Tab. The arming of an archer’s gauntlet or glove.

Tabard. A military garment in general use in the latter half of the 15th, and beginning of the 16th century, which succeeded the jupon and cyclas. It fitted closely to the body, was open at the sides, had wide sleeves or flaps reaching to the elbow, and displayed the armorial ensigns of the wearer on the back and front, as well as on the sleeves. About the middle of the 16th century the tabard ceased to be used except by the officers-of-arms, who have down to the present time continued to wear tabards embroidered with the arms of the sovereign.

Table-money. In the British army and navy, is an allowance sometimes made to officers over and above their pay, for table expenses.

Tablette. Is a flat coping-stone, generally 2 feet wide and 8 inches thick, placed at the top of the revetment of the escarp, for the purpose of protecting the masonry from the effects of the weather, and also to serve as an obstacle to the besiegers when applying the scaling-ladders. It is always considered a matter of importance that the tablette should be concealed from the enemy’s view, as he would otherwise be able to direct his artillery against it; therefore, the escarp of all the works inclosed within the covered way is submitted at least 6 inches to the crest of the glacis.

Tabor. A fortified town of Bohemia, 48 miles south-southeast of Prague. Its castle was originally built in 774, destroyed in 1268, but restored in 1420, when the Hussites under Ziska took possession of the town.

Taborite. A Roman soldier armed with a double-edged axe.

Tabors (Fr.). Intrenchment of baggage for defense against cavalry.

Tabour. A small drum, played with one stick, in combination with a fife. It was formerly used in war, but has now given place to the kettle-drum.

Tabriz, or Tabreez (written also Tauris and Tebriz). A city of North Persia, capital of the province of Azerbaijan. It was taken and sacked by Timur in 1392, and was soon after seized by the Turkomans, from whom it was taken by the Persians in 1500. It has been several times in the hands of the Turks, but was finally taken from them by Nadir Shah in 1730.

Tactician. One versed in tactics.

Tactics, Grand. See Tactics, Military.

Tactics, Military. Is the science and art of disposing military forces in order for battle, and performing military evolutions in the presence of an enemy. It is divided into grand tactics, or the tactics of battle, and elementary tactics, or the tactics of instruction. Tactics is the strategy of the battle-field; the science of manoeuvring and combining those military units which drill, discipline, and the regimental system have brought to the perfection of machines. It was admirably described by Napoleon as the art of being the stronger,—that is, of bringing an overwhelming force to bear on any given point, whatever may be the relative strength of the entire armies opposed. The earliest records of battles are those of mere single combats, in which the chiefs, fighting either on foot or in chariots, performed great deeds; and the commonalty, who apparently were without discipline, were held in profound contempt. With the growth of democracy arose the organization of the phalanx (which see), the advance of which was irresistible, and its firmness equally so, if charged in front. It, however, changed front with great difficulty; was much deranged by broken ground, and failed entirely in pursuit, or if attacked in flank. Far lighter and more mobile was the Roman legion. (See Legion.) Among Roman tactics was also the admirable intrenchment, which they scarcely ever omitted as an additional source of strength for their position. “Events reproduce themselves in cycles;” and with the decay of Roman civilization came again the mail-clad heroes and cavaliers—mounted this time on horses—who monopolized the honors of battle, while the undisciplined footmen had an undue share of the dangers. Later in the feudal period, this disparity between knight and footman was diminished by the employment of bodies of archers, whose shafts carried instant death. The adoption of gunpowder for small-arms altogether neutralized the superiority of the armored knight. This change brought infantry into the front place in battle, and threw cavalry into the status of an auxiliary. The French revolutionary wars tended much to the development of artillery as a field-weapon, and Napoleon employed this terrible weapon to its fullest extent, a practice followed by the best modern generals, who never risk a man where a cannon-ball can do the work. Frederick the Great was considered an innovator for fighting with infantry four deep. During the French war, the formation of three deep became general, and still obtains in several European armies. Before the battle of Waterloo, the British leaders had acquired sufficient confidence in their troops to marshal them in a double line. It is doubtful whether the advance in arms of precision will not soon necessitate the formation in a single line, or even in a single line in open order. We will now notice briefly a few of the more important principles, as our space will not permit us to go into that intricate science, modern tactics. As to the art of being stronger, which is undoubtedly the highest recommendation in a general, we may cite the example of the battle of Rivoli. In 1796, Napoleon was besieging Mantua with a small force, while a very much smaller army of observation watched the Austrians. The Austrian commander had collected at Trent a force powerful enough to crush completely the French army, with which he was marching south. Parallel with his course lay the Lake of Garda, and to prevent the enemy escaping up one side as he marched down the other, the Austrian leader divided his army into two powerful corps, and marched one down each side of the lake. The instant the young French general knew of this division he abandoned the siege of Mantua, collected every available man, and marched against one body of the enemy. Though far inferior on the whole, he was thus superior at the point of attack, and the victory of Rivoli decided virtually the whole campaign. This corresponded in principle with Napoleon’s general plan in battle. He formed his attack into column, tried to break through the centre of the enemy’s line; and if he succeeded, then doubled back to one side, so as to concentrate the whole of his own force against one-half of the enemy’s, which was usually routed before the other half of the line could come up to the rescue.

Taken collectively, the tactics of the three arms may thus be summarized: The infantry form the line of battle, and probably decide the day by a general advance over the enemy’s ground. The cavalry seek to break the opposing infantry by frequent charges in front, or on any flank which may be left exposed. If a part of the line wavers, a charge of horse should complete the disarray. When the rout commences, the cavalry should turn it by furious onslaught into utter discomfiture. The province of the artillery is to cannonade any portion of the line where men are massed, or where a charge is about to be made; to demoralize cavalry, and generally to carry destruction wherever it can best disconcert the enemy. Adverting now very briefly to the tactics of the several arms individually, we have—

Infantry.—This force has four formations,—skirmishers, line, column, and square. The skirmishers precede and flank an advancing line or column, picking off the enemy, whose masses offer good mark, while their own extended order gives them comparative impunity. If resistance be encountered in force, the skirmishers retreat behind their massed supports. The line is a double or treble line of men, firing or charging. For musketry purposes, it is the most formidable formation, and is the favorite English tactic in every case where the officers can depend on the steadiness of their men. For bursting through a line, the deep column is the most effective. It is the favorite French formation, and during the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, the British and Russians alone succeeded in resisting it. The column is the best formation on a march; and the line, when in actual collision with the enemy. The formation in echelon to a great extent combines these advantages.

Cavalry.—The function of heavy cavalry is limited to the charge in line. The light cavalry form in small sections, to scour the country, collect supplies, and cut off stragglers.

Artillery.—No distinct tactics exist for this arm beyond the fact that a concentrated fire is vastly the most effective, and that the artillery should always have a support of infantry at hand, to protect it from a sudden incursion of hostile cavalry.

Tactics of position depend on the moral energy of the commander-in-chief. Few would dare, as CÆsar did, an invasion in which there was no retreat if defeated. It is a military maxim not to fight with the rear on a river, unless many bridges be provided for retreat, in case of disaster. A convex front is better than a concave front, because internal communication is more easy. The flank should be protected by cavalry, or preferably by natural obstacles. In battle, a long march from one position to another, which exposes the flank to the enemy, is a fatal error. By such, the French won Austerlitz, and lost Talavera. In a pursuit, a parallel line is better than the immediate route the retreating enemy has taken, as supplies will be more readily procured, and he may by celerity be attacked in flank. This was strikingly exemplified in the Russian pursuit of Napoleon’s army retreating from Moscow.

Tae-pings, or Tai-pings. The name given to the Chinese rebels who made their appearance in 1850, and desolated some of the best provinces of China. Peking was taken by the English and French on October 12, 1860. Its capture was followed by the ratification of the treaty of Tien-tsin, which, granting important privileges to European merchants, made it the direct interest of the English, French, and American governments to re-establish order in China. The repulse of the rebels at Shanghai in August, 1860, had been followed by several engagements between them and the imperialists, in which they were defeated. Ward, an American, who had taken service under the emperor, and who showed a remarkable talent for organizing irregular troops, had wrought a wonderful improvement in the imperialist army, and he was the chief means of their success. In the beginning of 1862, the Tae-pings again advanced on Shanghai, and were twice defeated. In the autumn of the same year, Ward was killed; Ward’s force was handed over to an English officer, and took the name of Gordon’s brigade. Gordon’s brigade rendered essential service to the imperial government. The rebels were defeated in upwards of sixteen engagements; and in 1864, almost every important city was taken from them. The conduct of the imperial authorities at Su-chow, where a horrible massacre took place, led to the withdrawal of the English military force; but the rebellion had been effectually checked. Toward the end of 1864, the Tae-pings, however, still offered an opposition to the imperialists in Kiang-tsu, all the more formidable in consequence of the prevalence of brigandage and insurrectionary movements in parts of the empire not affected by the Tae-ping rebellion. In January, 1865, the Mohammedan Tartars of Songaria, on the Siberian frontier, assisted by the free Kirghis tribes, took the town of Tarbagatai, and afterwards Kouldja. In the following June, a still more serious insurrection broke out in China proper, that of the Nien-fei, or rebels of the north, whose special object was to overturn the reigning dynasty. One body of them, in the beginning of 1866, caused serious alarm in Hankow, and would have attacked the European settlement but for the arrival of some English gunboats. It is believed that the last embers of the Tae-ping rebellion were trodden out in February, 1866, when from 30,000 to 50,000 rebels were routed by the imperial army at Kia-ying-chou in Kwan-tung. The victorious general then set out to attack the Nien-fei, or northern rebels, at Hankow, and the imperial troops were several times defeated by them in 1867; but late in 1868, their operations became unimportant.

Taganrog. A town of Russia in Europe, in the government of Ekaterinoslav, near the northwest extremity of the Sea of Azov, 172 miles northeast from Kertch. The town was bombarded by a fleet of French and British gunboats in 1855.

Tagliacozzo. A town of Southern Italy, in the Aleruzzi Mountains, where on August 23, 1268, Charles of Anjou, the usurping king of Naples, defeated and made prisoner the rightful monarch, young Conradin, who had been invited into Italy by the Ghibelline party; their opponents, the Guelphs, or papal party, supporting Charles.

Tagliamento. A river in Lombardy, Northern Italy, near which the Austrians, under the Archduke Charles, were defeated by Bonaparte, March 16, 1797.

Tail of the Trenches. The post where the besiegers begin to break ground, and cover themselves from the fire of the place, in advancing the lines of approach.

Taishes. Armor for the thighs.

Take. To lay hold of; to seize. To obtain possession of by force or artifice; to capture; to make prisoner. To attack; to seize; as, to take an army, a city, or a ship. To take aim, to direct the eye or weapon; to aim. To take arms, to commence war or hostilities. To take advantage of, to avail one’s self of any peculiar event or opening, whereby an army may be overcome. To take ground to the right or left, is to extend a line, or to move troops in either of those directions. To take down, is to commit to paper that which is spoken by another. To take on, an expression in familiar use among soldiers that have enlisted for a limited period, to signify an extension of service by re-enlisting. To take the field, is to encamp, to commence the operations of a campaign. To take up, to seize; to catch; to arrest; as, to take up a deserter. To take up quarters, to occupy locally; to go into cantonments, barracks, etc.; to become stationary for more or less time. To take up the gauntlet, is to accept a challenge.

Takel (Anglo-Saxon). The arrows which used to be supplied to the fleet.

Talavera de la Reyna. A town of Spain in New Castile, in the modern province of Toledo, on the Tagus, 75 miles southwest from Madrid. Here on July 27 and 28, 1809, Sir Arthur Wellesley, with 19,000 English and German troops, and about 34,000 Spaniards, who, however, with very trifling exceptions, were not engaged, defeated upwards of 50,000 veteran French troops under Joseph Bonaparte and Marshals Jourdan and Victor.

Talk. Among the Indians of North America, a public conference, as respecting peace or war, negotiation, and the like; or an official verbal communication made from them to another nation or its agents, or made to them by the same.

Talus. The old word in fortification for a slope.

Tambour. In fortification, is a small work, usually a timber stockade, about 6 feet high, and loop-holed. Its object is to defend a gateway, the road into a village, or to afford flanking fire on a bridge, etc. The tambour on the covered way is the traverse which closes an entrance from the glacis.

Tampion, or Tompion. The wooden plug placed in the mouth of a piece of ordnance to preserve it from dust and damp. In naval gunnery, the tampion is the wooden bottom for a charge of grape-shot.

Tam-tam (Hind. tom-tom). A drum used by the Hindoos, made of an alloy of copper and tin, and very sonorous.

Tanagra (now Grimadha, or Grimada). A celebrated town of Boeotia, on the left bank of the Asopus, 200 stadia from PlatÆÆ, in the district TanagrÆa. Being near the frontiers of Attica, it was frequently exposed to the attacks of the Athenians; near it the Spartans defeated the Athenians, 457 B.C., but were defeated by them in 426, when Agis II. headed the Spartans, and Nicias the Athenians.

Tang. The tang of the breech of a musket, is the projecting part by which the barrel is secured to the stock. Also, that part of a sword-blade to which the hilt is riveted.

Tangent Scale. In gunnery, a brass plate, the lower edge of which is cut to fit the base-ring or base-line of the piece, and the upper edge cut into notches for each one-fourth degree elevation. It is used in pointing, by placing the lower edge on the base-ring, or base-line, with the radius of the notch corresponding with the highest point of the base-ring or line; and sighting over the centre of the notch; and the highest point of the muzzle, or top of the muzzle-sight.

Tangier. A seaport of Morocco, on a small bay or inlet of the Strait of Gibraltar. Tangier was taken by the Portuguese in 1471, and ceded to the English in 1662, and held by them for twenty-two years. It was bombarded by the French in 1844.

Tanjore. A town of British India, capital of a district of the same name, in the presidency of Madras. In 1678 Tanjore was conquered by the Mahratta chief, Vencajeo, brother of Sevajee. In the reign of the rajah Tooljajee, the nabob of Arcot, supported by the Madras government, laid claim to tribute from Tanjore, and the rajah was deposed, but was subsequently restored.

Tannadar. In the East Indies, a commander of a small fort or custom-house.

Tannenberg (East Prussia). Here Ladislaus V., Jagellon of Poland, defeated the Teutonic Knights with great slaughter, the grand master being among the slain, July 15, 1410. The order never recovered from this calamity.

Tap. A gentle blow on the drum.

Taps. A sound of drum or trumpet which takes place usually about a quarter of an hour after tattoo, and is an indication that all lights in the soldiers’ quarters will be extinguished, and the men retire to bed.

Tapuri. A powerful people, apparently of Scythian origin, who dwelt in Media, on the borders of Parthia, south of Mount Coronus. They also extended into Margiana, and probably farther north on the eastern side of the Caspian, where their original abodes seem to have been in the mountains called by their name.

Tara. A hill in Meath, Ireland, where it is said a conference was held between the English and Irish in 1173. Near here, on May 26, 1798, the royalist troops, 400 in number, defeated the insurgent Irish 4000 strong.

Taranto (anc. Tarentum). A town of Southern Italy, province of Terra d’Otranto, is situated on a rocky islet formerly an isthmus between the Mare Piccolo (Little Sea), and the Mare Grande (Great Sea), or Gulf of Taranto, on the west. Ancient Tarentum was a far more splendid city than its modern representative. Its greatness dates from 708 B.C., when the original inhabitants were expelled, and the town was taken possession of by a strong body of LacedÆmonian PartheniÆ under the guidance of Phalanthus. It soon became the most powerful city in the whole of Magna GrÆcia, and exercised a kind of supremacy over the other Greek cities in Italy. It possessed a considerable fleet of ships of war, and was able to bring into the field, with the assistance of its allies, an army of 30,000 foot and 3000 horse. The people of Tarentum, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, supported a war which had been undertaken in 281 B.C. by the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had offered to their ships when near their harbors; it was terminated after ten years; 300,000 prisoners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome. Except the citadel, Tarentum was captured by the Carthaginians, 212, but recovered by Fabius, 209 B.C. Tarentum has shared in the revolutions of Southern Italy.

Tarazona. A town of Spain, in the province of Zaragoza, on the Queyles, a tributary of the Ebro. It is the ancient Turiaso, and here a few Roman troops routed a Celtiberian army. It became a municipium under the Romans.

Tarbes. A town of France, in the department of Hautes Pyrenees, on the left bank of the Adour. For a long time it belonged to the English monarchs, and it was the residence of the Black Prince. On March 20, 1814, a combat took place here between the British under Wellington and the French under Soult, in which the former gained the victory.

Tar-bucket. See Implements.

Tard-venus, or Malandrins (Fr.). Freebooters, banditti, who elected their own chief, and appeared first in France in 1360.

