character, making one hundred and twenty-five styles of type—too grotesque to be imitated, and probably never actually in use.

[295] See page 193. In order that the Manchu portion of this famous poem might not appear inferior to the Chinese, the Emperor ordered thirty-two varieties of Manchu characters to be invented and published in like manner with the others. RÉmusat, MÉlanges, Tome II., p. 59. PÈre Amiot, Éloge de la Ville de Moukden. Trad. en franÇois. Paris, 1770.

[296] Chinese Chrestomathy, Chap. I., Secs. 5 and 6, where the rules for writing Chinese are given in full with numerous examples; Easy Lessons in Chinese, p. 59; Chinese Repository, Vol. III., p. 37.

[297] Journal Asiatic Soc. Bengal, Vol. III. (Sept., 1834), p. 477. S. Julien in the Revue de l’Orient et de l’Algerie, XX., p. 74, 1856.

[298] Chinese Repository, Vol. III., pp. 246-252, 528; Vol. XIV., p. 124; Missionary Recorder, January, 1875.

[299] Chinese as They Are, Chap. XXXIV.

[300] Chinese Repository, Vol. VIII., p. 347.

[301] Many aids in learning the general language and all the leading dialects have been prepared in English, French, German, and Portuguese, but several of the early ones, as Morrison, GonÇalves, Medhurst, and Bridgman, are already out of print. The names of all of these may be found most easily in the first volume of M. Cordier’s exhaustive Dictionnaire Bibliographique des ouvrages relatifs À l’Empire chinois, pp. 725-804. Paris, 1881.

[302] The Sacred Books of China. The Texts of Confucianism. Translated by James Legge. Part II. The YÎ King. Oxford, 1882.

[303] Some fourteen hundred and fifty treatises on the Yih—consisting of memoirs, digests, expositions, etc.—are enumerated in the Catalogue. The foreign literature upon it has heretofore been scant. The only other translations of the classic in extenso, besides Dr. Legge’s, already quoted, are the Y-King; Antiquissimus Sinarum liber quem ex latina interpretatione; P. Regis, aliorumque ex Soc. Jesu P. P., edidit Julius Mohl, 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1834-39; and A Translation of the Confucian Yih King, or the Classic of Change, by the Rev. Canon McClatchie, Shanghai, 1876 (with Chinese text). Compare further Notice du livre chinois nommÉ Y-king, avec des notes, par M. Claude Visdelou, contained in PÈre Gaubil’s Chou king, Paris, 1843; Die verbogenen AlterthÜmer der Chineser aus dem uralten Buche Yeking untersuchet, von M. Joh. Heinrich Schuhmacher, WolfenbÜttel, 1763; Joseph Haas, in Notes and Queries on China and Japan, Vol. III., 1869; China Review, Vols. I., p. 151; IV., p. 257; and V., p. 132.

[304] Several translations have been made by missionaries. One by P. Gaubil was edited by De Guignes in 1770; a second by Rev. W. H. Medhurst, in 1846; but the most complete by J. Legge, D.D., in 1865, with its notes and text, has brought this Record better than ever before to the knowledge of western scholars.

[305] Legge, The Chinese Classics, Vol. III. Shoo King, p. 59.

[306] Chinese Repository, Vol. VIII., p. 385; Vol. IX., p. 573. Le Chou-king, un des Livres SacrÉs des Chinois, qui renferme les Fondements de leur ancienne Histoire, etc. Traduit par Feu le P. Gaubil. Paris, 1770, in-4. La Morale du Chou-king ou le Livre SacrÉ de la Chine. (The same), Paris, 1851. Ancient China. The Shoo King, or the Historical Classic: being the most ancient authentic Record of the Annals of the Chinese Empire, translated by W. H. Medhurst, Sen., Shanghae, 1846. Nouveau Journal Asiatique, Tomes V. (1830), p. 401; VI., p. 401, and XIV. (1842), p. 152. China Review, Vol. IV., p. 13. Dr. Legge’s translation has recently (1879) appeared, without the Chinese text, in Max MÜller’s series of Sacred Books of the East, Vol. III. Richthofen, China, Bd. I., pp. 277-365, an exhaustive treatise on the early geography of China, with valuable historical maps.

