Ahle, Joh. Rudolph, was born 1625, and, after holding a post at Erfurt, became organist and burgomaster of his native town MÜhlhausen. His chorale tunes are still popular in Thuringia. On his death in 1673 he was succeeded by his son Joh. Georg, who was a member of the Town Council, and poet laureate to the Emperor Leopold I.

BÖhm, Georg. Is described by Walther as a fine composer and organist of St John at LÜneburg. Bach modelled some of his early chorale-preludes, notably “Wir glauben all’ an einen Gott” on BÖhm’s style.

Brust-positiv. The name given to the choir manual when its pipes stand in front of the rest of the organ, as in many of the old English cathedral organs.

Buxtehude, Dietrich, 1637-1707, organist at the Marien-Kirche at LÜbeck. His organ fugues, toccatas, &c., are of great importance as having furnished Bach with his earliest models. The fugues are usually in three portions, as in Bach’s great E flat fugue (Peters, 242). Many of his organ works have been published by Spitta.

Caldara, Antonius. Born at Venice 1678, a pupil of Legrenzi and Fux, and the writer of many operas, and much church music. He was successively Capellmeister at St Mark’s, the Court of Mantua, and to Charles VI. at Vienna. He was a clever imitator, but had little inventive genius. On coming to Germany, his style improved in vigour. Bach admired him sufficiently to copy his Magnificat in C.

Cantor, Choirmaster. The office is rarely held by the organist as in England, since the cantor has to conduct the “Hauptmusik” with a baton while the organist plays.

The cembalo was used to play the basso continuo in all concerted music outside the church; and even in a concerto for clavier, a second cembalo appears to have accompanied. The lute or regal, however, sometimes took its place, for convenience of porterage.

Transposing clavicymbals, and clavicymbals with keyboards at both ends were in use. The tuning was very troublesome, and had to be done before each performance. Other names were Gravecymbalum, FlÜgel, Schweinskopf, SteertstÜck. The claviorganum was a combination of clavicymbal and positive.

Choral is the German name for the Plainsong of the Roman Church. After the Reformation the name Choral (English “Chorale”) was given to the hymns which were either translated from the Latin, or originally written in the fourteenth century by Johannes of Salzburg, MuscatblÜet, Hans Foltz, Michel Beheim, Johannes Gosseler, JÖrg Breining, and Heinrich von Laufenberg, and which took a firm hold on the German people through the efforts of Martin Luther, Michael Vehe, W. Heintz, Joh. Hofmann, and others. The peculiar variety to be observed in the metrical construction of the German Chorale is directly traceable to the influence of the Volkslied, for Luther himself wrote sacred words for secular melodies. Other names connected with the chorale are Valentin Triller, Veit Heefen, Count Albrecht the younger of Brandenburg, Culmbach, Speratus, Spengler, Hans Sachs, Schensing, Decius Graumann, Joh. Walter, a friend and fellow-worker of Luther, L. Senfl, von Bruck and Fink. Later poets were Nic. Hermann, P. Nicolai, Calvisius Hassler, &c., H. and J. PrÆtorius, Neumark, Flemming, Teschner, Gerhard and CrÜger. The music of the chorale was brought to perfection by J. S. Bach.

Chorale-Cantatas, those in which a complete hymn is carried out, each verse forming as a rule a separate movement, whether for chorus or solo voices, though occasionally a verse is omitted in the longer hymns. Sometimes recitatives break the course of the chorale melody, or the melody is played by the instruments and accompanied by vocal recitative. The chorales chosen are always well-known ones, and among the finest of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Church Music. The services at Leipsic were regulated by an act passed in 1540 by Duke Heinrich applying to all Saxony. A morning service called matins was celebrated at St Nicholas every Sunday at 5.30 A.M., in which the Venite, Psalms, Te Deum and Benedicamus Domino were sung by the choir, and directed by the St Nicholas cantor.