Tarentum. See Taranto.

Target. In its modern sense, is the mark for aiming at in practicing with the cannon, rifle, or bow and arrow. In its more ancient meaning, a target, or targe, was a shield, circular in form, cut out of ox-hide, mounted on light but strong wood, and strengthened by bosses, spikes, etc. Of modern targets, the simplest is that used for archery. With regard to rifle-targets, the numerous rifle-matches have caused ranges to be constructed over the whole country. The necessities are: a butt, artificially constructed or cut in the face of a hill, to prevent wide balls from scattering; a marker’s shot-proof cell, near the targets; and a range of such length as can be procured. The targets used at the Creedmoor range on Long Island, and by the U.S. army, are divided into three classes and are of the following sizes: The third class, to be used at all distances up to and including 300 yards, is a rectangle 6 feet high and 4 feet wide. Three concentric circles are described, with the middle point as a centre and radii of 4, 13, and 23 inches respectively. The inner circle is black, and so are the lines marking the circumference of the middle and outer circles; the rest of the target is white. The second class is a square, 6 feet high. Three concentric circles are drawn, with the middle point as a centre and radii of 11, 19, and 27 inches respectively. The inner circle is black, as well as the circumferences of the other circles; the rest of the target is white. This target is used at all distances over 300, to, and including, 600 yards. The first class, to be used at all distances over 600 yards, is a rectangle, 6 feet high and 12 feet wide. It has two concentric circles, described with a radii of 18 and 27 inches respectively, the centre being at the middle point of the target, and two lines drawn parallel to, and 3 feet from, each end (leaving the inner, square, 6 feet by 6 feet). The target is white, except the lines just indicated and the inner circle, which are black. The smallest circle, always painted black, is called the bull’s-eye, and when struck, counts 5 for the marksman; the ring embraced between the bull’s-eye and the circumference of the next larger circle is called the centre, which counts 4; and the ring between the second and third circles is called the inner, which scores 3; and the space outside of the larger circle is called the outer, and scores 2. In the first-class target the space between the second circle and the vertical lines is the inner, and the space outside the vertical lines is the outer.

In artillery practice, targets of considerable size are used at long ranges. The usual practice is over the sea; targets are then painted on the sides of old vessels, or are floated by buoys. For trying the power of ordnance, solid targets are constructed to resemble the sides of iron-plated ships, portions of fortification, etc.

Targeted. Furnished or armed with a target.

Targeteer, or Targetier. One armed with a target or shield.

Tariere (Fr.). A machine of war similar to the battering-ram (which it preceded), excepting that the head was pointed. It made the first opening in the wall, which was increased by the belier.

Tarifa. A seaport town of Spain, 20 miles southwest from Gibraltar. It was successfully defended in 1811 by Col. Gough, with a body of 2500 British and Spanish troops against a French force of 10,000 men, under Victor and Laval.

Tarquinii. An ancient city of Etruria, on the left bank of the Marta, about 4 miles from the Mediterranean. In 398 B.C., while the Romans were at war with the Veii, they were attacked by the Tarquinians, who seem from this time to have been frequently united with the other Etruscan cities against Rome. War was carried on with varying success and some intermissions till 351, when a truce of forty years was agreed upon. After its expiration, hostilities were again for a short time renewed; but in 309 another truce was concluded, in the course of which Tarquinii seems to have gradually become subject to Rome. It continued to be a flourishing town under the empire, and after its fall, until it was destroyed by the Saracens.

Tarragona (anc. Tarraco). A seaport city of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, at the mouth of the Francoli, in the Mediterranean, 52 miles west-southwest from Barcelona. The ancient Tarraco was originally a Phoenician settlement; it afterwards became the capital of the Roman province called by its name. After the fall of the empire, it was taken by the Goths; and at a later period was laid in ruins by the Moors. In the 11th century the modern town was founded on the site of the former. In 1705, it was captured by the English, but was afterwards abandoned; and in 1811 it was taken and sacked by the French under Suchet.

Tarred-links. See Pyrotechny.

Tarsus (now Tersus). Anciently the chief city of Cilicia, and one of the most important in all Asia Minor, situated on both sides of the navigable river Cydnus, about 18 miles from the sea. In the time of Xenophon, who gives us the first historical notice of Tarsus, it was taken by Cyrus. At the time of the Macedonian invasion, it was held by the Persian troops, who were prevented from burning it by Alexander’s arrival. It played an important part as a military post in the wars of the successors of Alexander, and under the Syrian kings. As the power of the SeleucidÆ declined, it suffered much from the oppression of its governors, and from the wars between the members of the royal family. At the time of the Mithridatic war, it suffered, on the one hand, from Tigranes, who overran Cilicia, and, on the other, from the pirates, who had their strongholds in the mountains of Cilicia Aspera, and made frequent incursions into the level country. From both these enemies it was rescued by Pompey, 66 B.C. In the civil war it took part with CÆsar. For this the inhabitants were severely punished by Cassius, but were recompensed by Antony, who made Tarsus a free city. It was the scene of important events in the wars with the Persians, the Arabs, and the Turks, and also in the Crusades.

Tartares (Fr.). A word used in the French army to distinguish officers’ servants and batmen from the soldiers who serve in the ranks. Tartare likewise means a groom.

Tartary (properly Tatary). Is the name under which, in the Middle Ages, was comprised the whole central belt of Central Asia and Eastern Europe, from the Sea of Japan to the Dnieper, including Mantchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Turkestan, Independent Turkestan, the Kalmuck and the Kirghis steppes, and the old khanates of Kasan, Astrakhan, and the Crimea, and even the Cossack countries; and hence arose a distinction of Tartary into European and Asiatic. But latterly the name Tartary had a much more limited signification, including only that tract bounded on the north by Siberia, and on the south by China and Thibet, along with Independent Turkestan; and at the present day, many writers apply it as a synonym for Turkestan. The Tartars (or, more properly, Tatars) was originally a name of the Mongolic races, but came to be extended to all the tribes brought under Mongolic sway by Genghis Khan and his successors, including Tungusic and Turkic races. The term is therefore not to be considered as ethnological, though all, or almost all, the peoples included under it, in its widest sense, belong to the Turanian family, but is rather to be understood in the same sense as the term “Franks” used by the Mohammedans. During the decline of the Roman empire, these tribes began to seek more fertile regions; and the first who reached the frontier of Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous Genghis Khan. His empire by the conquest of China, Persia, and all Central Asia (1206-27), became one of the most formidable ever established; but it was split into parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered Persia, broke the power of the Turks in Asia Minor (1370-1400), and founded the Mogul dynasty in India, which began with Baber in 1525, and formed the most splendid court in Asia, till the close of the 18th century. The Calmucks, a branch of the Tartars, expelled from China, settled on the banks of the Volga in 1672, but returned in 1771, and thousands perished on the journey.

Tasa. In the East Indies, a kind of drum, formed of a hemisphere of copper, hollowed out and covered with goat-skin. It is hung before from the shoulders, and beat with two rattans.

Taslet. A piece of armor formerly worn on the thigh.

Tasse. Formerly a piece of armor for the thighs; an appendage to the ancient corselet, consisting of skirts of iron that covered the thighs, fastened to the cuirass with hooks.

Tattoo. The evening sound of drum or trumpet, after which the roll is called, and all soldiers not on leave of absence should be in their quarters.

Tau, Cross. In heraldry, a cross of a form somewhat resembling the Greek letter Tau. St. Anthony is generally represented with a cross of this description, embroidered on the left side of his garment.

Taulantii. A people of Illyria, in the neighborhood of Epidamnus. One of their most powerful kings was Glaucias, who fought against Alexander the Great.

Taunton. A town of England, county of Somerset, on the river Tone. It was taken by Perkin Warbeck, September, 1497; and here he was surrendered to Henry VII. October 5 following. The Duke of Monmouth was proclaimed king of Taunton, June 20, 1685; and it was the scene of the “bloody assize” held by Jeffreys upon the rebels in August.

Taupins, or Francs-Taupins (Fr.). A name which was formerly given to a body of free-arches, or francs-archers, in France. This body consisted chiefly of countrymen and rustics.

Tauromenium. An ancient Greek city in Sicily, on the east coast of the island, about half-way between Messina and Catania. In 394, Dionysius besieged the new city, and spent the greater part of a winter in an unsuccessful effort to take it. A peace was concluded in 392, in terms of which Tauromenium became subject to Dionysius, who immediately expelled the former inhabitants, and supplied their place by mercenaries of his own. In 358, Andromachus collected the survivors of the original inhabitants of Naxos, and settled them at Tauromenium. Under Andromachus the city made rapid progress. He assisted Timoleon in his expedition to Sicily. At a later period the city was conquered by Hiero of Syracuse, and it remained subject to that city until, with the whole of Sicily, it passed into the power of the Romans. In the Servile war in Sicily (134-32 B.C.), it was captured by the insurgent slaves, and held by them till the last extremity, suffering the utmost calamities, until the citadel was betrayed to the Romans. It was taken and destroyed by the Saracens after a siege of two years, in 906.

Taxiarchs. In the Athenian army, were ten in number (every tribe having the privilege of electing one), and commanded next under the strategeoi. Their business was to marshal the army, give orders for their marches, and appoint what provisions each soldier should furnish himself with. They had also power to cashier any of the common soldiers, if convicted of a misdemeanor; but their jurisdiction was only over the foot.

Tchernaya. A river in the Crimea. On August 16, 1855, the lines of the allied army at this place were attacked by 50,000 Russians under Prince Gortschakoff without success, being repulsed with the loss of 3329 slain, 1658 wounded, and 600 prisoners. The brunt of the attack was borne by two French regiments under Gen. d’Herbillon. The loss of the allies was about 1200; 200 of these were from the Sardinian contingent, which behaved with great gallantry, under the command of Gen. La Marmora. The Russian general Read, and the Sardinian general Montevecchio, were killed. The object of the attack was the relief of Sebastopol, then closely besieged by the English and French.

Tearless Victory. In 367 B.C. Archidamus, king of Sparta, defeated the Arcadians and Argives in the “Tearless Battle,” so called because he had won it without losing a man.

Tebet (Fr.). A kind of axe which the Turks carry at their saddle-bow during war.

Teepe. See Wigwam.

Teflis, or Tiflis. A city of Russia in Asia, in Transcaucasia, capital of the province of Georgia. It was founded about the middle of the 5th century, by a powerful monarch called Waktang; and afterwards rose to great importance. It was taken by Genghis Khan in the 12th century, and by Mustapha Pasha, 1576. In 1723 it was taken by the Turks, in 1734 by Kouli Khan, and it was destroyed by Aga Mohammed in 1795. It came into the possession of the Russians in 1801. A treaty of peace was concluded here between Russia and Persia, October 12, 1813.

Tefterdar Effendi. The commissary-general is so called among the Turks.

Tegea. An ancient city of Greece, forming one of the most powerful states in Arcadia. The TegeatÆ long resisted the supremacy of Sparta, and it was not till the Spartans discovered the bones of Orestes that they were enabled to conquer this people. The TegeatÆ sent 3000 men to the battle of PlatÆÆ, in which they were distinguished for their bravery. They remained faithful to Sparta in the Peloponnesian war; but after the battle of Leuctra they joined the rest of the Arcadians in establishing their independence. During the wars of the AchÆan league, Tegea was taken both by Cleomenes, king of Sparta, and Antigonus Doson, king of Macedonia, and the ally of the AchÆans.

Tekrit (anc. Birtha). A town situated on the Euphrates, in Mesopotamia. It was unsuccessfully besieged by Sapor I., king of Persia, in 260.

Telegraph, Field or Flying. During the civil war (1861-65) in the United States a signal corps was organized, whose duties extended to the management of field telegraphs, and light lines, when the formation of the country was such that aerial signals could not be used, or it was for any reason desirable that short electric lines be extended. It has been demonstrated that electric instruments may be of the most simple construction; and electric lines can be set up, and be utilized in places where a few years ago it was deemed impracticable to employ them; and can be worked without other skilled labor than that of the soldiers attached to the posts, and with no apparatus but such as can be had at a trivial expense. There is no reason why, with properly drilled parties, electric lines may not be thrown out in the moments which precede, or even during the progress of, a battle, and be so worked as to lessen infinitely that difficulty of rapid communication which has so often caused disaster. With a corps well organized and well equipped, the connection between the corps of an army, and between the corps headquarters and general headquarters, ought to be perfected in a very few hours after the halt of the army. The field lines of the Signal Corps consist of rolls of wire carried in light-wheeled vehicles, and light “lance poles,” us they are called, on which the wire is stretched when necessary. The wire made for the purpose is of small strands of iron and copper twisted, to give it strength and flexibility. It is insulated with prepared india-rubber, or other material, and wound on reels which, in an emergency, can be carried anywhere by hand, while the wire reeling out can be raised upon fences, fastened to trees, or laid along the ground. The instruments used at first were of a kind known as the Beardslee instrument. These instruments are worked without batteries, the electric current being generated by revolving magnets. They were “indicating,” an index upon a dial pointing, at the receiving station, to whatever letter was designated by the index handle upon a similar dial at the sending station. There were as advantages attaching to this instrument, that it was portable and compact, could be set at work anywhere, required no batteries, acids, or fluids; and what was thought of importance in the early days of the civil war, and while the corps was a temporary organization, it could be worked by soldiers without skill as operators. The defects were, that messages could not be sent as rapidly or as far as by some other instruments. Nor could several instruments work easily upon a single circuit. For some uses on the field of battle, or under fire, where the attention of the reader is disturbed, it is, perhaps, as good an instrument as has been devised. With a permanent corps, or at secure stations, it gives place to some of the forms of signal or of sound instruments. The instruments upon field lines may be of very simple structure. The signal instruments, either the needle or the letter instruments, can be used in actual conflict, if the reports of heavy guns or other disturbances of action render reading by sound unreliable. The manufacture of both instruments and batteries has been improved, until there is now no trouble in carrying either in the field in the roughest campaigns. The difficulty in reading from telegraphic instruments by sound, which has been the greatest obstacle to their use, can be almost done away with by using them with codes of easy signals. In the Prussian army, also, the electric telegraph is applied for field purposes. Morse’s system is used. Each headquarters of an army and each army corps, has a telegraphic division of 3 officers, 137 men, 73 horses, and 10 wagons. Two of the latter are fitted up as operating-rooms, and the other 8 are used for carrying poles and other material, including 5 miles of wire to each wagon, which can be reeled off by the moving of the vehicle. Of the whole 40 miles, 5 are insulated, and can be run along the ground. It will be seen that each army corps can put out 40 miles of line without recourse to other wires, but use is always made of lines found in the country, in case they will answer. Single poles of light material are used, without joints, and about 10 feet long, and only every third pole is put in the ground. The personnel is brought into the army from the civil telegraphic service at home. While in the field, the operators assume military rank, and, like agents of the Post-office Department, are known as “military officials,” not as “military officers.” The men are on a footing with train-soldiers. The operating-wagons are a little larger than the Rucker ambulances of the U.S. service, but much heavier. Just in the rear of the driver is a partition shutting off the rear portion of the carriage. At his back, and under his seat, is a capacious box, in which are carried tools, and the material necessary in telegraphing. On one side of the rear closed portion is a neat table with a compact operating instrument on it, and a battery under it; and on the opposite side is the operator’s bench, the space underneath it being also economized. On the outside near the table are sockets, with thumb-screws connected with the battery, to receive the wires. During the Franco-Prussian war, besides keeping the king in telegraphic communication with his ministers, lines were run from Gen. von Moltke’s headquarters to all the different corps in the field. The telegraph corps always evinced admirable promptness in keeping the lines closed up as the army moved forward. In Great Britain, the system of military telegraphy forms part of the duties of the Royal Engineers.

Telemeter. An instrument for determining long distances. (See Range-finder.) One of the best-known telemeters is the invention of Capt. A. Gautier of the French army. It consists of a short tube containing two mirrors set at an angle of 45° with each other, one of which is fixed; the other admits of a slight rotation. A hole in the side of the tube allows the image of a secondary distant object on the prolongation of the base-line to be brought in line with that of the distant object whose distance is to be measured. An observation is next taken from the other end of the short base-line, and the image of the secondary object again brought in contact with that of the principal object by rotating a ring on the front of the tube. The extent of this rotation (as denoted by a scale), gives a factor which, multiplied by the base-line, gives the required distance.