[307] Dr. Legge, The She King, translated into English verse, p. 70. London, 1876.

[308] Ib., p. 83.

[309] Id., The She King, p. 222.

[310] Id., The She King, p. 347.

[311] A recent German translation of these odes has combined, with much accuracy and a smooth versification, the peculiar adaptability of that tongue to the reproduction (in some degree) of sounds so foreign to the language as Chinese. ShÍ King. Das kanonische Liederbuch der Chinesen. Uebersetzt von Victor von Strauss. Heidelberg, 1880.

[312] The Chinese Classics, Vol. IV., pp. 172-180. Hongkong, 1871.

[313] Compare Confucii Chi-king sive Liber Carminum, ex latina P. Lacharme interpretatione edidit J. Mohl, Stuttgart, 1830; Essai sur le Chi-king, et sur l’ancienne poÉsie chinoise, par M. Brosset jeune, Paris, 1828; BibliothÈque orientale, Vol. II., p. 247 (1872). Chi-king, ou Livre des Vers, Traduction de M. G. Pauthier; China Review, Vol. VI., pp. 1 ff. and 166 ff. Journal N. C. Br. R. As. Soc., Vol. XII., pp. 97 ff.

[314] Li-ki ou MÉmorial des Rites, traduit pour la premiÈre fois du chinois, et accompagnÉ de notes, de commentaires et du texte original, par J. M. Callery. Turin et Paris, 1853.

[315] Le Tcheou-Li ou Rites des Tcheou, traduit pour la premiÈre fois du chinois, par Feu Édouard Biot. 2 Tomes. Paris, 1851.

[316] Chinese Repository, Vol. V., pp. 306-312.

[317] This somewhat fanciful explanation of the title is from the Han commentators. Dr. Legge (Classics, Vol. V., Prolegomena, p. 7) observes that “not even in the work do we find such ‘censures’ and ‘commendations;’ and much less are they trumpeted in the title of it.” His interpretation that Spring and Autumn are put by synechdoche for all four seasons, i.e., the entire record of the year, appears to be a more natural account. The same writer declares that “the whole book is a collection of riddles, to which there are as many answers as there are guessers.” The interesting chapters of his prolegomena to this translation, and his judicious criticisms on these early records, should tempt all sinologues to read them throughout.

[318] The same writer adds, in summing up the merits of the Tso Chuen: “It is, in my opinion, the most precious literary treasure which has come down to posterity from the Chow dynasty.”—Classics, Vol. V., Proleg., p. 35.

[319] To this the Kung Yang commentator adds: “This he said in joke.”

[320] Compare Tchun Tsieou, Le Printemps & l’Automne, ou Annales de la PrincipautÉ de Lou, depuis 722 jusqu’ en 481, etc. Traduites en franÇois, par Le Roux Deshauterayes. 1750. Dr. E. Bretschneider, in the Chinese Recorder, Vol. IV., pp. 51-52, 1871.

[321] Collie’s Four Books, pp. 6-10.

[322] Ib., p. 28.

[323] The Works of Confucius; containing the original text, with a Translation, by J. Marshman. Vol. I. Serampore, 1807.

[324] Chinese Repository, Vol. XI., p. 421. Pauthier, La Chine, Paris, 1839, pp. 121-184.

[325] Compare Dr. Legge’s Religions of China; Prof. R. K. Douglas, Confucianism and Taouism, London, 1879; S. Johnson, Oriental Religions: China, Boston, 1877; A Systematical Digest of the Doctrines of Confucius, according to the Analects, Great Learning, and Doctrine of the Mean, etc., by Ernst Faber. Translated from the German by MÖllendorff, Hongkong, 1875; Histoire de Confucius, par J. SÉnamaud, Bordeaux et Paris, 1878.