Morning service took place at 7 at both St Thomas and St Nicholas; a Latin motet was sung, followed by the Kyrie, Gloria in excelsis, Collect in Latin, and at St Thomas a Litany was sung by four boys and the choir alternately. The Gospel and Epistle and Creed were intoned by the priest, and on certain days the Nicene Creed was sung in Latin by the choir. The “Hauptmusik” (the cantata) followed the intoning or singing of the Creed in Latin, and after it was finished the Creed was sung by the congregation in German. This was followed by a sermon of an hour’s duration. The service concluded with the general confession, the Lord’s Prayer and blessing. Chorales were sung by the congregation during the course of the service.

At the mid-day service there were only a sermon and two congregational hymns without the choir. It began at a quarter to twelve. At vespers, the choir sang a motet, and the Magnificat in German, besides leading the congregation in some hymns. At Christmas, Easter and Whitsuntide, similar services were performed for three consecutive days, matins beginning at five instead of half-past to allow more time for the festival services.

Cithara, Cither, a favourite instrument in the sixteenth century of the guitar family, bearing 4, 5 or 6, or even 12 metal strings. PrÆtorius condemns the four-stringed cithara as being “a vulgar instrument only used by cobblers and tailors.” In England it was kept at barbers’ shops for the amusement of customers waiting their turn.

Clarino. Lichtenthal C. Dizionario della Musica, Milan, 1826, says “the clarino is, according to some, a species of small trumpet, of which the tube is narrower than that of the ordinary trumpet, and which gives a more acute sound; but Northerners hold that the word means the ordinary trumpet.” The word frequently occurs in Bach’s scores.

Clavichord. A key-board instrument having brass strings which were neither plucked with a quill as in the harpsichord, nor struck with a hammer as in the pianoforte, but made to sound by a brass blade called a tangent, which pressed against the string as long as the key was held down. Although its tone had little power, the effects of crescendo, diminuendo, and vibrato, called in Germany “Bebung,” were entirely under the player’s control, and on this account it was a favourite instrument with Bach. The clavichord was sometimes provided with pedals for the use of organ students.

Clavicymbal. See Cembalo.

Clavier, literally Keyboard. The German name for all keyboard instruments, such as the clavichord, harpsichord, spinet, instrument, &c. The term is also applied to both the manuals and pedals of the organ.

ClavierbÜchlein, little clavier book for Bach’s son W. Friedemann, when nine years old, in 1720. A diagram shows the keys and principal ornaments, and one of the pieces is figured and called “Applicatio, in nomine Jesu.” Some of the pieces are composed by the boy himself. Eleven of the preludes of the Wohltemperirte clavier first appeared in this book; some of the pieces are by other composers as J. C. Richter and G. H. StÖlzel of Gotha, and there are many of Bach’s own fugues.

ClavierbÜchlein, vor Anna Magdalena Bach in 1720 and 1725. See p. 57.

ClavierÜbung, clavier practice. A work in four parts, consisting of preludes, allemands, the Italian concerto, the French overture, choralvorspiele, &c., intended, as the name implies, for educational purposes. The work includes the well-known prelude and fugue for organ in E flat, Peters 242, and the air in G with thirty variations written for Goldberg.

College of Instrumental Musicians of Upper and Lower Saxony. The full text is given by Spitta, vol. i. p. 145, et seq. The statutes enacted that no member was to settle in any town where another member was already settled; no member was to take lower fees than his predecessor; no member was to boast that he played on a superior instrument to others; offices were only to be obtained by proper examination; no member was to sing immoral songs; every member must conduct himself with propriety in social “attendances,” and to see that his assistants did the same; no member was to bring his art to disrepute by playing on bagpipes, hurdy-gurdies, triangles, &c.