The BoulongÈ telemeter is an instrument devised for ascertaining the distance to a point by means of sound proceeding from the point to the place of observation. The one used for artillery consists of a glass tube about 6 inches in length, filled with a transparent liquid that does not freeze except with intense cold. In the liquid is a metallic disk, which moves freely from one end of the tube to the other. It is so adjusted that the motion will be uniform and comparatively slow. The tube is inclosed in a brass case, to which is attached a scale, after the fashion of a thermometer. This scale is marked for each hundred yards up to 4000. The divisions on the scale show the distance, in yards, through which sound will travel in air during the time required for the disk to descend over the space on the scale marked by the corresponding number of yards. The instrument must be held vertically, or as nearly so as possible. To arrest the motion of the disk at any point, the instrument is quickly turned to a horizontal position.

To use it for determining the time of flight of shells it is held in the right hand, back of the hand up, with the zero of the instrument to the left; a turn of the wrist to the right brings the instrument vertical, with the zero end uppermost; the disk then descends, and a turn of the wrist to the left arrests its motion. The observer, holding the instrument as described, watches for the flash of the shell, and upon seeing it instantly brings the instrument to a vertical position; upon hearing the report from the shell he instantly turns it back again. The position of the disk indicates the number of yards from the observer to where the shell exploded.

To ascertain the distance to an enemy’s battery, the instrument is held and turned in the same manner. The observer watches for the flash of a gun; observing which, he turns the instrument, and when he hears the report turns it back and reads off the distance. Each hundred yards on the scale is subdivided into quarters.

The telemeter invented by Capt. A. Gautier of the French army is an instrument for measuring, with a great degree of approximation, any difference, not exceeding three degrees, which may be exhibited in the bearing of a distant object by viewing it from different points of a base-line transverse to its general direction from the observer. The instrument, in its simplicity, accuracy, and portability, recommends itself in all cases where a knowledge of distances is desired at any moment and with the least possible delay; such, for instance, as range-finding, river-crossing, reconnoitring, and the like. A slight acquaintance with its use on such occasions enables the observer to estimate, with more than ordinary promptitude and precision, the distance which it might be all-important to obtain.

The instrument resembles in shape and size one barrel of an ordinary reconnoitring- or field-glass. The case in which it is carried is fashioned so as to answer as a handle for holding the instrument when making observations. Within the barrel of the instrument are placed two mirrors at an angle of 45° with each other; this angle can be varied within certain limits by means of a milled-headed screw acting on one of them. The mirrors are thus made to operate upon the principle of the sextant. A slot on one side of the barrel permits the rays of light from an object to fall upon one of the mirrors, from whence they are reflected upon the other mirror, and the image is seen through the eye-glass at the small end of the instrument. At the front or large end is fixed, in a ring surrounding the barrel, a prism, whose displacement modifies the direction of an object seen through it. At the rear of the instrument is a small eye-glass, by means of which the observer sees, over the mirrors and through the prism, the object which is before him, and by double reflection in the mirrors the object to the side of him.

The American general Berdan has invented a large telemeter for garrison and sea-coast service which has been tested in Germany in 1875 and 1876 and found to be very exact in the determination of distances. He has also constructed a new model for field and mountain artillery which can be packed up and transported on horseback.

Telephone. An instrument for reproducing sounds, especially articulate speech, at a distance, by the aid of electricity or electro-magnetism. It consists essentially of a device by which currents of electricity, produced by the sounds, and exactly corresponding in duration and intensity to the vibrations of the air which attend them, are transmitted to a distant station, and there, acting on suitable mechanism, reproduce similar sounds by repeating the vibrations. Telephones were recently used by Sir Garnet Wolseley in the war in Zululand, and are being rapidly adopted in European armies.

Tell Off. A military term, expressing the dividing and practicing a regiment or company in the several formations, preparatory to marching to the general parade for field exercise.

Tellenon (Fr.). An ancient machine used at sieges. See Tolenon.

Tellevas (Fr.). A large shield formerly used, similar to the pavois.

Tembu, Abatempu, or Tambookie. Is the name of an important tribe of Kaffirs, occupying the region east of the present boundary of the Cape Colony. In the earlier Kaffir wars, and even in the great one of 1835-36, the Tambookie Kaffirs remained neutral, and even friendly to the colonists; but in the war of 1848-49, they were induced to join the other tribes, and were defeated with great loss by a small colonial force. In the war of 1851, they were much broken and scattered; but eventually submitting to the British authority, they have quietly located themselves in the unoccupied country east of the White Kei and Tsomo Rivers.

Temesvar, or Temeswar. A town of the Austrian empire, capital of a circle of the same name, and of the crownland of Banat. It is strongly fortified with walls, moats, and outworks. Temesvar has played an important part in modern history. It was in the hands of the Turks from its capture in 1552 till 1718, when it was regained by Prince EugÈne, and strongly fortified. In 1849, it was besieged for 107 days by the Hungarian insurgents, but it held out until it was relieved by Gen. Haynau.

Templar, Knights. A celebrated religious and military order, founded at Jerusalem in the beginning of the 12th century, by Hugues de Paganes, Geoffroy de St. Omer, and seven other French knights, for the protection of the Holy Sepulchre and of pilgrims resorting thither. The knights were bound by their rule to hear the holy office every day, or if prevented by their military duties, to say a certain number of paternosters instead, and were compelled to abstain from certain articles of food on certain days of the week. They might have three horses and an esquire each, but were forbidden to hunt or fowl. After the conquest of Jerusalem by the Saracens, the Templars spread over Europe; their valor became everywhere celebrated; immense donations in money and land were showered on them, and members of the most distinguished families thought themselves honored by enrollment in the order. As the power and prosperity of the Templars increased, so did their luxury, arrogance, and other vices, which gave the French kings a pretext for endeavoring to suppress them, and lay hold of their possessions. Their principal enemy was Philippe IV. of France, who induced Pope Clement V. to accede to a scheme by which the whole members of the order were seized and imprisoned, their lands confiscated, and many of them tried, convicted, and executed for capital crimes. The English Templars were arrested by command of Edward II. In 1312, the whole order throughout Europe was suppressed by the Council of Vienne, and its property bestowed on the Knights of St. John. The habit of the Templars was white, with a red cross of eight points of the Maltese form worn on the left shoulder. Their war-cry was “Beau sÉant”; and their banner, which bore the same name, was parted per fess sable and argent. They also displayed above their lances a white banner charged with the cross of the order. Their badges were the Agnus Dei, and a representation of two knights mounted on one horse,—indicative of the original poverty of the order.

Ten Thousand, Retreat of the. See Retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks.

Tenable. Such as may be maintained against opposition; such as may be held against attack.

Tenaille. In fortification, is a low work, constructed in the main ditch, upon the lines of defense, between the bastions, before the curtain, composed of two faces, and sometimes of two flanks and a small curtain.

Tenaillons. In fortification, are works sometimes found constructed in an old fortress, on each side of the ravelin,—the short faces being traced, on the prolongations of the faces of the ravelin, from the counterscarp of its ditch; the long faces are directed for flanking defense, to about the middle of the faces of the bastions.

Demi-tenaillons are very similar to tenaillons, excepting that their short faces are directed, perpendicular to the faces of the ravelin, about one-third or one-half down from the flanked angle.

Tencteri, or Tenctheri. A people of Germany, dwelling on the Rhine between the Ruhr and Sieg, south of the Usipetes, in conjunction with whom their name usually occurs. They crossed the Rhine together with the Usipetes, with the intention of settling in Gaul; but they were defeated by CÆsar with great slaughter, and those who escaped took refuge in the territories of their southern neighbors, the Sygambri. The Tencteri afterward belonged to the league of the Cherusci, and at a still later period they are mentioned as a portion of the confederacy of the Franks.

Tenedos. A small island belonging to Turkey, in the northeast of the Ægean Sea, off the coast of the Troad. It appears in the legend of the Trojan war, as the station to which the Greeks withdrew their fleet in order to induce the Trojans to think they had departed, and to receive the wooden horse. In the Persian war it was used by Xerxes as a naval station. It afterward became a tributary ally of Athens, and adhered to her during the whole of the Peloponnesian war, and down to the peace of Antalcidas, by which it was surrendered to the Persians. At the Macedonian conquest, the Tenedians regained their liberty. In the war against Philip III., Attalus and the Romans used Tenedos as a naval station, and in the Mithridatic war, Lucullus gained a naval victory over Mithridates off the island. About this time the Tenedians placed themselves under the protection of Alexandrea Troas.

Tennessee. A Central State of the American Union, and third admitted under the Federal Constitution. It is bounded on the north by Kentucky and Virginia, and on the south by Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. The early settlers of Tennessee were slaughtered by Cherokee Indians in 1754; but in 1756 a settlement was formed near Knoxville, then a part of North Carolina. Nashville was settled near the close of the Revolution; in 1790, Tennessee was organized as a Territory with Kentucky, and in 1796 was admitted into the Union as a separate State. In January, 1861, a proposal to secede from the Union was defeated, but in June it was carried by a majority of 57,667. In ten months the State raised 50 regiments for the Confederacy; 5 or 6 were also raised for the Union. The State was the scene, at Knoxville and Chattanooga, of some of the most important operations of the war, and eventually almost the whole State became a battle-ground. The State was readmitted into the Union in 1866.

Tenney. In heraldry, orange color, one of the tinctures enumerated by heralds, but not of frequent occurrence in coat-armor. It is indicated in engravings by lines in bend sinister, crossed by others barways.

Tent (Lat. tentorium, from tentus, “stretched”). A pavilion or portable lodge consisting of canvas or other coarse cloth, stretched and sustained by poles; used for sheltering persons from the weather, especially soldiers in camp. The early Greek, and afterward the Macedonian tents, were small coverings of skin, under each of which two soldiers slept. Alexander the Great is said to have had a pavilion of extraordinary magnificence, which could contain 100 beds. The Roman soldiers seem to have used two sorts of tents,—one, a tent proper, of canvas or some analogous material, and constructed with two solid upright poles, and a roof-piece between them; the other more resembling a light hut, of a wooden skeleton, covered by bark, hides, mud, straw, or any material which afforded warmth. The Roman tent held 10 soldiers, with their decanus, or corporal. Modern military tents are all made of linen or cotton canvas, supported by one or more poles, according to shape, and held extended by pegs driven into the ground. The tents used in the military service of the United States comprise the following:

Common, or A tent, for the use of enlisted men, is 6 feet 10 inches in height, 8 feet 4 inches in width, and 6 feet 10 inches long; it holds 6 men.

The officers’ tents are somewhat larger than the common tents, and are supplied with low side-walls of canvas; they are generally called wall-tents.

The tente-d’abri, which was introduced into the American from the French service, with some modifications, consists of a tissue of cotton-cloth impregnated with caoutchouc, and thus made water-proof. Every man carries a square of this cloth, with buttons and button-holes around, by which it is attached to the squares carried by his comrades; 3 men generally sleep together in a tent made of those pieces.

The Sibley tent (invented by Maj. Sibley, 2d Dragoons) is conical, light, easily pitched, erected on a tripod holding a single pole, and will comfortably accommodate 12 soldiers with their accoutrements. A fire can be made in the centre of this tent, and all soldiers sleep with their feet to the fire. This tent is hardly ever used.

There is also a hospital tent, which is made of heavy cotton-duck. In length it is 14 feet; in width, 15 feet; in height (centre), 11 feet; with a wall 4¹/₂ feet, and a “fly” of appropriate size; the ridge-pole is made in two sections, and measures 14 feet when joined. This tent accommodates from 8 to 10 persons comfortably.

Tent. To cover with tents; to pitch tents upon; as, a tented plain.

Tent, Laboratory. In artillery, is a large tent, which is sometimes carried to the field for the conveniences of the laboratory men.

Tent-bedstead. See Camp-bedstead.

Tentful. As much or as many as a tent will hold.

Tent-pins. Are pieces of wood, which are indented at the top, and made sharp at the bottom, to keep the cords of a tent firm to the earth.

Tent-poles. The poles upon which a tent is supported.

Teramo (anc. Interamma). A town of Southern Italy, in the province of Abruzzo Ultra I., at the junction of the Tordina and Vezzola, 28 miles northeast of Aquila. In the plain below Teramo took place, July 27, 1460, between the army of John, duke of Anjou, and the Milanese allies of Ferdinand I. of Aragon, one of the most sanguinary battles ever fought in Italy. After the contest at Castelfidardo (1860), Teramo was the first Neapolitan city that opened its gates and gave joyful welcome to King Victor Emmanuel.

Termini (anc. ThermÆ HimÆrenses). A seaport town on the north coast of Sicily, 21 miles east-southeast from Palermo, at the mouth of the river Termini. The ancient ThermÆ was founded 408 B.C. Here the Carthaginians defeated the Romans with heavy loss (260 B.C.) during the first Punic war.

Ternate. The northernmost of a chain of islands, on the west coast of Gilolo, and formerly the seat of sovereignty over all the adjacent Molucca Islands. It was taken from the Dutch by the English in 1797, but it was restored at the peace of Amiens. It was again taken in August, 1810, and once more restored to the Dutch, with their other possessions in India and the East, by the treaty of Paris in 1814.

Terre-plein. In field fortification, the plane of site or level country around a work. The terre-plein of the rampart in permanent fortification, is the broad surface which remains after constructing the parapet and banquette.

Terror, Reign of. See Reign of Terror.

Tertiate. In gunnery, is to examine the thickness of the metal of a piece of artillery, in order to judge of its strength. This is usually done with a pair of caliper compasses. To tertiate a piece of ordnance, is to examine the thickness of the metal, in order to judge of its strength, the position of the trunnions, etc.

Teschen. A town of Austrian Silesia, on the right bank of the Olsa, 38 miles east-southeast of Troppau. Here, in 1779, a treaty of peace was concluded between Maria Theresa and Frederick II., by which the dispute of the Bavarian Succession was brought to an end.

Testri (Northern France). Pepin d’Heristal, invited by malcontents, here defeated and captured Thierry III., king of Austrasia, and established himself as duke, 687.

Testudo (Testude). In ancient warfare, was a defensive arrangement of the shields, by means of which a body of men advancing against a wall for assault or mining, sought to protect themselves from the darts and weapons of the defenders. The men standing in close order, joined their shields above their heads, the edges overlapping, until the whole resembled the shell of a tortoise (testudo). The name was also applied to a machine moving on wheels, and roofed over, under which soldiers worked in undermining or otherwise destroying the walls in a siege.

TÊte-de-pont (Fr.). A field fortification in front of a bridge, to cover the retreat of an army across a river. They are generally formed in the shape of a redan, a system of crÉmaillÈres, horn- or crown-works, or portions of star-and-bastioned forts. In order to add to the defense of tÉtes-de-pont, reduits have been constructed within them, and the dimensions of their parapets are in general made larger than those of any other field-work, on account of their great importance. Sometimes the area inclosed by a tÊte-de-pont is temporarily made use of as a depot for the stores necessary for the troops, in which case its tracing should present a strong point of defense, well provided with artillery, and affording in several points egress. The tracing which has been found the best for the passage of extensive trains of wagons and artillery, as well as columns of troops, is formed of crÉmaillÈres, extending in such a manner as to inclose a large area, and leaving behind each a passage well guarded and secured by second crÉmaillÈres, fronting the passage, and forming a second line. Additional strength will be given to tÊtes of every kind by constructing small redans or batteries on the opposite side of the river, the fire from which may defend the ground in front of the salient, and flank the faces of the tÊte-de-pont.

Tettenhall (Staffordshire). It was probably at this place, then named Testenheal, that the Danes were defeated by the Anglo-Saxons sent against them by Edward the Elder, August 6, 910.

Tetuan. A seaport town on the north coast of Africa, 22 miles south of Ceuta. It was taken by the Spaniards under O’Donnell, February, 1860; and the treaty of Madrid, by which the city was evacuated in favor of the Spaniards, was concluded October 30, 1861.

Teutoburg Forest. Probably situated between Detmold and Paderborn, in North Germany, where Hermann, or Arminius, and the Germans defeated the Romans under Varus with great slaughter in the year 9. This defeat was regarded at Rome as a national calamity.

Teutonic. A term applied to a group of nations, as well as languages, forming an important division or stem of the Aryan family. Of the various tribes and nations spoken of as inhabiting Northern Europe in ancient times, it is often difficult to determine which were really of Germanic race, and which Celtic or Slavic. Of undoubted German nations who took part in the destruction of the Roman empire the most prominent were the Goths (which see), Lombards (which see), Vandals (which see), and Franks (which see). The term Teutonic is derived from Teutones, the name of a nation or tribe first mentioned by Pytheas, who wrote about 320 B.C., as then inhabiting a part of the Cimbric Chersonesus, or Jutland. For the next 200 years there is no further mention of the Teutones, that is, not until 113 B.C., when they appear in history as ravaging Gaul, and in conjunction with the Cimbri and Ambrones, threatening the very existence of the Roman republic. The Cimbri having gone into Spain, the Teutones and Ambrones were at length defeated by C. Marius in a great battle at Aqua SextiÆ, in Gaul, 102 B.C. A similar victory was gained by Marius in the following year over the Cimbri in the plains of Lombardy.