[326] It may here be remarked that the terms tsz’ or fu-tsz’ do not properly form a part of the name, but are titles, meaning rabbi or eminent teacher, and are added to the surnames of some of the most distinguished writers, by way of peculiar distinction; and in the words Mencius and Confucius have been Latinized with Mang and Kung, names of the persons themselves, into one word. The names of other distinguished scholars, as Chu fu-tsz’, Ching fu-tsz’, etc., have not undergone this change into Chufucius, Chingfucius; but usage has now brought the compellation for these two men into universal use as a distinctive title, somewhat like the term venerable applied to Bede.

[327] RÉmusat, Nouveaux MÉlanges, Tome II., pp. 115-129.

[328] Chinese Classics, Vol II. Hongkong, 1862.

[329] Compare RÉmusat, Nouveaux MÉlanges, Tome II., pp. 130 ff., where there are excellent biographical notices of Sz’ma Tsien and other native historians.

[330] Chinese Repository, Vol. IX., pp. 210, 274.

[331] Legge’s Chinese Classics, Vol. III.; Prolegomena, Chap. IV. E. Biot in the Journal Asiatique, 2e Series, Tomes XII., p. 537, and XIII., pp. 203, 381.

[332] Compare RÉmusat, MÉlanges Asiatiques, Tome II., p. 166; Chinese Repository, Vol. IX., p. 143; Wylie’s Notes, p. 55; Mayer’s Chinese Reader’s Manual, p. 149.

[333] Translated by Rev. W. H. Medhurst, in the Chinese Repository, Vol. XIII., pp. 552, 609 et seq.

[334] The Sacred Edict, London, 1817; a second edition of this translation appeared in Shanghai in 1870, and another in 1878. Compare Wylie’s Notes, p. 71; Sir G. T. Staunton’s Miscellaneous Notices, etc., pp. 1-56 (1812); Le Saint Edit, Étude de LittÉrature chinoise, prÉparÉe par A. ThÉophile Piry, Shanghai, 1879.

[335] Sacred Edict, pp. 254-259.

[336] Sacred Edict, p. 146.

[337] The second of these, Tu Fu, is a poet of some distinction noticed by RÉmusat (Nouveaux MÉlanges, Tome II., p. 174). He lived in the eighth century A.D., dying of hunger in the year 768. His writings are usually edited with those of LÍ Tai-peh.

[338] Davis, Poetry of the Chinese, London, 1870; G. C. Stent, The Jade Chaplet, London, 1874; Entombed Alive, and other Verses, 1878; Le Marquis D’Hervey-Saint-Denys, PoÉsies de l’Epoque des Thang, Paris, 1862. A number of extracts of classical and modern literature will be found in Confucius and the Chinese Classics, compiled by Rev. A. W. Loomis, San Francisco, 1867. China Review, Vols. I., p. 248, IV., p. 46, and passim.

[339] Chinese Courtship. In Verse. To which is added an Appendix treating of the Revenue of China, etc., etc., by Peter Perring Thoms, London, 1824. Compare the Quarterly Review for 1827, pp. 496 ff. Le Li-Sao, PoÈme du IIIe SiÈcle avant notre Ère. Traduit du Chinois, par le Marquis d’Hervey de Saint-Denys, Paris, 1870.

[340] Stent’s Jade Chaplet.

[341] A translation is given in the Chinese Repository (Vol. IX., p. 508) of a supposed complaint made by a cow of her sad lot in being obliged to work hard and fare poorly during life, and then be cut up and eaten when dead; the ballad is arranged in the form of the animal herself, and a herdboy leading her, who in his own form praises the happiness of a rural life. This ballad is a Buddhist tractate, and that fraternity print many such on broad-sheets; one common collection of prayers is arranged like a pagoda, with images of Buddha sitting in the windows of each story.