No bad language was to be allowed, and all low company to be avoided; apprentices must, before binding, produce credentials of respectability, and must serve for five years with industry and constant prayer. After an apprentice has served his five years he is to serve another three as an “assistant,” except when he marries his master’s daughter, in which case he shall only serve one year as assistant. In case of dissension arising, the matter must be brought before six master-musicians, who shall decide it. No man is to seek to oust an old master; but if a man becomes too old to do his work, an assistant shall be appointed who shall receive half the salary. Every master is to see that his assistants are properly paid for services rendered. In order that the art of music may not be brought into contempt by inadequate performance, no man shall be allowed to keep more than three apprentices at one time (for this would compel him to employ properly qualified assistants to carry out concerted music). A master neglecting to teach his apprentices could be punished; and an apprentice running away could never become a member of the college. However great the number of members, no man was to be refused membership who was found, after due trial, to be properly qualified. Questions of evil morals arising among members were to be decided by a board of elders.

Concertmeister, the leader of an orchestra who ranks immediately after the conductor. In early times he was also the conductor of purely instrumental music, while the capellmeister conducted whenever voices were employed. The title is also bestowed as a mark of respect on musicians of eminence who are not connected with an orchestra.

Concerto. A term applied to both vocal and instrumental concerted music. Several of Bach’s Cantatas are thus named; thus “Ein Herz das seinen Jesum lebend weiss” is entitled “Concerto À quattro voci, 2 oboi, 2 violini, viola e continuo di J. S. Bach.” Concertos for instruments were in several movements, but usually three. There was sometimes a single solo instrument, but more frequently there were several. The fine concerto in G in two movements is for three violins, three violas, three violoncellos and bass without a solo instrument. The concertos of Handel and Vivaldi, &c., are orchestral compositions in several movements with or without wind instruments. The Italian Concerto is a piece in three movements for clavecin without accompaniment.

Consistory. The authorities of an important church, somewhat analogous to the Dean and Chapter of an English cathedral.

Continuo = Basso Continuo, the bass of a composition for voices or instruments or both. It was always the lowest part, and was usually provided with figures, that the accompanist might be able to fill in the harmonies and keep the body of performers together. It was performed on the organ, or cembalo or regal, according to circumstances. The continuo of most of Bach’s cantatas was written out in two keys, to suit the two pitches in use, “Chorton” being a tone higher than “Kammerton.” All chamber music required the accompaniment of a cembalo in figured bass; and even if there were one or more “Cembali” obbligati a separate instrument would be employed for the continuo. In all Bach’s church compositions in which there is an organ obbligato part, there is another organ part for the continuo. The conductor stood near the organist, as may be seen in the frontispiece to Walther’s Lexicon.

Cornet, Cornetto, Zink, consisted of a curved wooden tube covered with leather and having holes for the fingers with a cup mouthpiece like a trumpet. Two cornets hang on the wall near the organ in Walther’s illustration.

Drese, Johann Samuel, 1654-1716, was organist of the Court at Jena, and afterwards Capellmeister at Weimar. He composed sonatas for the clavier, motets and operas.

Estomihi. Quinquagesima Sunday.

Figural Music. Florid music, or all church music that is not Plainsong, or its Lutheran equivalent the chorale-melody.

Florilegium Portense, a work containing 115 “cantiones selectissimas” of from four to eight voices, with figured bass for organ. A second part contained 150 “concentus selectissimas” of from five to ten parts. Published 1603 and 1621 by Bodenschatz, Cantor of Schulpforta, and Pastor at Rehausen. A complete catalogue is given in Groves’ Dictionary, vol. i. p. 253.

French Overture. A form of opera overture consisting of a slow introduction, followed by a fugue or fugato, and concluding with a slow movement. This form was applied to the clavier by Bach in the “Overture in the French style” (E. P. 208) of the B minor Suite or Partita.

Fux, Joh. Joseph, born in Styria, 1660, organist, Court composer, and Capellmeister at Vienna. A prolific composer of church music and opera, but he is best known by his theoretical works, amongst which is his Latin “Gradus ad Parnassum,” a treatise on composition, which has been through many editions.