Teutonic Knights. One of the more celebrated of the military and religious orders to which the Crusades gave birth. The sufferings of the Christian soldiers at the siege of Acre excited the sympathy of certain merchants of Bremen and LÜbeck, who rendered such important services by the erection of hospitals and otherwise, that Duke Frederick of Suabia, with the sanction of Pope Clement III. and the emperor Henry VI., enrolled them in an order of knighthood. The habit of the order was a white mantle with a black cross; and the knights took vows of poverty and chastity, which in later times were not very strictly interpreted. In the course of the 13th century, they were, with the sanction of the pope, engaged in a bloody war to enforce Christianity on the heathen nations inhabiting the southern shores of the Baltic, which resulted in the acquisition by the order of Prussia, Livonia, Courland, and other adjoining territories. Warriors from all parts of Europe in that and the following century joined their standard, including Henry IV. of England, accompanied by 300 attendant knights and men-at-arms. The conquests of the order raised it to the rank of a sovereign order, with a territory extending from the Oder to the Baltic, and embracing a population of between 2,000,000, and 3,000,000, the grand master having his seat at Marienburg, Prussia. The decline of the order began in the 15th century, and its fall was brought about partly by internal dissensions, and partly by the attacks of neighboring states. At the peace of Presburg in 1805, the emperor of Austria obtained the rights and revenues of the grand master, but in 1809 the order was abolished by Napoleon, its lands passing to the sovereigns in whose dominions they lay. The Teutonic order, however, still continues to preserve a titular existence in Austria.

Tewkesbury. A town of England, in Gloucestershire, on the Avon, and near its confluence with the Severn, 10 miles northeast from Gloucester. It is a very ancient town. Within a mile of it was fought (May 14, 1471) the famous battle of Tewkesbury, in which the Yorkists under Edward IV. and Richard III. inflicted a signal defeat on the Lancastrians.

Texas. One of the southwestern of the United States of America, is bounded on the southwest by Mexico, from which it is separated by the Rio Grande, and on the east by Arkansas and Louisiana. La Salle, the French explorer, erected a fort on Matagorda Bay, 1687. A Spanish settlement and mission was formed in 1690, but soon abandoned. In 1715, the country was settled by the Spaniards under the name of New Philippines, and several missions established; but the Camanche and Apache Indians, among the most warlike in America, and still the terror of the border settlements, hindered the progress of the country. In 1803, when Louisiana was ceded by France to the United States, Texas, claimed by both Spain and the United States, became a disputed territory. From 1806 to 1816, settlements were formed, and several attempts made to wrest the country from Spain. In one of these, in 1813, 2500 Americans and Mexicans and 700 inhabitants of San Antonio were killed. Mina, a Spanish refugee, gained some successes, but was defeated and shot. Lafitte, a Gulf pirate, made a settlement at Galveston in 1815, but it was broken up in 1821. In 1820, Moses Austin, an American, got a large tract of land from the Mexican government, and began a settlement, which rapidly increased; but many of the settlers were of so lawless a character, that in 1830 the government forbade any more Americans coming into Texas. In 1833, a convention of settlers, 20,000 in number, made an unsuccessful attempt to form an independent Mexican state; and in 1835 a provisional government was formed, Sam Houston chosen commander-in-chief, and the Mexicans driven out of Texas. Santa Anna, president of Mexico, invaded the country with an army of 7500, but after some successes was entirely routed at San Jacinto, April 21, and Texas became an independent republic, acknowledged in 1837 by the United States, and in 1840 by England, France, and Belgium. In December, 1845, Texas was annexed to the United States, but was invaded by Mexico, which had never acknowledged its independence. A war followed (1846-48) in which Mexico was defeated. In February, 1861, Texas joined the Secession, and furnished many soldiers and immense supplies to the Confederate armies. In February, 1866, the ordinance of secession was annulled, and in 1870 the reconstruction was completed, and regular civil government restored.

Thanks. Public acknowledgments for gallant actions.

Thapsus (ruins at Demas). A city on the east coast of Bycazena, in Africa Propria, where CÆsar finally defeated the Pompeian army, and finished the civil war, 46 B.C.

Thasos (now Thaso, or Tasso). An island in the Grecian Archipelago, belonging to Turkey, off the coast of Roumelia, 30 miles north-northeast of Mount Athos. It was at a very early period taken possession of by the Phoenicians on account of its gold mines. Thasos was afterwards colonized by the Parians, 708 B.C. Before the Persian conquest, the Thasians were one of the richest and most powerful tribes in the north of the Ægean. They were subdued by the Persians under Mardonius, and subsequently became part of the Athenian maritime empire. They revolted, however, from Athens in 465 B.C., and after sustaining a siege of three years were subdued by Cimon in 463. They were obliged to surrender to the Athenians all their possessions in Thrace, to destroy their fortifications, to give up their ships, and to pay a large tribute for the future. They again revolted from Athens in 411, and called in the Spartans, but the island was again restored to the Athenians by Thrasybulus in 407.

Thaulache (Fr.). Armor and weapons of the ancient French, consisting of small shields (rondelles), and halberd or spear.

Theatre of Operations. See Strategy.

Theatre of War. The term for any extent of country in which war is carried on. It is synonymous with “seat of war.”

Theban Legion. According to tradition, was totally composed of Christians, and consequently submitted to martyrdom rather than attack their brethren during the persecution of the emperor Maximin, or sacrifice to the gods, about 286. Their leader was canonized.

Thebes. The name of a celebrated city; it was formerly the capital of Upper Egypt; it is now in ruins. It revolted against Ptolemy Lathyrus, and was captured after a siege of three years, in 82 B.C.

Thebes (now Theba). The chief city of Boeotia, in ancient Greece, was situated in a plain southeast of the Lake Helice, and northeast of PlatÆÆ. The territory of Thebes was called Thebais, and extended eastward as far as the Euboean Sea. It was the scene of one of the most celebrated wars in the mythical annals of Greece. Polynices, who had been expelled from Thebes by his brother Eteocles, induced six other heroes to espouse his cause, and marched against the city; but they were all defeated and slain by the Thebans. This is usually called the war of the “Seven against Thebes.” A few years afterward, “the Epigoni,” or descendants of the seven heroes, marched against Thebes to revenge their fathers’ death; they took the city and razed it to the ground. It appears, however, at the earliest historical period as a large and flourishing city. The Thebans were from an early period inveterate enemies of their neighbors, the Athenians. Their hatred of the latter people was probably one of the reasons which induced them to desert the cause of Grecian liberty in the great struggle against the Persian power. In the Peloponnesian war the Thebans naturally espoused the Spartan side, and contributed not a little to the downfall of Athens; but they joined the confederacy formed against Sparta in 394 B.C. The peace of Antalcidas in 387 put an end to hostilities in Greece; but the treacherous seizure of the Cadmea by the LacedÆmonian general Phoebidas in 382, and its recovery by the Theban exiles in 379, led to a war between Thebes and Sparta, in which the former not only recovered its independence, but forever destroyed the LacedÆmonian supremacy. This was the most glorious period in the Theban annals; and the decisive defeat of the Spartans at the battle of Leuctra in 371 made Thebes the first power in Greece. Her greatness, however, was mainly due to the pre-eminent abilities of her citizens, Epaminondas and Pelopidas; and with the death of the former at the battle of Mantinea in 362, she lost the supremacy which she had so recently gained. The Thebans joined the Athenians in protecting the liberties of Greece; but their united forces were defeated by Philip of Macedon, at the battle of ChÆronea, in 338. Soon after the death of Philip and the accession of Alexander, the Thebans made a last attempt to recover their liberty, but were cruelly punished by the young king. The city was taken by Alexander in 336, and was almost entirely destroyed; 6000 inhabitants were slain, and 30,000 sold as slaves. In 316 the city was rebuilt by Cassander, with the assistance of the Athenians. In 290 it was taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and again suffered greatly.

Theodolite. An instrument, variously constructed, used, especially in trigonometrical surveying, for the accurate measurement of horizontal angles, and also usually of vertical angles. The theodolite consists principally of a telescope, with cross-wires in its focus, mounted so as to turn both on vertical and horizontal axes, the former carrying a horizontal vernier-plate over a graduated plate or circle for aximuthal angles, and the latter a vertical, graduated arc or semicircle for altitudes,—the whole furnished with leveling-screws and levels for adjusting to the horizon, and mounted on a tripod. It is usually so constructed that a horizontal angle may be repeated indefinitely around the limb, and thus a large number of repetitions added mechanically, to secure greater accuracy in the resulting mean.

Thermidor (i.e., the “Hot Month”). Formed in the calendar of the first French republic the eleventh month, and lasted from July 19 to August 18. The 9th Thermidor of the Republican year 2 (July 27, 1794) is memorable as the date of Robespierre’s fall, and the termination of the “Reign of Terror.” The name of Thermidorians was given to all those who took part in this fortunate coup d’État, but more particularly to those who were desirous of restoring the monarchy.

ThermopylÆ (literally, “the hot gates”). A famous pass leading from Thessaly into Locris, and the only road by which an invading army can penetrate from Northern into Southern Greece. Leonidas, at the head of 300 Spartans and 700 Thespians, at this pass withstood the whole force of the Persians during three days, August 7, 8, and 9, 480 B.C., when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a secret path up the mountains, brought them to the rear of the Greeks, who, thus placed between two assailants, perished gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. One Greek only returned home, and he was received with reproaches for having fled. Here also, Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, was defeated by the Romans, 191 B.C.

Thermum, Thermus, or Therma. A strong city, the acropolis of Ætolia, Northern Greece, was captured and ravaged by Philip V. of Macedon, 218 and 206 B.C., on account of its favoring the Romans.

ThespiÆ. A city of Boeotia, Northern Greece; 700 of its citizens perished with Leonidas at ThermopylÆ, August, 480 B.C. It suffered much through the jealousy of the Thebans, who destroyed its walls in 372 B.C.

Thessalonica (now Saloniki, more anciently Therma). An ancient city of Macedonia, situated at the northeast extremity of the Sinus Thermaicus. It was taken and occupied by the Athenians a short time before the commencement of the Peloponnesian war (432 B.C.), but was soon afterward restored by them to Perdiccas. At a later time, it became the capital of the Illyrian provinces. It is celebrated at this period on account of the fearful massacre of its inhabitants by order of Theodosius, in consequence of a riot in which some of the Roman officers had been assassinated by the populace.

Thessaly. The largest division of ancient Greece, lay to the south of Macedonia, and to the east of Epirus. Thessaly was originally inhabited by Æolians, who, however, were either expelled or reduced to slavery by immigrants from Epirus about 1000 B.C. The inhabitants of Thessaly have been divided into three classes: (1) There were the Epirote conquerors; (2) those descendants of the original inhabitants, who, although dependent on the nobles, yet possessed a few privileges; and (3) the PenestÆ, or those of the original inhabitants who had been reduced to serfdom. Thessaly never played an important part in Grecian history; it was only after the Peloponnesian war it exercised any influence on the affairs of Greece. The PenestÆ frequently rebelled against their masters, who were very frequently at war among themselves. Jason caused himself to be elected Tagus of all Thessaly about 374 B.C.; was assassinated in 370 B.C. The rule of Jason’s successors became so unbearable that, in 353 B.C., the old families called in the aid of Philip of Macedon, who, in 344, subjected the country to Macedonia. In 197 B.C., it was restored to freedom under the protection of Rome.

Thetford. A town of England, in Norfolk, 95 miles north-northeast of London. It was taken and sacked by the Danes in 870.

Thin, To. To make less numerous; as, to thin the ranks by a heavy discharge of musketry.

Thionville. A fortified town of France, in the department of the Moselle, situated on the Moselle, which is crossed here by a splendid bridge. This place was a residence of the Merovingian and Carlovingian kings, and was repeatedly besieged during the various wars between Austria and France. It was invested by the Germans in August, 1870, and after bombardment, being in flames, surrendered November 24 following.

Thirty, Battle of (Fr. Combat des Trentes). A name given, in English and French history, to a celebrated engagement which took place at a spot known as Midway Oak, half-way between the castles of Josselin and Ploermel, France, March 27, 1351. The French general Beaumanoir, commanding the former post, being enraged at the depredations committed by Bemborough, the English general, challenged him to fight. Upon this it was agreed that thirty knights of each party should meet and decide the contest. The two chiefs presented themselves at the head of their best soldiers and the battle began in earnest. At the first onset the English were successful; but Bemborough having been killed, the French renewed the struggle with redoubled courage and finally won the victory. This was one of the most heroic exploits of the age, and gained such popularity that more than one hundred years later, when speaking of a hard contest, it was usual to say, “There never was such hard fighting since the battle of the Thirty.”

Thirty Tyrants. A body of thirty magistrates in Athens (404-403 B.C.). They were appointed from the aristocratic party, by the Spartans, victorious in the Peloponnesian war. The “tyrants” were guilty of the most cruel and shameless acts, and after one year were expelled by Thrasybulus.

Thirty Tyrants of Rome. A set of military adventurers who from 253 to 268 attempted to establish their own power in various parts of the empire during the reigns of Valerianus and Gallienus. The number thirty is borrowed from that of the famous Athenian tyrants. The names of only nineteen of these adventurers have come down to us.