[342] The kÍ, or ‘flag,’ is the term by which the leaflets are called when they just begin to unroll; the tsiang, or ‘awl,’ designates those leaves which are still wrapped up and which are somewhat sharp.

[343] The ting is not exactly a stile, being a kind of shed, or four posts supporting a roof, which is often erected by villagers for the convenience of wayfarers, who can stop there and rest. It sometimes contains a bench or seat, and is usually over or near a spring of water.

[344] Tchao-chi-cou-eulh, ou l’Orphelin de la Maison de Tchao, tragÉdie chinoise, traduite par le R. P. de PrÉmare, Miss. de la Chine, 1755. Julien published a translation of the same, Paris, 1834.

[345] Since the appearance of M. Bazin’s ThÉÂtre Chinois (Paris, 1838) and Davis’ Sorrows of Han (London, 1829), there has been astonishingly little done in the study of Chinese plays. Compare, for the rest, an article on this subject by J. J. AmpÈre, in the Revue des Deux Mondes, September, 1838; The Far East, Vol. I. (1876), pp. 57 and 90; Chinese Repository, Vol. VI., p. 575; China Review, Vol. I., p. 26; also Lay’s Chinese as They Are, and Dr. Gray’s China, passim. Lieut. Kreitner gives an interesting picture of the Chinese theatre in a country town, together with a few pages upon the drama, of which his party were spectators. Im fernen Osten, pp. 595-599.

[346] The commendation by Lord Brougham of this “admirable precept,” as he called it, is cited by Sir J. Davis.

[347] Voyage À PÉking, Vol. II., p. 173.

[348] It is said that when Ghengis in his invasion of China took a city, his soldiers immediately set about pulling down the four walls of the houses, leaving the overhanging roofs supported by the wooden columns—by which process they converted them into excellent tents for themselves and their horses.—EncyclopÆdia Britannica: Art. China.

[349] James Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, p. 687; compare also MÉmoires Concernant les Chinois, where Chinese architecture is treated of in almost every volume.

[350] The foreign literature upon this subject is as yet scant and unimportant. Compare the rare and costly Designs of Chinese Buildings, Furniture, Dresses, etc., from Originals drawn in China by Mr. Chambers, London, 1757, folio; J. M. Callery, De l’Architecture Chinoise, in the Revue d’Architecture; Wm. Simpson, in Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects, 1873-74, p. 33; Notes and Queries on China and Japan.

[351] Wanderings in China, p. 98.

[352] Compare pp. 76 and 167.

[353] Chinese Repository, Vol. X., p. 473.

[354] Travels in China, p. 96.

[355] Life in China, p. 453.

[356] Voyages À Peking, Tome II., p. 79; Davis’ Sketches, Vol. I., p. 213; Fergusson, Indian and Eastern Architecture, 1876, p. 695; Milne’s Life in China, p. 429 seq.; Chinese Repository, Vol. XIX., pp. 535-540.

[357] Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, Vol. I., p. 243.

[358] Compare an article by W. F. Mayers in Notes and Queries on C. and J., Vol. I., pp. 170-173 (with illustrations); Mrs. Gray, Fourteen Months in Canton, passim; Dr. Edkins in Journal N. C. Br. R. A. Soc., Vol. XI., p. 123; Doolittle, Vocabulary, Part III., No. LXVIII; Engineer J. W. King in The United Service, Vol. II., p. 382 (Phila., 1880).

[359] Chinese Repository, Vol. VI., p. 149.

[360] Chinese Repository, Vol. XII., p. 528; Medhurst’s HohkeËn Dictionary, Introduction pp. XXII, XXIII.

[361] Barrow’s Travels, p. 338.

[362] EncyclopÆdia Americana, Art. Canton.

[363] It is recorded that Hau-Chu, of the Chin dynasty, in the year A.D. 583 ordered Lady Yao to bind her feet so as to make them look like the new moon; and that the evil fashion has since prevailed against all subsequent prohibitions.—Notes and Queries on China and Japan, Vol. II., pp. 27 and 43.