GÖrner, J. Gottlieb, was appointed organist of the Nicolai Church at Leipsic in 1721 and was also head of a “Collegium Musicum” or musical society. In 1729 he succeeded GrÄbner as organist of St Thomas. He was a mediocre musician, but put himself in rivalry with Bach, and is reported by Scheibe to have “by his rudeness asserted his pre-eminence among a large number of his equals.” He gave Bach a good deal of trouble by assuming the position and emoluments of director of music to the University; but they appear to have worked amicably together afterwards, and Bach, by will, appointed him guardian of his children, an office which he appears to have satisfactorily fulfilled.

Hammerschmidt, Andreas, born in Bohemia, 1611, organist of Freiberg, afterwards at Zittau. According to Gerber, one of the greatest of German contrapuntists. Walther gives a list of his compositions, which are mostly for the church. His “Musical discourses on the Gospel” were an important step in the development of oratorio.

Hunold, Christian Friedrich. A poet, known as Menantes, who wrote poems for the Hamburg Theatre 1700 to 1706; became a professor at Halle, and was much at the CÖthen Court, where he wrote texts for Bach’s cantatas.

Instrument. A name given to a keyed instrument of which the strings went from side to side as in the obsolete square pianoforte, the key-board being in the middle.

Inventions. The fifteen Inventions and Symphonies were entitled by Bach “A genuine introduction whereby a clear method is shown to lovers of the clavier, and especially to those who are eager to learn, not only (1) of playing in two voices clearly, but also, on making further progress, (2) of playing three obbligato parts properly and well; so that they at the same time will learn to make good inventions and play them themselves, and will also learn what is most important, the art of cantabile playing; and will acquire a good taste in composition. Prepared by J. S. Bach, 1723.”

Keiser, Reinhard, was for forty years the celebrated composer and conductor of operas at Hamburg. He had as colleagues Telemann and Matheson. He wrote 116 operas, and produced many by other composers, particularly Handel’s Rinaldo. Born near Leipsic, 1673, died 1739.

Kuhnau, Johann, 1667-1722, Bach’s predecessor as cantor at the Thomas-schule, was a prolific writer on musical subjects. Amongst his compositions are six Bible sonatas, representing scenes from Scripture on the cembalo. He was the first to write chamber sonatas for the clavier instead of for several instruments. He was also learned in languages, mathematics, and law. He wrote passions, cantatas, &c., but his style seems to have soon become antiquated, and his works could not hold their own against the opera and the younger school.

Lituus. The cantata No. 118, “O Jesu Christ mein’s Leben’s Licht,” is scored for two litui, cornet and three trombones. There are no string or organ parts, and the work is evidently intended for the open air, perhaps for a funeral. There is no reason given for calling the trumpets by their Latin name in this instance.

Lute. This instrument appears in the score of the St John’s Passion. It was sometimes used instead of a clavecin to accompany concerted music.

Lute-Harpsichord. A keyed instrument with gut strings made after Bach’s design by Zacharias Hildebrand, an organ builder. See p. 157.

Matheson, 1681-1764, wrote 89 volumes chiefly on musical subjects, besides being a composer. He was a classical scholar, a student of modern languages, law, and political science, a good musician, dancer, and fencer. He appeared on the Hamburg stage as a singer, composed and conducted operas there, became a great friend of Handel, was made secretary of the English Legation, and cantor and canon of the Cathedral. By his writings he materially helped forward the development of the church cantata.

Mizler, von Kolof, Doctor of Philosophy and historian, born 1711 at Wurtemberg, was a good amateur musician. In 1731 he went to Leipsic to study divinity and afterwards philosophy and music. Here he founded a “Society for Musical Science,” and became on friendly terms with Bach, who seems to have given him some lessons. He wrote various works dealing with the philosophy of music; and his chief importance in connection with Bach was his “Necrology” in which he gives valuable information concerning him. The work is in several numbers; unfortunately that portion of it which deals with Bach is not in the British Museum Library.