Thirty Years’ War. Was not properly one war, but rather an uninterrupted succession of wars (1618-1648) in Germany, in which Austria, the most of the Catholic princes of Germany, and Spain, were engaged on one side throughout, but against different antagonists. This long-continued strife had its origin in the quarrels between the Catholics and Protestants of Germany, and the attempts of the former, who were the more powerful body, to deprive the latter of what liberty of worship they had obtained. The severe measures taken by the emperor, the head of the Catholic party, against the Protestant religion, led also to strictures on their civil rights; and it was to protect their political as well as their religious liberties, that the Protestants formed a union, May 4, 1608, with Frederick IV., the Elector Palatinate, at its head. The rival union of the Catholic powers, under the leadership of the Duke of Bavaria, followed July 11, 1609. In Bohemia, the immense preponderance in numbers (two out of three) and influence of the Protestants, had forced from their Austrian king an edict of toleration (July 11, 1609), which was at first faithfully observed; but during the reign of Matthias, sundry violations of it were made with impunity; and as the influence of Ferdinand of Styria, his successor, began to be felt in more flagrant partiality to the Catholics, the kingdom became a scene of wild excitement; three of the Catholic party were thrown from the window of the Bohemian council-chamber at Prague, and ultimately Ferdinand was deposed, and Frederick V., the Elector Palatinate, chosen in his stead (1619); and Count Thurn, at the head of an insurgent army, repeatedly routed the imperial troops, and actually besieged the emperor in Vienna. The Catholic princes, though as apprehensive as their opponents of the encroaching policy of Austria, crowded to the emperor’s aid; and while the Protestant union and James I. of Great Britain held aloof from Frederick, whose sole allies were Bohemians (under Thurn), Moravians, Hungarians, and a Piedmontese contingent of 3000 (under Count Mansfield), a well-appointed army of 30,000, under Duke Maximilian, advanced to support the Austrians, and totally routed Frederick’s motley array at Weissenberg (November 8, 1620), near Prague, afterwards reducing the Upper, while an army of Spaniards under Spinola ravaged the Lower, Palatinate, and the Saxons (in alliance with the emperor) occupied Lusatia. The Bohemians were now subjected to the most frightful tyranny and persecution; a similar policy, though of a more modern character, was adopted towards the people of the Palatinate,—the Protestant union standing aloof, and subsequently dissolving, through sheer terror. But the indomitable pertinacity and excellent leadership of Count Mansfield and Christian of Brunswick, two famous partisan leaders, who ravaged the territories of the Catholic league, and the forced cession to Bethlem Gabor of large portions of Hungary and Transylvania, did much to equalize the success of the antagonistic parties. Here the war might have ended; but the fearful tyranny of Ferdinand over all the Protestants in his dominions (Hungary excepted) drove them to despair, and the war advanced to its second phase. Christian IV. of Denmark, smarting under some injuries inflicted on him by the emperor, and aided by a British subsidy, came to the aid of his German co-religionists in 1624, and being joined by Mansfield and Christian of Brunswick, advanced into Lower Saxony, while the emperor, hampered by the political jealousy of the Catholic league, was unable to oppose him. But when, by the aid of Wallenstein, a powerful and effective army had been obtained, and the leaguers under Tilly, in co-operation with it, had marched northwards, the rout of the Danes by Tilly at Lutter (August 17, 1626), and of Mansfield by Wallenstein at Dessau (April 1, 11, and 25, 1626), again prostrated the Protestants’ hopes in the dust; yet a gleam of comfort was obtained from the victorious raid of Mansfield through Silesia, Moravia, and Hungary, though his scheme for an insurrection in Hungary failed, and his death soon after, at Zara, freed the emperor from a formidable and irreconcilable enemy. The combined Imperialists and leaguers mean time had overrun North Germany and continental Denmark, and ultimately compelled King Christian to conclude the humiliating peace of LÜbeck (May 12, 1629). This second great success seems to have turned Ferdinand’s head, for, not content with still more rigorous treatment of the Protestants, and the promulgation of the Restitution Edict, which seriously offended even the Catholics, he stirred up Poland against Sweden, and insulted Gustavus Adolphus, both personally and in the persons of his ambassadors,—insolent impertinences which he soon saw bitter reason to regret. The Catholic league now forced him to reduce his army, and supplant Wallenstein by Tilly; while France was inciting Gustavus to the willing task of aiding the Protestants in Germany. The war entered its third phase by the landing of the Swedes at Usedom (June, 1630), and their conquest of Pomerania and Mecklenburg. Gustavus, by the exercise of a little wholesome pressure, induced the elector of Brandenburg to aid him; and though unable to save Magdeburg, he marched to join the Saxons, completely routed by Tilly at Breitenfeld (September 17, 1631); victoriously traversed the Main and Rhine valleys; again routed Tilly on the Lech (April 5, 1632), and entered Munich. By the judicious strategy of Wallenstein, he was compelled to return to Saxony, where he gained the great victory of LÜtzen; but his death, depriving the Protestants of the only man who could force the confederate powers to preserve unity of action, was a severe blow to their cause; though the genius and indefatigable zeal of his chancellor, Oxenstiern, and the brilliant talents of the Swedish generals, preserved the advantages they had gained, till the crushing defeat of Bernard of Weimar at Nordlingen (September 6, 1634) again restored to the emperor a preponderating influence in Germany. Saxony now made peace at Prague (May 30, 1635), obtaining such satisfactory terms for the Lutherans that the treaty was within three months adhered to by all the German princes of that sect, and the Calvinists were left to their fate. Final success now appeared to demand only one more strenuous effort on the part of Austria; but Oxenstiern resolved to preserve to Sweden her German acquisitions, propitiated Richelieu, by resigning to him the direction of the war, and the conflict advanced into its final and most extended phase. The emperor, allied for offense and defense with the Lutherans, was now also assailed through his ally, Spain, who was attacked on her own frontier, in the Netherlands, and in Italy; Bernard of Weimar fighting independently, with the view of obtaining Alsace for himself, opposed the leaguers; while the Swedes under BanÉr held North Germany, and by frequent flying marches into Silesia and Bohemia distracted their opponents, and prevented them, after successes over Duke Bernard, from proceeding with the invasion of France. The great victory of BanÉr over the Austrians and Saxons at Wittstock (October 4, 1636) restored to Sweden the victor’s wreath she had lost two years before; and from this time, especially under Torstenson and Konigsmark, the Swedes were always successful, adding a second victory of Breitenfeld (November 2, 1642), one at Yankowitz (February 14, 1645), and numberless ones of less note, to their already long list of successes, carrying devastation and ruin into the hereditary territories, even to the gates of Vienna, defeating the best generals of the empire, till, from a profound feeling of inability to check them, the Austrians hardly dared appear to the north of the Danube. On the Rhine, the leaguers at first had great success,—the Weimar troops, now in French pay, were almost exterminated at Duttlingen (November 24, 1643); but after the Spanish power had been thoroughly broken in the Netherlands by CondÉ, the French were reinforced on the Rhine, and under CondÉ and Turenne, rolled back the leaguers through the Palatinate and Bavaria, and revenged at Nordlingen (August 3, 1645) the former defeat of the Swedes. The emperor was now deserted by all his allies except the Duke of Bavaria, whose territories were already mostly in the hands of Turenne and Wrangel; and a combined invasion of Austria from the west and north was on the point of being executed, when, after seven years of diplomatic shuffling, with an eye to the changing fortunes of the contest, the peace of Westphalia put an end to this terrible struggle.

Thistle, Order of the. See Andrew, St.

Thomas, St. The principal of the Virgin Islands in the West Indies, belonging to Denmark. In March, 1801, it was taken by the British, but given up at the peace of Amiens; it was again taken in the course of the subsequent war, and restored to Denmark at the peace of Paris in 1814.

Thorn. A fortified town of the kingdom of Prussia, in the province of West Prussia, on the right bank of the Vistula. It is defended by walls, bastions, and two forts. This town was founded by the Teutonic Knights in 1232, and admitted into the Hanseatic League in the beginning of the 14th century. It was taken by Charles XII. of Sweden in 1703, after a siege of four months.

Thrace. Anciently the name of an extensive country bounded on the north by the Danube, on the east by the Euxine, on the south by the Ægean and Macedonia, and on the west by Macedonia and Illyria. War and robbery were the only honorable occupations of the Thracians. They lived to steal, either from each other or from neighboring peoples. When not fighting or plundering, they spent their days in savage idleness, or in quarreling over their cups. Courageous, or rather ferocious, after the fashion of barbarous peoples, they yet lacked the steady valor and endurance of disciplined troops; at all times, their warfare displayed more fierceness and impetuosity than fortitude. In 513 B.C., Darius, king of Persia, marched through Thrace on his way to punish the European Scythians, and on his return left Megabazus with 80,000 men to subdue the country. In this he partially succeeded, but new disturbances and complications arose between the Persians and Greeks, which resulted (480 B.C.) in the famous expedition of Xerxes. The consequence of the expulsion of the Persians from Europe was the resumption of liberty and the revival of prosperity among the Greek colonies in Thrace. Shortly before the Peloponnesian war, a native Thracian state—the Odrysian—had attained to great power and eminence under a ruler named Sitalces, who joined the Athenian alliance, but could not, in spite of his resources, prevent the triumph of Sparta in the north as well as in the south. The rise of the Macedonian kingdom, under Philip II. (359 B.C.), destroyed the independence of a great part of Thrace. Under the government of Lysimachus, the subjugation of Thrace became complete. On the fall of the Macedonian kingdom (168 B.C.) it passed into the hands of the Romans, and subsequently shared the vicissitudes of the Roman empire. In 334 a colony of Sarmatians, and in 376 another of Goths, was planted in Thrace. In 395 it was overrun by Alaric, and in 447 by Attila. In 1353, Amurath obtained possession of all its fortresses, except Constantinople, and it has ever since remained in the possession of the Turks.

Thrasimenus Lacus. See Trasimenus Lacus.

Throw, To. To force anything from one place to another; thus, artillerists say, to throw a shot or shell, or so many shells were thrown.

Thrust. Hostile attack with any pointed weapon, as in fencing. When one party makes a push with his sword to wound his adversary with the point, it is called a thrust.

Thud. The sound of a bullet on hitting the intended object.

Thug. One of an association of robbers and murderers in India, who practiced murder not by open assault, but by stealthy approaches, and from religious motives. They have been nearly exterminated by the British government.

Thumb-stall. See Implements.

Thunderbolt. In heraldry, a bearing borrowed from classical mythology, which may be described as a twisted bar in pale inflamed at each end surmounting two jagged darts in saltire between two wings displayed with streams of fire.

Thundering Legion. During a contest with the invading Marcomanni, the prayers of some Christians in a Roman legion are said to have been followed by a storm of thunder, lightning, and rain, which tended greatly to discomfit the enemy; and hence the legion received the name in 174.

Thurii, or Thurium. A Greek city in the south of Italy, on the north shore of the Tarentine Gulf, was founded in 452 B.C., by a body of Sybarite exiles, near the spot where their ancient city had stood till it was destroyed by the Crotonians fifty-eight years before. The rise of a new colony re-awakened the anger of the Crotonians, and after five years they expelled the Sybarites. These after an unsuccessful appeal to Sparta for assistance, applied to the Athenians, who resolved to send out a colony along with the persecuted Sybarites. The leaders of this colony were Lampon and Xenocritus. A war subsequently occurred between Thurii and Tarentum, but was terminated by a compromise. In 390 B.C. the city received a severe blow from a total defeat of their army by the Lucanians. From this period it began to decline, and was at length obliged to submit to the Roman power, in order to escape the continued attacks of the Lucanians.

Thuringia. An early Gothic kingdom in Central Germany, was overrun by Attila and the Huns, 451; the last king, Hermanfried, was defeated and slain by Thierry, king of the Franks, who annexed it to his dominions, 530. It was after various changes and many conflicts, absorbed in Saxony in the 15th century. In 1815 it was surrendered to Prussia.

Thyatira. In Asia Minor; was the place assigned for the battle at which the rebel Procopius was defeated by the army of the emperor Valens in 366.

Thymbra. In Asia Minor, where Cyrus the Great defeated the confederate army aiding Croesus, and obtained supremacy in Asia, 548.

Tiberias. A city in Palestine, built by Herod Antipas, and named after the emperor Tiberias in 39. Near it Guy de Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, and the Crusaders, were defeated by Saladin; and Jerusalem fell into his hands, 1187.

Ticino, or Tessin. A Swiss canton south of the Alps; it was conquered by the Swiss early in the 16th century, and made a separate canton in 1815. It suffered by internal disputes in 1839 and 1841.

Ticinus (now Tessino). An important river in Northern Italy. It was upon the bank of this river that Hannibal gained his first victory over the Romans by the defeat of P. Scipio, 218 B.C.

Ticonderoga. A town in Essex Co., N. Y., 95 miles north by east of Albany. Two or three miles below this village are the ruins of old Fort Ticonderoga, on the west shore of Lake Champlain. The fort was surprised by Col. Ethan Allen in the Revolutionary war.

Tien Tsin. A city of China, situated 70 miles southeast from Pekin. A treaty of amity and commerce was signed here between the French and English on the one hand, and the Chinese on the other, in 1858. The violation of this treaty, which was favorable to British interests in China, by the Chinese, was the cause of the subsequent Chinese war.

Tierce. A thrust in fencing, delivered at the outside of the body over the arm.

Tierce, TiercÉ. In heraldry, a term of blazon used to indicate that the field is divided by lines into three equal parts. A shield may be tierce in pale, in fess, in bend, in bend sinister, or in pall; all which, with other arrangements in tierce, are common in French heraldry. Tierce in pale, in English heraldry, is an occasional mode of marshaling three coats in one escutcheon under special circumstances.

Tier-shot. Grape-shot is sometimes so called.

Tiflis. See Teflis.

Tige-arms. Sometimes called pillar breech-arms. Arms with a stem of steel, screwed into the middle of the breech-pin, around which the charge of powder is placed. The ball enters free and rests upon the top of the pin, which is tempered, and a few blows with a heavy ramrod force the ball to fill the grooves of the rifled arm. This invention was an improvement by Capt. Thouvenin on Delvignes’ plan of having a chamber for the powder smaller than the bore. Capt. MiniÉ’s invention superseded the tige-arms, by means of a bullet which is forced to fill the grooves by the action of the charge itself at the instant of the explosion.

Tigranocerta (ruins at Sert). The later capital of Armenia, built by Tigranes. It was taken by Lucullus and the Romans, after a great victory over Tigranes, in 69 B.C.

Tigurini. A tribe of the Helvetii, who joined the Cimbri in invading the country of the Allobroges in Gaul, where they defeated the consul L. Cassius Longinus, 107 B.C. They formed in the time of CÆsar the most important of the four cantons into which the Helvetii were divided.

Tilsit. A town of East Prussia, on the left bank of the Niemen, or Memel, 60 miles northeast from KÖnigsberg. Tilsit will be ever memorable in history for the treaties which were there signed between France and Russia on July 7, and France and Prussia on July 9, 1807. By the former of these Napoleon agreed to restore to the king of Prussia a great portion of his dominions, his Polish acquisitions being joined to Saxony, and his possessions west of the Elbe formed into the nucleus of the new kingdom of Westphalia; Danzig was declared an independent city; the Prussian province of Bialystock was ceded to Russia; the dukes of Oldenberg and Mecklenburg, the czar’s relatives, were reinstated by Napoleon, and in return the Bonapartist kings of Naples and Holland were recognized by the czar, etc. By the latter, the king of Prussia recognized the kings of Holland, Naples, and Westphalia, and the Confederation of the Rhine; agreed to the cessions laid down in the Russian treaty, and to other minor alienations and concessions to Saxony, amounting in all to nearly one-half of his dominions; to the exclusion from his harbors of the commerce of Great Britain, and to the occupation of the Prussian fortresses by the French, till the payment of an enormous ransom. The weighty importance of the alterations effected by this treaty is, however, dwarfed before the startling magnitude of the secret provisions signed between France and Russia. By these were arranged the resignation of the empire of the East to Russia, Roumelia and Constantinople being specially excepted by Napoleon, and the acquisition of the Spanish peninsula by France; the two powers were to make common cause against Great Britain, and were to force the three courts of Stockholm, Copenhagen, and Lisbon to join them; and Napoleon agreed to increase no further the power of the duchy of Warsaw, and to do nothing which might lead to the re-establishment of the Polish monarchy. By a further agreement, not put formally into writing, the mouths of the Cattaro, the Ionian Isles, Sicily, Malta, Egypt, and the papal dominions were to be taken by France; and Greece, Macedonia, Dalmatia, and the Adriatic coasts, as the portion of Turkey; while on the other hand, Russia was to obtain the rest of Turkey, and was allowed to seize Finland. These secret articles are given on most excellent authority, and their correctness is further vouched for by the conduct of France and Russia for the next few years.

Tilt. A thrust, or fight with rapiers; also, an old military game.

Tilted Steel. See Ordnance, Metals for, Steel.

Tilter. One who fights or contests in a tournament.

Tilting-helmet. A helmet of large size often worn over another at tilts.

Tilt-yard. Formerly a place or yard for tilting.

Timariot. A Turkish cavalry soldier who has a certain allowance made him, for which he is not only obliged to arm, clothe, and accoutre himself, but he must likewise provide a certain number of militia-men. The allowance is called timar.

Timars. Certain revenues, in Turkey, growing out of lands which originally belonged to Christian clergy and nobility, and which the sultans seized when they conquered the countries they inhabited. By this means the sultan is enabled to support the timariots.

Timber. In heraldry, a rank or row, as of ermine, in a nobleman’s coat; also a crest. This word is also written timbre.

Timber Rafts. See Rafts, Timber.

Timbuctoo. A celebrated city in the interior of Africa, on the slope of a hill about 8 miles south of the Niger. It is said to have been built by Mansa Suleiman, a Mohammedan, about 1214, and was frequently subjugated by the sovereigns of Morocco. Since 1727 it has been partially independent.

Time. The measure of duration by which soldiers regulate the cadence of the march. Common time, the ordinary time of marching, in which 90 steps, each 28 inches in length, are taken in one minute. See Double-quick, and Quick Time.

Time. That necessary interval between each motion in the manual exercise, as well as in every movement the army or any body of men may make. In fencing there are three kinds of time: that of the sword, that of the foot, and that of the whole body.

Time. A particular period or part of duration, whether past, present, or future.

Apparent time, the time of day reckoned by the sun, or so that 12 o’clock at the place is the instant of the transit of the sun’s centre over the meridian.

Mean solar time, or mean time, time regulated by the average, or mean, instead of the unequal or apparent, motion of the sun; time as indicated by a uniformly-going clock, once rightly adjusted, and differing from apparent time at any instant by a small quantity called the equation of time.

Sidereal time, time regulated by the transit, over the meridian of a place, of the first point of Aries, or vernal equinox, and chiefly used in astronomical observations.

Solar time. See Mean Solar Time.

Time of Flight. See Flight.

Time Thrust. In fencing, a thrust given upon any opening which may occur by an inaccurate or wide motion of your adversary, when changing his guard, etc.

Time-fuze. See Fuze, Time-.

Timing. In fencing, is the accurate and critical throwing in of a cut or thrust upon any opening that may occur as your adversary changes his position.

Tin-case Shot. See Canister-shot.

Tinchebrai. A town of France, department of the Arne, 34 miles northwest from AlenÇon. Here Robert of Normandy was finally defeated by his brother, Henry I. of England, on September 28, 1106, and Normandy was annexed to the crown of England.

Tincture. In heraldry, one of the metals, colors, or furs used in armory.

Tindal. An attendant on the army in India.

Tinker. A small mortar formerly used on the end of a staff, now superseded by the Coehorn.

Tippecanoe. A river of Indiana, United States, which rises in a lake of the same name in the northern part of the State. It is famous for the battle fought on its banks, November 5, 1811, in which the Indians, under Tecumseh’s brother, the Prophet, were defeated by Gen. Harrison.