[364] Murray’s China, Vol. II., p. 266. Compare the Chinese Repository, Vol. III., p. 537; Rec. de MÉm. de MÉdecine milit. (Paris), 1862-63-64 passim; Chinese Recorder, Vols. I., II., and III. passim (mostly a series of articles on this subject by Dr. Dudgeon); The Far East, February, 1877, p. 27.

[365] The Jade Chaplet, p. 121.

[366] On Chinese costume, see Wm. Alexander, The Costume of China, illustrated, London, 1805; Moeurs et Coutumes des Chinois et leurs costumes en couleur, par J. G. Grohmann, Leipzig; Breton, China: Its Costume, Arts, etc., 4 vols., translated from the French, London, 1812; another translation is from Auguste Borget, Sketches of China and the Chinese, London, 1842; Illustrations of China and its People. A series of two hundred photographs, with letterpress descriptive of the places and people represented, by J. Thompson, London, 1874, 4 vols. quarto.

[367] Dr. Hobson mentions a case at Shanghai where he was called upon to examine a child well-nigh dead with spurious hydrocephalus. Upon investigation he found that the nurse, “a young healthy-looking woman, with breasts full of milk to overflowing,” had “been in the habit of selling her milk in small cupfuls to old persons, under the idea of its highly nutritive properties, and was actually poisoning the child dependent on it.” The nurse being promptly changed, the infant recovered almost immediately.—Journal N. C. Br. R. A. Soc. New Series, Vol. I., p. 51.

[368] Archdeacon Gray, China, Vol. II., p. 76.

[369] MÉmoires conc. les Chinois, Tome XI., pp. 78 ff. C. C. Coffin in the Atlantic Monthly, 1869, p. 747. Doolittle’s Vocabulary, Part III., No. XVIII. M. Henri Cordier in the Journal des DÉbats, Nov. 19, 1879. Notes and Queries on C. and J., Vol. II., pp. 11 and 26.

[370] Compare p. 628.

[371] Social Life of the Chinese, Chapters II. and III.; China, Chap. VII.; also Fourteen Months in Canton, by Mrs. Gray.

[372] Chinese Repository, Vols. IV., p. 568, and X., pp. 65-70; Annales de la Foi, No. XL., 1835.

[373] Voyages À Peking, Tome II., p. 283.

[374] Chinese Repository, Vol. I., p. 293.

[375] China, Chap. VII.

[376] Doolittle’s Handbook, Vol. III., p. 660, gives a list of names collected at Fuhchau, which are applicable to other provinces.

[377] Memoir of Dr. Morrison, Vol. II., p. 142.

[378] Chinese Chrestomathy, Chap. V., Sec. 12, p. 182. This phrase is the origin of the word chinchin, so often heard among the Chinese.

[379] Compare the China Review, Vol. IV., p. 400.

[380] Chinese Repository, Vol. XV., p. 433. Book of Records, Part V., Book X., Legge’s translation; also Medhurst’s and Gaubil’s translations.

[381] Nevius, China and the Chinese, pp. 399-408.

[382] A like custom existed among the Hebrews, now continued in the modern mezuzaw. Deut. vi. 9. Jahn’s ArchÆology, p. 38.

[383] Presbyterian Missionary Chronicle, 1846.

[384] Compare Morrison’s Dictionary under Tsung; Doolittle, Social Life, Vol. II., pp. 55-60; Notes and Queries on China and Japan, Vol. II., p. 157.

[385] Gray’s China (Vol. II., p. 273) contains a cut of a mat theatre from a native drawing. See also Doolittle, Social Life, Vol. II., pp. 292-299.

[386] Chinese as They Are, p. 114.

[387] Chinese Repository, Vol. XIV., p. 335.

[388] Temple Bar, Vol. XLIX., p. 45.

[389] Chinese Repository, Vol. X., p. 106; New York Christian Weekly, 1878.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           

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