Motet. The character and scope of the German motet are thus described by Spitta, vol. i. p. 54. “It is in several parts; it admits of no obbligato instruments, and its subjects are set to a text of the Bible, or to a verse of a hymn. The period of its fullest bloom was about 1600, when music was essentially polyphonic, vocal, and sacred.” Under the influence of harmony it gradually changed its form, introducing solo voices and instruments, especially the organ.

Oboe da Caccia. Hunting oboe, bent like a knee, and differing but slightly from the modern Cor Anglais, or English horn. It occurs very frequently in Bach’s scores. It is described in Grove’s Dictionary as a bassoon raised a fourth, carrying the bass tone of the latter upwards rather than lowering the treble tone of the oboe a fifth. It is also called by Bach, Taille de basson, or tenor of the bassoon.

Oberwerk. The Great organ.

Oberpositiv. A choir organ of which the wind-chest is placed above the others.Orgel-bÜchlein, “Little organ-book.” The first collection was made, according to Bach himself, at CÖthen between 1717 and 1723. The second collection, consisting of six chorales, was published and sold by Bach and his sons at Leipsic, Halle, and Berlin. The third collection was continued till his death and was not published. The last portion was dictated during his blindness to his son-in-law Altnikol. The two unpublished parts were written on two staves only. The pedal compass in the chorales extends to high F and F?. These notes were found on the organ of the Lutheran Church at CÖthen only. This organ is described by Hartmann in 1803 as “an uncommonly powerful and excellent instrument.” It had 8 stops on the pedals, 10 on the great, 10 on the choir. It is now reduced in size and ruined in order to obtain more room in the church.

Partita. A name given to sets of variations for organ or cembalo, and appropriated from the town pipers.

Pachelbel, Johann, 1653-1706, born at NÜremberg, was assistant organist at the Church of St Stephen in Vienna, whence he moved to Eisenach as Court organist in 1677. From Eisenach he went to Erfurt and to Gehren. In 1690 he became Court organist at Stuttgart; and after a stay of three years at Gotha he became organist of a church at NÜremberg till his death. He taught W. Friedemann Bach, and Bernhard, son of Ægidius. According to Gerber, he improved church music, used the overture form on the clavier, and continued the good work which Froberger had begun in respect of clavier composition. Bach used his chorales as models during the Arnstadt period.

Picander. A poet of considerable reputation in his time named Christian Friedrich Henrici. Born 1700 at Stolpen. Went to the University at Leipsic, 1720. Became a lawyer, but was afterwards able to live by his poetical compositions, though he obtained important posts in Leipsic. Died 1764. He wrote the text for many of Bach’s compositions.

Positiv. The name given to that portion of an organ and its manual which corresponds to our choir organ. In a three manual organ there are usually two choir manuals. The swell shutters, if any, are only applied to a few stops, used generally on a fourth or “echo” manual. Properly speaking the positive, called in Italian organs, piccolo, had its foundation pipes pitched an octave higher than those of the ordinary organ. Its diapason would therefore be a four-feet register.

Regal. Sometimes used to accompany secular cantatas instead of the clavecin. It was also used for choir practices. In 1709 Kuhnau in a Memorial to the Council says, “A new regal is needed, the old one being constantly in need of repair.” An inventory of the instruments at the Thomas-schule between 1723 and 1750 mentions, “1 Regal, old and quite done for”; “1 ditto bought 1696.”

The regal was a small reed instrument of the harmonium class, but with small pipes to enhance the sound of the reeds. It could easily be carried about, and was placed on a table when played. It could be made so small as to take the size and shape of a large book, hence sometimes called Book or Bible-regal.

Schubart, Christian F. Daniel. Born 1739. Master of Philosophy, Theatre director, Court poet of Stuttgart, a good amateur musician. Was a good organist and held various posts. In 1777 to 1787 he was imprisoned in a castle on account of some views expressed in his political paper “Deutsche Chronik.” Burney, who met him, remarks on his great facility as a clavier player. He published several compositions and works on music.