Tipperary. An inland county in the province of Munster, Ireland. Subsequently to the year 1172, Henry II. obtained possession of it after several sanguinary contests. The county suffered greatly during the civil wars of 1641, in the course of which the town of Clonmel, after a gallant resistance, obtained honorable terms from Cromwell, who conducted the siege in person.

Tipperary. A town of the county of the same name, on the river Arra, 111 miles southwest from Dublin. The town is of very ancient foundation, and soon after the invasion was occupied as a strong place by the English, who built a castle in it during the Irish expedition of King John. This castle, however, fell soon afterward into the hands of the Irish under the Prince of Thomond.

Tippermuir, or Tibbermore. A town of Scotland, near Perth. Here the Marquis of Montrose defeated the Covenanters under Lord Elcho, September 1, 1644.

Tirailleur. A skirmisher, often put in front of the line to annoy the enemy, and draw off his attention; or they are left behind to amuse and stop his progress in the pursuit; a rifleman.

Tire. Are great guns, shot, shells, etc., placed in a regular form.

Tirlemont. A town of Belgium, province of Brabant, 25 miles east of Brussels. It was taken by the French in 1635; was ravaged by Marlborough in 1705; taken by the French in 1792; here the French, under Dumouriez, defeated the Austrians in 1793; taken by the French in 1794. Its fortifications were dismantled in 1804.

Tiryns. An ancient town of Argolis, southeast of Argos, and one of the most ancient in all Greece. Homer represents Tiryns as subject to Argos; the town was at a later time destroyed by the Argives, and most of the inhabitants were removed to Argos.

Titles, Military. See military titles under appropriate headings throughout this volume.

Tivoli. A town of Central Italy, on the left bank of the Teverone, 18 miles east-northeast from Rome. In the Middle Ages, Tivoli was an imperial city, independent of Rome, and was the occasion of many contentions between the emperors and the popes; in the course of which it was frequently taken and retaken as either party gained the ascendant.

Tlemsen, or Tlemecen. A town of Algeria, in the province of Oran, 67 miles southwest from Oran. It was once an important place; but in consequence of a revolt of the inhabitants against his authority, Hassan, the dey of Algiers, laid it in ruins. It was occupied by the French in 1836 and 1842.

Tobago. One of the British islands in the West Indies, belonging to the Windward group. This island was first colonized by the Dutch, who were expelled by the Spaniards. It was then settled by the English, to whom it was ceded by the peace of 1763. In 1781 it was taken by the French, and in 1793 was retaken by the British, by whom it was retained at the peace of Amiens.

Tobitschau (Moravia). In a sharp action, on July 15, 1866, the Austrians were defeated by the army of the crown-prince of Prussia, with the loss of 500 killed and wounded, and 500 prisoners and 17 guns.

Tocsin. An alarm-drum; a bell. It was formerly used in an army as a signal for charging, on the approach of an enemy.

Toga Picta. Was an outer garment, worn by Roman generals in triumphs, by consuls under the empire, and by prÆtors when they celebrated games; and was embellished with Phrygian embroidery. In war the toga was laid aside for the sagum or paludatogatus, or some less cumbrous style of attire.

Toggle and Chain. See Ordnance.

Toise. A measure derived from the French, containing 6 feet, and a term of frequent use in fortification and military surveying.

Toison d’Or (Fr.). See Golden Fleece.

Toledo (anc. Toletum). A city of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, on the north bank of the Tagus, 55 miles south-southwest from Madrid. It was conquered by the Romans under M. Fulvius, 192 B.C. (193 B.C.); was captured by the Goths, 467; possessed by the Moors from 714 to 1085. Alfonso VI. of Castile and Leon recovered it from the Moors.

Toledo. An esteemed Spanish sword, so called from the place of manufacture.

Tolenon (Fr.). An ancient machine of war, having a long lever moving on a pivot, suspended from an upright higher than the rampart, having at one end a box to contain 20 men, who, by drawing down the other end, might be raised high enough to fire into the loop-holes, or even to get upon the wall.

Tolentino. A town of Italy, province of Macerata, 12 miles from Macerata. It was here, in February, 1797, that the pope ceded the Romagna to the French republic by treaty, and in May, 1815, Murat retired to this place with his troops before the Austrians, and was defeated.

Tolosa. A town of Spain, province of Guipuzcoa, on the Oria, 35 miles southwest from Bayonne. Near here, Alfonso, king of Castile, aided by the kings of Aragon and Navarre, gained a great victory over the Moors, July 16, 1212. This conflict is sometimes termed the battle of Muradal. It was occupied by the French from 1808 till 1813.

Tomahawk. A light war-hatchet of the North American Indians. The early ones were rudely made of stone, ingeniously fastened to their handles by animal sinews, or cords of skin. Traders supplied hatchets of steel, the heads of which were made hollow, for a tobacco-pipe; the handle of ash, with the pith removed, being the stem. These hatchets are used in the chase and in battle, not only in close combat, but by being thrown with a wonderful skill, so as always to strike the object aimed at with the edge of the instrument. The handles are curiously ornamented. In the figurative language of the Indians, to make peace, is to bury the tomahawk; to make war, is to dig it up.

Toman. In the East Indies, signifies 10,000 men.

Tom-tom. A large, flat drum, used by the Hindoos; a tam-tam.

Tongue. The pole of an ox-cart (local).

Tongue of a Sword. That part of the blade on which the gripe, shell, and pummel are fixed. The bayonet is figuratively called a triangular tongue, from its shape.

Tonnelon (Fr.). An ancient drawbridge, used nearly in the same manner and for similar purposes as the harpe and exostre.

Tonquin, or Tonkin. The northernmost province of Anam, Southeast Asia. Tonquin was conquered by the Chinese in 1406, and by the Anamese in 1790.

Tooksowars (Ind.). The vizier’s body of cavalry.

Topekhana (Ind.). The place where guns are kept; the arsenal.

Topeys, or Topgis. Turkish artillerymen or gunners.

Topgi-Bachi. Master-general of the Turkish artillery.

Topikhannah (Ind.). A house for keeping guns; an arsenal; an armory.

TÖplitz. A town of Bohemia. Here were signed, in 1813, two treaties,—one between Austria, Russia, and Prussia, September 9; and one between Great Britain and Austria, October 3.

Topographical Engineers. The duties of this corps consist in surveys for the defense of the frontiers and of positions for fortifications; in reconnoissances of the country through which an army has to pass, or in which it has to operate; in the examination of all routes of communication by land or by water, both for supplies and military movements; in the construction of military roads and permanent bridges connected with them; and the charge of the construction of all civil works authorized by acts of Congress, not specially assigned by law to some other branch of the service. The U.S. Corps of Topographical Engineers was merged into the Corps of Engineers in 1863.

Topography. Is the art of representing and describing in all its details the physical constitution, natural or artificial, of any determined portion of a country; in making maps and giving a descriptive memoir. Military topography differs from geography in seeking to imitate sinuosities of ground: it represents graphically and describes technically commanding heights, water-courses, preferable sites for camps, different kinds of roads, the position of fords, and extent of woods. It enumerates the resources that a country offers to troops and the difficulties which are interposed. By means of colored maps and other conventional signs, military topography presents before the eyes of a general much that is necessary to guide his operations.

Torce, or Wreath. In heraldry, a garland of twisted silk, by which the crest is joined to the helmet. A crest is always understood to be placed on a torce, unless where it is expressly stated to issue out of a coronet or chapeau.

Torches. See Pyrotechny.

Tordesillas. A town of Spain, province of Valladolid. Here was signed, in 1494, a treaty modifying the boundary-line which Pope Alexander VI. had assigned, in 1493, in his division of the New World between Spain and Portugal.

Torgau. A fortified town of Prussian Saxony, on the left hank of the Elbe, 70 miles south-southwest from Berlin. Here a battle was fought between Frederick II. of Prussia and the Austrians, in which the former obtained a signal victory, the Austrian general, Count Daun, a renowned warrior, being wounded, November 3, 1760. It was besieged and taken by the allied Prussians and Saxons in January, 1814; the besieged lost about 30,000 men.

Tormentum. A pistol; a gun; a piece of ordnance.

Tormes. A river of Spain, falls into the Douro, on the borders of Portugal. Its banks were the scene of many conflicts between the French and Spaniards during the Peninsular war, from 1808 to 1814.

Toro. A city of Spain, province of Leon, on the Douro, 20 miles east from Zamora. Ferdinand the Catholic defeated Alonzo V. of Portugal near this place in 1476, and gained the kingdom of Castile for himself and his wife Isabella.

Toronto. The capital of the province of Ontario, Canada, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, 165 miles from Kingston, and 323 miles from Montreal. Its harbor or bay is capable of accommodating the largest vessels that navigate the lakes, and is defended at the entrance by a fort, which was thoroughly repaired in 1864 by the imperial government, and mounted with the most efficient modern ordnance. The town was founded in 1794, by Gov. Simcoe. It was burned by the Americans in 1813, and suffered severely in the insurrection of 1837, on which occasion it was the headquarters of the rebellion.

Torpedo. During the war between Great Britain and the United States in 1812-14, this name was applied to certain mysterious boats invented by Fulton and other Americans for the purpose of navigating beneath the surface of the water, and injuring the bottom of hostile vessels. In those days of hand-to-hand naval war, these designs (which, by the way, were failures) were looked upon as little less than diabolical. The progress of destructive weapons during half a century has removed this aversion, and nations do not scruple now to employ similar unseen agents for offense and defense. The modern torpedo is really a stationary bomb-shell, intended to explode under the bottom of an enemy’s ship. The weapon was first used by the Russians in the Baltic in 1854; and in the American war of Secession, 1861-65, it was employed extensively, and often successfully. The damage effected by a torpedo exploding beneath a ship is very great; and although the failures are frequent by the explosion happening at a wrong moment, the danger from torpedoes is considerable in fact, and far more in apprehension, for sailors naturally dread navigating waters where destruction lurks at unknown points concealed from view. There are several varieties of torpedoes, but they may be divided into two classes,—those which are self-explosive on a ship touching them, and those which are dependent on an electric current supplied from the shore. The second are the safest for friendly vessels; but they are rather uncertain in action, and can only be employed at a moderate distance from the shore. The first are more certain in action, as they can only explode on a ship, being somewhere in contact, but they attack indiscriminately friend and foe.

Torque (Fr.). A metal collar formerly bestowed upon a Roman soldier who had killed his adversary in a single combat.

Torqued. In heraldry, twisted; bent;—said of a dolphin haurient, which forms a figure like the letter S.

Torre di Mare. A village of Naples, at the mouth of the Bassento, in the Gulf of Taranto. Its prosperity received a fearful blow when, after the battle of the Metaurus (207 B.C.), Hannibal was compelled to give up this part of Italy, and carried with him all the citizens of Megapontum, in order to defend them from the vengeance of the Romans. In the time of Cicero the city still existed, but in a state of rapid decay.

Torres-Vedras. A town of Estremadura, kingdom of Portugal, on the left bank of the Sizandro, about 30 miles north of Lisbon. It derives its reputation solely from having given name to those famous lines of defense within which Wellington took refuge in 1810, when he found it impossible to defend the frontier of Portugal against the French armies; and from which, in the year following, he issued on that career of slow and hard-won victory which ended in the expulsion of the French from the Peninsula. The first, or outermost of these lines, extending from Alhandra, on the Tagus, to the mouth of the Sizandro, on the sea-coast, and following the windings of the hills, was 29 miles long; the second (and by far the most formidable) lay from 6 to 10 miles behind the first, stretching from Quintella, on the Tagus, to the mouth of the St. Lorenza, a distance of 24 miles; the third, situated to the southwest of Lisbon, at the very mouth of the Tagus, was very short, being intended to cover a forced embarkation, if that had become necessary. The entire ground thus fortified was equal to 500 square miles.

Torrington. A town of England, county of Devon, 10 miles south-southwest of Barnstaple. The name of Torrington emerges frequently during the great civil war; and the capture of the town by Fairfax in 1646, on which occasion the church, with 200 prisoners, and those who guarded them, were blown into the air by gunpowder, proved fatal to the king’s cause in the west.

Torse, or Torce. In heraldry, a wreath.

Tortona. A town of Italy, province of Alessandria, on a hill nearly 900 feet above the sea. Tortona was once a strongly fortified city, but its last defenses were destroyed by order of Napoleon, after the battle of Marengo.

Tortosa. A town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the Ebro, 42 miles southwest from Tarragona. It was taken by the French under Suchet in 1811.

Tortu d’Hommes (Fr.). A particular formation which was formerly adopted by the besieged when they made a sortie.

Tory. The word tory first occurs in English history in 1679, during the struggle in Parliament occasioned by the introduction of the bill for the exclusion of the Duke of York from the line of succession, and was applied by the advocates of the bill to its opponents as a title of obloquy or contempt. The name has, however, ceased to designate any existing party; the political successors of the tories are now commonly known as conservatives. In the Revolutionary war of the United States, the loyalists were called tories.

Touch-box. A box containing lighted tinder, formerly carried by soldiers who used matchlocks, to kindle the match.

Touch-hole. The vent of a cannon or other species of fire-arms, by which fire is communicated to the powder of the charge.

Toula, or Tula. An important town of Great Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the Upa, 110 miles south of Moscow. It is an ancient town, and has suffered severely from Tartar invasion, and during the wars of the commencement of the 17th century. The Russian army is largely supplied with muskets and small-arms from the works of this town.

Toulon. A great seaport and naval arsenal of France, department of Var. It stands at the head of a deeply-penetrating inlet of the Mediterranean. It is a fortress of immense strength, and is surrounded by a double rampart, and by a wide and deep fosse. Toulon was destroyed by the Saracens in 889, and again by them about the close of the 12th century. It was only at the end of the 16th century that Toulon came to be important as a naval and military stronghold. In 1707, it was assailed without success by the Duke of Savoy by land, and the English and Dutch by sea. It was taken by the English and Spaniards in 1793; but the allies were obliged to evacuate the town in December of the same year, after being fiercely attacked by the republicans, whose guns were commanded by Napoleon,—then a simple officer of artillery,—who here evinced for the first time his genius and self-reliance.

Toulouse (anc. Tolosa). An important city of France, capital of the department of Haute-Garonne, on the right bank of the river Garonne, 160 miles southeast of Bordeaux. The ancient Tolosa and its temple were plundered by the consul Q. Servilius CÆpio in 106 B.C. It was ravaged by the Visigoths and Franks, who successively overran and possessed the country. A battle was fought here in 1814, between Wellington and Soult, in which the latter was defeated, and obliged to evacuate the town.

Tour, or Turn. That which is done by succession. Tour of duty, turn to go on duty.

Tourbillon. See Pyrotechny.

Tournament, or Tournay. A military sport of the Middle Ages, in which combatants engaged one another with the object of exhibiting their courage, prowess, and skill in the use of arms, or for the honor of the ladies attending. According to Ducange, the difference between a tournament and a joust is, that the latter is a single combat, while in the former a troop of combatants encounter each other on either side. But this distinction has not been always observed.

Tournay (anc. Tornacum, or Turris Nerviorum, “Fort of the Nervii”). A fortified town of Belgium, province of Hainault, on both sides of the Scheldt, near the French frontier. It was in the 5th and beginning of the 6th centuries the seat of the Merovingian kings, subsequently belonged to France, but at the peace of Madrid was included in the Spanish Netherlands. Subsequently it was oftener than once taken by France, but again restored by treaty. During the month of May, 1794, it was the scene of several hotly contested fights between the French and Austro-English armies, the most important of which was that of May 19, in which Pichegru heat the Duke of York.

Tours. A city of France, capital of the department of Indre-et-Loire, 146 miles southwest from Paris. Near it Charles Martel gained a great victory over the Saracens, and saved Europe, October 10, 732. This conflict was also called the battle of Poitiers. The church was pillaged by the Huguenots and utterly destroyed, with the exception of two towers, at the revolution.

Tower. A citadel; a fortress; hence, a defender.

Tower Bastion. In fortification, is one which is constructed of masonry, at the angles of the interior polygon of some works; and has usually vaults or casemates under its terre-plein, to contain artillery, stores, etc.

Tower of London. In feudal days, a powerful fortress; then, and long after, a state prison of gloomy memories; now a government store-house and armory, and still in some sense a stronghold; is an irregular quadrilateral collection of buildings on rising ground adjoining the Thames, and immediately to the east of the city of London. The kings frequently resided there, holding their courts, and not unfrequently sustaining sieges and blockades from their rebellious subjects. At present, the Tower of London is a great military store-house in charge of the war department, containing arms and accoutrements for the complete equipment of a large army. It is needless to say that, viewed as a fortress, the Tower would be useless against modern arms. The government is vested in a constable, who has great privileges, and is usually a military officer of long service and distinguished mark; the deputy-constable, also a general officer of repute, is the actual governor. He has a small staff under him, and the corps of Yeomen of the Guard, more commonly known as Beef-eaters.

Towered. Adorned or defended by towers.

Towers, Movable. The purgi of the Greeks, and the turres mobiles of the Romans, consisted of several stories, furnished with engines, ladders, casting-bridges, etc., and moving on wheels, for the purpose of being brought near the walls. They were usually of a round form, though sometimes square or polygonal. Before the invention of guns, they used to fortify places with towers, and to attack them with movable towers of wood, mounted on wheels, to set the besiegers on a level with the walls, and drive the besieged from under the same. These towers were sometimes 20 stories, and 30 fathoms high. They were covered with raw skins, and 100 men were employed to move them.

Tow-hooks. See Implements.

Town-Adjutant, Town-Major. In Great Britain, officers on the staff of a garrison. They are often veteran officers, too much worn for field service. The pay depends on the magnitude of the trust. The town-major ranks as a captain; the adjutant as a lieutenant. The duties of these officers consist in maintaining discipline, and looking after the finding of the batteries, etc.

Towton. A township of England, county of York, West Riding. Here a sanguinary battle was fought, March 29, 1461, between the houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner, and confined in the Tower; his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders.

Traband. A trusty brave soldier in the Swiss infantry, whose particular duty was to guard the colors and the captain who led them. He was armed with a sword and a halbert, the blade of which was sharpened like a pertuisan. He generally wore the colonel’s livery, and was excused from all the duties of a sentinel.

Tracing, or Outline. Is the succession of lines that show the figure of the works, and indicate the direction in which the defensive masses are laid out, in order to obtain a proper defense.

Tracing-pickets. These are short pickets, 18 inches long, and about 1 inch in diameter, which are useful in marking out the details of field-works. They are made rather more expeditiously than fascine-pickets, and should be tied up in bundles of 25 each. Every bundle weighs about 8 pounds when the wood is dry.

Track. In gunnery, by track is understood the distance between the furrows formed by the wheels of artillery carriages in the ground. It is important that the track should be the same for all carriages likely to travel the same road, in order that the wheels of one carriage may follow in the furrows formed by those of its predecessor, and thereby prevent a loss of tractile force. The track of artillery carriages is 5 feet, and the extreme length of the axle-tree is 6¹/₂ feet for field-, and 6³/₄ feet for siege-carriages.

Trail. In tactics, to carry, as a fire-arm, with the butt near the ground, and the muzzle inclined forward, the piece being held by the right hand near the middle.

Trail. In gunnery, the end of a traveling-carriage, opposite to the wheels, and upon which the carriage slides when unlimbered. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Trail Hand-spike. See Hand-spike.

Trail-handles. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Trail-plate. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Trail-bridge. See Pontons.

Train. To teach and form by practice; to exercise; to discipline; as, to train the militia to the manual exercise; to train soldiers to the use of arms.

Train. A line of gunpowder, laid to lead fire to a charge, or to a quantity intended for execution.

Train, Artillery-. See Artillery-train.

Train, Ponton-. See Pontons, Bridge Equipage.

Train-Bands (or more properly, Trained Bands). A force of militia, and not differing essentially from that force substituted by James I. for the old English Fyrd, or national militia. The train-bands of London were chiefly composed of apprentices; and their unruly doings formed the subject for many facetious plays and tales. In the civil wars, the train-bands sided with the Parliament; and Charles II. restored the militia on its old local footing.

Trainer. In the United States, a militia-man when called out for exercise or discipline.

Training-day. In the United States, a day on which a military company assembles for drill, especially in public.

Traitor. One who violates his allegiance and betrays his country; one guilty of treason; one who, in breach of trust, delivers his country to its enemy, or any fort or place intrusted to its defense, or who surrenders an army or body of troops to the enemy, unless when vanquished; or one who takes arms and levies war against his country; or one who aids an enemy in conquering his country.

Traitorous. Guilty of treason; treacherous; perfidious; faithless; as, a traitorous officer or subject. Also, consisting of treason; partaking of treason; implying breach of allegiance; as, a traitorous scheme or conspiracy.

Trajan’s Wall. A line of fortifications stretching across the Dobrudscha from Czernavoda, where the Danube bends northwards, to a point of the Black Sea coast near Kustendji. It consists of a double, and in some places a triple, line of ramparts of earth, from 8³/₄ to 11 feet in height on the average (though occasionally it attains an altitude of 19¹/₂ feet), bounded along its north side by a valley, which being generally marshy, and abounding in small lakes and pools, serves admirably the purpose of a fosse. During the war of 1854, Trajan’s wall became an important line of defense on the invasion of the Dobrudscha by the Russians, and the invaders were twice defeated in their attempts to pass it,—at Kostelli, (April 10), and Czernavoda (April 20-22).

Trajectory. The increasing curve described by a projectile in its flight through the air. See Projectile, Projectiles, Theory of.

Tralee. A town of Ireland, chief town of the county of Kerry, on the river Lea, 59 miles northwest from Cork. Tralee was destroyed in the rebellion of 1641.

Trani. A maritime city of Southern Italy, in the province of Terra di Bari, 25 miles northwest of the town of Bari. Trani submitted to the Normans in 1053. It was then the chief town of a vast country, and was an important harbor in the time of the crusades.

Transfers. Soldiers taken out of one troop, or company, and placed in another are so called. Non-commissioned officers or soldiers will not be transferred from one regiment to another without the authority of the commanding general. The colonel of a regiment may, upon the application of the captains, transfer a non-commissioned officer or soldier from one company to another of his regiment,—with consent of the department commander in case of a change of post. The transfer of officers from one regiment or corps to another will be made only by the war department, on the mutual application of the parties desiring the exchange.

Transfixed. An ancient term used to express the state of being desperately wounded by some pointed instrument, as being run through by a spear, javelin, or bayonet; pierced through so that the weapon is fixed in another body.

Transfluent. In heraldry, passing or flowing through a bridge,—said of water.

Transfuge. A turncoat, a deserter, a runaway; one who abandons his party in time of war, and goes over to the enemy.

Transit-compass. A species of theodolite, consisting of a telescope revolving in a vertical plane on a horizontal axis, as in a transit-instrument, combined with a compass, a graduated horizontal limb, etc., used for running lines, observing bearings, horizontal angles, and the like; called also surveyor’s transit.

Transoms. In gunnery, are pieces of wood or iron which join the cheeks of gun-carriages and hold them together; they are known as the front and rear transoms.

Transportation. The act of transporting, carrying, or conveying from one place to another; as, the transportation of troops, munitions of war, etc.

Transportation of Artillery. In transporting artillery by sea, divide the total quantity to be transported among the vessels, and place in each vessel everything necessary for the service required at the moment of disembarkation, so that there will be no inconvenience should other vessels be delayed. If a siege is to be undertaken, place in each vessel with each piece of artillery its implements, ammunition, and the carriages necessary to transport the whole or a part; the platforms, tools, instruments, and materials for constructing batteries; skids, rollers, scantling, and plank. If a particular caliber of gun is necessary for any operation, do not place all of one kind in one vessel, to avoid being entirely deprived of them by accident. Dismount the carriages, wagons, and limbers, by taking off the wheels and boxes, and, if absolutely necessary, the axle-trees. Place in the boxes the linch-pins, washers, etc., with the tools required for putting the carriages together again. Number each carriage, and mark each detached article with the number of the carriage to which it belongs. The contents of each box, barrel, or bundle, should be marked distinctly upon it. The boxes should be made small for the convenience of handling, and have rope handles to lift them by. Place the heaviest articles below, beginning with the shot and shells (empty), then the guns, platforms, carriages, wagons, limbers, ammunition, boxes, etc.; boxes of small-arms and ammunition in the dryest and least exposed part of the vessel. Articles required to be disembarked first should be put in last, or so placed that they can be readily got at. If the disembarkation is to be performed in front of the enemy, some of the field-pieces should be so placed that they can be disembarked immediately, with their carriages, implements, and ammunition; also the tools and materials for throwing up temporary intrenchments on landing. Some vessels should be laden solely with such powder and ammunition as may not be required for the immediate service of the pieces. On a smooth sandy beach, heavy pieces, etc., may be landed by rolling them overboard as soon as the boats ground, and hauling them up with sling-carts.

Transylvania. Is the most easterly crownland of Austria, and is bounded on the north by Hungary and Galicia, east by Bukovina and Moldavia, south by Wallachia, and west by the Military Frontier, the Banat, and Hungary. Transylvania is little noticed in history till the Christian era, when part of it was occupied by the warlike Dacians, soon after whom the Sarmatian tribes of the Jazyges and Carpi settled in it. The conquest of the Dacians by Trajan, however, did not include that of the other two peoples, who proved very troublesome to the Roman settlers along the Danube, till they were conquered by Diocletian, and the Carpi carried away to Pannonia and other districts. In the middle of the 4th century, the Goths overran the country, defeating the Sarmatians in a great battle on the Maros, in which the monarch and the chief of his nobility perished; and they in their turn were forced in 375 to retire before the Huns and their confederates. The GepidÆ next took possession of Transylvania, till their almost complete extirpation, in 566, by the Lombards and Avars. It was conquered by the Hungarians about 1000, and was governed by woivodes till 1526, when the death of the Hungarian monarch at Mohacs prepared the way for the union of the two countries under the woivode John Zapolya; but the war which thence arose with the Austrians caused their complete severance, and Zapolya’s sway was, in 1535, confined to Transylvania, of which he became sovereign lord, under the protection of the Turks. The Saxons were summoned by the Hungarian monarchs to act as a counterpoise to the increasing power of the nobles; the firm protection and generous treatment accorded to the Saxons by the Hungarian monarchs were rewarded by steadfast loyalty and succor in men and money whenever required. During the rest of the 16th century the country was distracted by the bitter strife between the Catholic party, who were supported by Austria, and the Protestant party, who were allied with the Turks; the latter party, headed successively by princes of the houses of Zapolya and Bathory, generally maintaining the superiority. The next chief of the Protestant party was the celebrated Botskay, whose successes against Austria extorted from the emperor an acknowledgment of the independence of Transylvania in 1606. To him succeeded Bethlem Gabor, the determined foe of Catholicism and Austria, who did important service during the Thirty Years’ War. Between his son and successor, Stephen, and Ragotski arose a contest for the crown, in which the latter prevailed; but on Ragotski’s death, the civil war was resumed, till the complete rout of the Austrians by the Turks, under Kiupruli, placed the sceptre in the hands of Michael Abaffi, who reigned till his death, in 1690, as a vassal of the Porte. The Austrians now again possessed themselves of Transylvania, despite the heroic resistance of Ragotski; and though Tekeli succeeded for a brief period in rolling back the invaders, the peace of Carlowitz, in 1699, again put them in possession; and in 1713 Transylvania was completely incorporated with Hungary. During the insurrection in 1848 the Hungarians and Szeklers (one of the races inhabiting Transylvania) joined the insurgents and forced Transylvania to reunite with Hungary, despite the opposition of the Saxons; and the Wallachs, still little better than a horde of savages, were let loose over the land, to burn, plunder, and murder indiscriminately; the prostration of the country being completed in the following year during the bloody conflict which took place here between Bem and the Russian troops. In the same year Transylvania was again separated from its turbulent neighbor and made a crownland, the portions of it which had, in 1835, been annexed to Hungary being restored, as well as the Transylvanian Military Frontier, in 1851.

Trapani. See Drepanum.

Trapezus (now Tarabosan, Trabezun, or Trebizond). A colony of Sinope, at almost the extreme east of the northern shore of Asia Minor. It was strongly fortified. It was taken by the Goths in the reign of Valerian.

Trappings. See Housing.

Trasimenus Lacus. The ancient name of an Italian lake (Lago Trasimeno, or Lago di Perugia), lying between the towns of Cortona and Perugia. Trasimenus Lacus is memorable chiefly for the great victory obtained by Hannibal in 217 B.C., during the second Punic war, over the Romans, under their consul, C. Flaminius. Hannibal leaving TÆsulÆ passed close by the camp of Flaminius at Arretium, laying waste the country as he proceeded in the direction of Rome. This, as the Carthaginian general intended, induced the consul to break up his encampment and follow in pursuit, Hannibal in the mean time taking up a strong position on the hills on the north side of the lake, along which he was passing. The consul, coming up early next morning, when the whole place was enveloped in mist, saw only the troops in front on the hill of Tuoro, with whom he was preparing to engage, when he found himself surrounded and attacked on all sides. The Carthaginians thus had the Romans completely in their power, and took such advantage of the opportunity, that 16,000 Roman troops are said to have been either massacred or drowned in the lake; Flaminius himself being among the first who fell; 6000 troops who had forced their way through the enemy, surrendered next day to Maharbal. It is said both by Livy and Pliny that the fury on both sides was so great as to render the combatants unconscious of the shock of an earthquake which occurred during the battle.

Trautenau. A town of Bohemia, 25 miles north-northeast from KÖniggratz. On June 27, 1866, the 1st Corps of the army of the crown-prince of Prussia seized Trautenau, but was defeated and repulsed by the Austrians under Gablenz; on the 28th, the Prussians defeated the Austrians with great loss.

Traveling Allowance. Is an allowance made to officers when traveling under proper orders. An officer who travels not less than 10 miles from his station, without troops, escort of military stores, and under special orders in the case from a superior, or summons to attend a military court, shall receive 8 cents per mile. Whenever a soldier shall be discharged from the service, except by way of punishment for any offense, or on his own application, or for disability prior to three months’ service, he shall be allowed his pay and rations, or an equivalent in money, for such term of time as shall be sufficient for him to travel from the place of his discharge to the place of his residence, computing at the rate of twenty miles to a day.

Traveling Forge. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Traveling Kitchen. Marshal Saxe, it is believed, first suggested the idea of cooking while marching, so as to economize the strength of soldiers, have their food well cooked in all weather, and avoid the numerous diseases caused by bad cooking and want of rest. Col. Cavalli, of the Sardinian artillery, has with the same laudable motive embraced a kitchen-cart in the improvements suggested by him to replace the wagons now in use, and an attempt is here made to elaborate the same idea of a traveling-kitchen, designed for baking, making soup, and other cooking, while on a march. The cart is 12¹/₂ feet long, mounted on two 6-feet wheels covered with a very light canvas roof with leather-cloth curtains. A large range or stove forms the body of the vehicle; its grate is below the floor, its doors opening on a level with it. A Papin’s digester is inclosed above the grate, in a flue whence the heat may pass around the double oven in the rear, or straight up the chimney, as regulated by dampers. At the side of the digester, over the grate, is a range, suited to various cooking vessels. The top of the oven forms a table nearly 5 feet square, at which three cooks may work, standing upon the rear platform. A foot-board passes from this platform to the front platform, where the driver and cook may stand. Stores may be placed in the lockers at the side of the range, and under the rear foot-board. The chimney may be turned down above the roof, to pass under trees, etc., and may be of any height to secure a good draught. By bending the axle like that of an omnibus, the vehicle may be hung without danger of top-heaviness. Cooking vessels more bulky than heavy may be suspended from the roof, over the range, when not in use. The digester may have a capacity of 100 gallons, and an oven of 60 to 75 cubic feet would be quite adequate to the cooking for 250 men; or the dimensions of the cart may be smaller, and each company of 100 men might have its own traveling-kitchen, which would also furnish oven and cooking utensils for a camp.

Traveling Trunnion-beds. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Siege-carriages.

Traverse. The turning a gun so as to make it point in any desired direction.

Traverse Circles. In gunnery, are circular plates of iron, fastened to a bed of solid masonry, on which the traverse wheels, which support the chassis, roll.

Traverses. In fortifications, are mounds of earth, above the height of a man, and 18 feet thick, placed at frequent intervals on a rampart, to stop shot which may enfilade the face of such rampart. A fire of this nature, in the absence of traverses, would dismount the guns, and prove altogether ruinous. The traverses also give means of disputing the progress of an assailant who has gained a footing on the wall, for each traverse becomes a defensible parapet, only to be taken by storm.

Traversing-plates. In gun-carriages, are two thin iron plates, nailed on the hind part of a truck-carriage of guns, where the hand-spike is used to traverse the gun.

Traversing-platform. An elevation on which the guns are mounted for the defense of the coast, and generally for all sea-batteries, as affording greater facility of traversing the gun, so as to follow, without loss of time, any quick-moving object on the water.