SchÜtz, Heinrich. 1585-1672. Brought opera from Italy to Germany and also composed Passions. He was considered the best German composer of his century. He wrote music to the Passions of Matthew, Luke and John for the Court of Dresden, where he was Capellmeister. These are the greatest works of the kind next to those of Bach. His compositions are in the old church tones, but strongly influenced by the coming tonality of modern music.

Solo Cantatas. Those written for one or more solo voices without a chorus. They sometimes conclude with the chorale in four parts.

Spinet. Is defined by Hipkins (“The Pianoforte,” p. 121) as “a Jack keyboard instrument with one string to a note,” as opposed to the cembalo, harpsichord, &c., which had several strings to a note. Adlung says the spinet was of limited compass, its lowest octave being “short” and it was tuned a fifth above chorus pitch. It was sometimes triangular in shape and could be placed on a table; its strings ran from right to left of the performer, as in the “Instrument.”

RÜck-positiv. The name given to the choir manual when its pipes stand behind the rest of the organ.

Telemann, G. Philipp. 1681-1767. A poet and musician who composed no less than 600 overtures, 12 complete year courses of cantatas, 44 passions, 32 compositions for the instalment of preachers, 32 so-called oratorios, 20 coronation pieces, 40 operas, and a mass of other music. Besides all this he is described by Walther as the “greatest Polygraph that Germany can show,” having written a number of books on music, besides a quantity of bad poetry. He was successively organist and director of the New Church at Leipsic (during which time he mastered the English, Italian and French languages), Capellmeister in Sorau, Concertmeister in Eisenach, Kapellmeister at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, Music Director at Hamburg, where he formed one of the trio of musicians, Keiser and Matheson being the others. He was on very friendly terms with Bach and Handel. He was a candidate for the post of Cantor at St Thomas, having during his previous residence in Leipsic (1701-4) founded a flourishing “Collegium Musicum” among the students. He had a great reputation throughout Germany. Bach copied some of his music, and the influence of Telemann, at that time very popular, is seen in Bach’s cantata “Herr Gott dich loben wir.”

Theorbo. A lute with an extra neck bearing the bass strings.

Tromba da tirarsi. A slide trumpet, the soprano of the trombone. Often used in Bach’s scores.

Viola d’amore. A tenor viol of a specially agreeable and silvery tone (Walther). It sometimes had sympathetic strings, though these were not a necessary adjunct.

Viola da gamba. Leg viol, the bass of the viol family, held between the knees, like the violoncello, when played. It had six strings, the lowest of which was the D below the bass stave, and its finger-board was fretted. Its tone (like that of all the viol class) was weak compared to the violoncello.

Viola pomposa, an instrument invented by Bach. See p. 157.

Violetta. This instrument occurs in the cantata “Herr Gott dich loben wir” as an alternative of the “oboe di caccia.” It is described by Walther as a fiddle (Geige) playing an inner part, constructed like a viola, or small viola da gamba.

Violino piccolo. A small violin whose lowest string was a fourth higher than that of the violin. Its tuning was therefore C, G, D, A, an octave above the viola. It frequently occurs in Bach’s scores.

Violoncello piccolo, with five strings. This instrument occurs in the score of a tenor aria in cantata No. 41, “Jesu nur sei gepreiset.” The additional string was tuned to E, and enabled the performer to execute the very florid high passages which Bach writes.

Ziegler, Christiane Mariane von, who wrote words for some of the cantatas was born in 1695 at Leipsic. Began to publish poems when she was fifteen. Left a widow in 1722, she devoted herself to writing poetry and the practice of the keyboard instruments and lute, and flute, and was held in honour by the most artistic society of her time. Spitta gives an account of her life in Curtius’ Historische AufsÄtze, 1884. See p. 197.