Travois. A rude but efficient mode of transportation for conveying the wounded over a level or rolling country, when ambulances are not at hand. It consists of two poles about 16 feet long and 4 inches in diameter; two stretcher bars or poles, 2¹/₂ inches in diameter and 3 feet long; and a canvas or rawhide bottom, 5¹/₂ feet long and 2¹/₂ feet broad; and if of canvas, with eyelet-holes at the sides and ends, which are to be lashed to the poles with rope. The rear ends of the travois-poles rest on the ground, while the front ends are attached to each side of a mule, which draws the travois. The litter is better adapted to a rough country. (See Litter.) The ordinary teepe-poles with which the Indians pitch their tents when in villages are also used in constructing the travois. The Dakota and Montana Sioux, who use mountain-pine or ash-poles, select straight, well-proportioned saplings of those woods, trim them down to the proper size and taper, and lay them aside to season. The dressed poles are about 30 feet long, 2 to 2¹/₂ inches at the butt, and 1¹/₂ inches at the other extremity. The couch is oval, and the rim is made exclusively of ash, bent into the desired shape when the wood is green. A net-work of rawhide is afterwards lashed to the rim and completes the bed. The bed is 3¹/₂ to 4 feet in its transverse, and 2¹/₂ to 3 feet in its conjugate diameter. Two or three of the teepe-poles are lashed together, butts to butts, with rawhide, and then lashed to the pack-saddle on the mule, the small ends of the poles trailing the ground. The bed with the longer diameter is then laid transversely on the poles and lashed about 1 foot in rear of the animal. A blanket, piece of canvas, or buffalo-robe lashed to the lower half of the oval rim of the bed completes the outfit. This latter travois is claimed by some officers of the army to be well adapted for transporting wounded even over a rough country.

Tread. In fortification, the tread of a banquette is the upper and flat surface on which the soldier stands whilst firing over the parapet.

Treason. A general appellation to denote not only offenses against the king and government, but also that accumulation of guilt which arises whenever a superior reposes confidence in a subject or inferior, between whom and himself there subsists a natural, a civil, or even a spiritual relation; and the inferior so abuses that confidence, so forgets the obligations of duty, subjection, and allegiance, as to destroy the life of any such superior or lord. It is, according to English law, a general name, in short, for treachery against the sovereign or liege lord. High treason (the crimen lÆsÆ majestatis of the Romans) is an offense committed against the security of the king or kingdom, whether by imagination, word, or deed. In the United States, treason is confined to the actual levying of war against the United States; or an adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort.

Treaty. An agreement, league, or contract, between two or more nations or sovereigns, formally signed by commissioners properly authorized, and solemnly ratified by the several sovereigns or the supreme power of each state; an agreement between two or more independent states.

A treaty of guaranty is an engagement by which one state promises to aid another when it is disturbed, or threatened to be disturbed, in the peaceable enjoyments of its rights by a third power. Treaties of alliance may be offensive or defensive; in the former the ally engages generally to co-operate in hostilities against a specified power, or against any power with which the other may be at war; in the latter, the engagements of the ally extend only to a war of aggression commenced against the other contracting party. The execution of a treaty is occasionally secured by hostages; as at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, when several peers were sent to Paris as hostages for the restoration of Cape Breton by Great Britain to France. For celebrated treaties, see appropriate headings in this work.

Trebbia. A small but famous stream of Northern Italy, which joins the Po 2 miles west of Piacenza. On its banks Hannibal decisively defeated the Roman consul Sempronius, 218 B.C.; the French were also defeated here by Suwarrow in 1799.

Trebuchet, or Trebucket. A machine used in the Middle Ages for throwing stones, etc., acting by means of a great weight fastened to the short arm of a lever, which, being let fall, raised the end of the long arm with great velocity, and hurled stones with much force.

Trefle (Trefoil). A term used in mining, from the similarity of the figure to trefoil. The simple trefle has only two lodgments; the double trefle, four; and the triple one, six.

Trefoil. In heraldry, is a frequent charge, representing the clover-leaf, and is always depicted as slipped,—i.e., furnished with a stalk.

Trench-cavalier. In fortification, an elevation constructed, by a besieger, of gabions, fascines, earth, and the like, about half-way up the glacis, in order to discover and enfilade the covert way.

Trenches. The communications, boyaux, or zigzags, as well as the parallels or places of arms opened by besiegers against a fortification are trenches. They are from 6 to 10 feet wide and about 3 feet deep. (See Parallels, and Siege.) To mount the trenches, is to mount guard in the trenches, which is generally done in the night. To relieve the trenches, is to relieve the guard of the trenches. To scour the trenches, is to make a vigorous sally upon the guard of the trenches, force them to give way, and quit their ground, drive away the workmen, break down the parapet, till up the trenches, and spike their cannon.

Trenches, Opening of. See Opening of Trenches.

Trench-shelter. A trench hastily thrown up to give cover to troops on a field of battle. It is always 1 foot 3 inches deep, and the parapet is from 1¹/₄ to 1¹/₂ feet high. A trench 2 feet broad can be made in from 10 to 20 minutes; one 4 feet wide in from 20 to 40 minutes; and one 7 feet broad in from 30 to 60 minutes. There are also small trenches in rear for the supernumeraries.

Trenton. The capital city of the State of New Jersey, on the left bank of the Delaware River, at the confluence of Assunpink Creek. In the war of the Revolution, Trenton was the scene of a night attack by Washington upon the British troops—chiefly Hessians—whom he surprised by crossing the Delaware, when the floating ice was supposed to have rendered it impassable, on the night of December 25 and morning of the 26th, 1776.

Trepied. In ancient times, a ballista was so called when supported on three legs.

Tressure. In heraldry, a subordinary, generally said to be half the breadth of the orle, and usually borne double, and flowered and counterflowered with fleurs-de-lis. It forms part of the royal insignia of Scotland. The tressure is held in great honor in Scottish heraldry.

Trestles. A trestle is composed of a cap about 15 feet by 9 inches by 9 inches, of four legs, of two upper and two lower traverses, and of four braces. The cap is notched 18 inches from the end, to receive the legs; the notch is 5 inches wide and 1 deep. The legs should be from 5 to 6 inches square; a shoulder is made to tit the notch in the cap; the spread is quarter the height. The inclination in the other direction about one-sixteenth. The leg is spiked, pinned, or bolted to the cap. The lower traverse is 5 inches by 1¹/₂ inches, and is dovetailed into the legs at about one-quarter their height from the ground. The upper traverse, which is nailed on the outside of the legs and against the cap, is 6 inches wide and 1¹/₂ inches thick. The braces are 4 inches wide by 1¹/₂ inches thick, and are spiked to the cap and legs. When trestles are to be placed on a soft bottom, a flat sill may be spiked under the legs of each side.

Trestle Bridge.—When the water is less than 4 feet deep, the trestles may be carried to their places by men wading in the stream; an abutment is formed as for an ordinary bridge; the trestles are placed with their caps parallel to the abutment sill and about 13 feet apart. When the water is too deep or too cold to allow this method to be pursued, the bridge may be constructed as follows:

The abutment sill being placed, the first trestle can usually be placed by hand; the balks are laid and covered with chesses to within 1 foot of the trestle, a roller is laid on the bridge; on this are laid two beams, from 30 to 40 feet long and 6 or 7 inches square. The trestle is placed upright, with its cap resting on these beams, to which it is firmly lashed. The pontoniers bear down on the other ends of the beams, at the same time pushing until the trestle is rolled out to the proper distance; then they suddenly release the beams, dropping the trestle into its place. The flooring balks are slid out on the two beams, adjusted, and covered with chesses.

When a boat or raft can be procured, the trestles are placed with much less labor. The boat is brought alongside the last trestle placed; two balks are laid from the bridge, resting on a saddle, or the outer gunwale of the boat; the side of the trestle-cap is laid on the balks, the legs extending over the outer gunwale of the boat. The boat is pushed off by means of the balks until it arrives at the proper position for placing the trestle, which is then righted. If it has not good bearing on the bottom, it is hauled into the boat and the legs are cut to the proper length.

The bridge may be entirely built of round timber. The caps should be from 10 to 12 inches in diameter, the legs at least 6 inches, the balks 7 or 8 inches, and faced on the lower side where they rest on the trestles, so as to bring their upper surfaces on the same plane. The covering may be of strong hurdles.

Treves, or Trier (anc. Augusta Trevirorum). A town of Rhenish Prussia, on the right bank of the Moselle, 65 miles southwest from Coblentz. Treves derives its name from the Treviri, or Treveri (which see). Their capital, Augusta Trevirorum, became a Roman colony in the time of Augustus, and ultimately became the headquarters of the Roman commanders on the Rhine, and a frequent residence of the emperors. Under the Franks, into whose hands it fell in 463, it continued to flourish. In 843 it passed to Lorraine; in 870 to Germany; in 895 back to Lorraine, and finally was united to Germany by the emperor Henry I. Since 1814, Treves has belonged to Prussia.

Treviri, or Treveri. A powerful people in Gallia Belgica, who were faithful allies of the Romans, and whose cavalry was the best in all Gaul.

Treviso. A fortified town of Italy, in Venice, 17 miles northwest from Venice. Treviso, the ancient Trevisium, was a free town under the Romans; and after the fall of the empire was conquered in turn by the Huns, Ostrogoths, and Lombards. Thereafter it was for a time independent, and at length, in 1344, voluntarily submitted itself to the republic of Venice.

Tria Juncta in Uno (three joined in one). The motto of the knights of the military order of the Bath, signifying “faith, hope, and charity.”

Trial. The formal examination of the matter in issue in a cause before a competent tribunal; the mode of determining a question of fact in a court of law; the examination, in legal form, of the facts in issue in a cause pending before a competent tribunal, for the purpose of determining such issue. Military trials shall be carried on only between the hours of eight in the morning and three in the afternoon, except in cases which, in the opinion of the officer ordering the court, require immediate example (Art. 94). No officer, non-commissioned officer, or soldier shall be tried a second time for the same offense (Art. 102); and no person shall be liable to be tried and punished by a general court-martial for any offense which shall appear to have been committed more than two years before the issuing of the order for such trial, unless the person, by reason of having absented himself, or some other manifest impediment, shall not have been amenable to justice within that period (Art. 103). All trials before courts-martial, like those in civil courts, are conducted publicly; and in order that this publicity may in no case be attended with tumult or indecorum of any kind, the court is authorized, by the Rules and Articles of War, to punish, at its discretion, all riotous and disorderly proceedings or menacing words, signs, or gestures, used in its presence (Art. 86). The day and place of meeting of a general court-martial having been published in orders, the officers appointed as members, and parties and witnesses, must attend accordingly. The judge-advocate, at the opening, calls over the names of the members, who arrange themselves on the right or left of the president, according to rank. The members of the court having taken their seats and disposed of any preliminary matter, the prisoner, prosecutor, and witnesses are called into court. The prisoner is attended by a guard, or by an officer, as his rank or the nature of the charge may dictate; but during the trial should be unfettered and free from any bonds or shackles, unless there be danger of escape or rescue. Accommodation is usually afforded at detached tables for the prosecutor and prisoner; also for any friend or legal adviser of the prisoner or prosecutor, whose assistance has been desired during the trial; but the prisoner only can address the court, it being an admitted maxim, that counsel are not to interfere in the proceedings, or to offer the slightest remark, much less to plead or argue. The judge-advocate, by direction of the president, first reads, in an audible voice, the order for holding the court. He then calls over the names of the members, commencing with the president, who is always the highest in rank. He then demands of the prisoner whether he has any exception or cause of challenge against any of the members present, and if he have, he is required to state his cause of challenge, confining his challenge to one member at a time (Art. 88). After hearing the prisoner’s objections, the president must order the court to be cleared, when the members will deliberate on and determine the relevancy or validity of the objection; the member challenged retiring during the discussion. When the prisoner and prosecutor decline to challenge any of the members, or where the causes of challenge have been disallowed, the judge-advocate proceeds to administer to the members of the court the oath prescribed by the 84th Article of War. The oath is taken by each member holding up his right hand and repeating the words after the judge-advocate. After the oath has been administered to all the members, the president administers to the judge-advocate the particular oath of secrecy to be observed by him, as prescribed by the 85th Article of War. No sentence of a general court-martial is complete or final until it has been duly approved. Until that period it is, strictly speaking, no more than an opinion, which is subject to alteration or revisal. In this interval, the communication of that opinion could answer no ends of justice, but might, in many cases, tend to frustrate them. The obligation to perpetual secrecy, with regard to the votes or opinions of the particular members of the court, is likewise founded on the wisest policy. The officers who compose a military tribunal are, in a great degree, dependent for their preferment on the President. They are even, in some measure, under the influence of their commander-in-chief,—considerations which might impair justice. This danger is, therefore, best obviated by the confidence and security which every member possesses, that his particular opinion is never to be divulged. Another reason is, that the individual members of the court may not be exposed to the resentment of parties and their connections, which can hardly fail to be excited by these sentences which courts-martial are obliged to award. It may be necessary for officers, in the course of their duty, daily, to associate and frequently to be sent on the same command or service, with a person against whom they have given an unfavorable vote or opinion on a court-martial. The publicity of these votes or opinions would create the most dangerous animosities, equally fatal to the peace and security of individuals, and prejudicial to the public service. The court being regularly constituted, and every preliminary form gone through, the judge-advocate, as prosecutor for the United States, desires the prisoner to listen to the charge or charges brought against him, which he reads with an audible voice, and then the prisoner is asked whether he is guilty or not guilty of the matter of accusation. The charge being sufficient, or not objected to, the prisoner must plead either: (1st) Guilty; or (2d) Specially to the jurisdiction, or in bar; or (3d) The general plea of not guilty, which is the usual course where the prisoner makes a defense. If from obstinacy and design the prisoner stands mute, or answer foreign to the purpose, the court may proceed to trial and judgment, as if the prisoner had regularly pleaded not guilty (Art. 89); but if the prisoner plead guilty, the court will proceed to determine what punishment shall be awarded, and to pronounce sentence thereon. Preparatory to this, in all cases where the punishment of the offense charged is discretionary, and especially where the discretion includes a wide range and great variety of punishment, and the specifications do not show all the circumstances attending the offense, the court should receive and report, in its proceedings, any evidence the judge-advocate may offer, for the purpose of illustrating the actual character of the offense, notwithstanding the party accused may have pleaded guilty; such evidence being necessary to an enlightened exercise of the discretion of the court, in measuring the punishment, as well as for the approving authority. If there be any exception to this rule, it is where the specification is so full and precise as to disclose all the circumstances of mitigation or aggravation which accompany the offense. When that is the case, or when the punishment is fixed, and no discretion is allowed, explanatory testimony cannot be needed. Special pleas are either to the jurisdiction of the court or in bar of the charge. If an officer or soldier be arraigned by a court not legally constituted, either as to the authority by which it is assembled, or as to the number and rank of its members, or other similar causes, a prisoner may except to the jurisdiction of the court-martial. Special pleas in bar go to the merits of the case, and set forth a reason why, even admitting the charge to be true, it should be dismissed, and the prisoner discharged. A former acquittal or conviction of the same offense would obviously be a valid bar, except in case of appeal from a regimental to a general court-martial. Though the facts in issue should be charged to have happened more than two years prior to the date of the order for the assembling of the court-martial, yet it is not the province of the court, unless objection be made, to inquire into the cause of the impediment in the outset. It would be to presume the illegality of the court, whereas the court should assume that manifest impediment to earlier trial did exist, and leave the facts to be developed by witnesses in the ordinary course. A pardon may be pleaded in bar. If full, it at once destroys the end and purpose of the charge, by remitting that punishment which the prosecution seeks to inflict; if conditional, the performance of the condition must be known; thus a soldier arraigned for desertion, must plead a general pardon, and prove that he surrendered himself within the stipulated period. No officer or soldier, being acquitted or convicted of an offense, is liable to be tried a second time for the same. But this provision applies solely to trials for the same incidental act and crime, and to such persons as have, in the first instance, been legally tried. If any irregularity take place on the trial rendering it illegal and void, the prisoner must be discharged, and be regarded as standing in the same situation as before the commencement of these illegal proceedings. The same charge may, therefore, be again preferred against the prisoner who cannot plead the previous illegal trial in bar. A prisoner cannot plead in bar that he has not been furnished with a copy of the charges, or that the copy furnished him differed from that on which he had been arraigned. It is customary and proper to furnish him with a correct copy, but the omission shall not make void, though it may postpone the trial. If the special plea in bar be such that, if true, the charge should be dismissed and the prisoner discharged, the judge-advocate should be called on to answer it. If he does not admit it to be true, the prisoner must produce evidence to the points alleged therein; and if, on deliberation, the plea be found true, the facts being recorded, the court will adjourn and the president submit the proceedings to the officer by whose order the court was convened, with a view to the immediate discharge of the prisoner. The ordinary plea is not guilty, in which case the trial proceeds. The judge-advocate cautions all witnesses on the trial to withdraw, and to return to court only on being called. He then proceeds to the examination of witnesses, and to the reading and proof of any written evidence he may have to bring forward. After a prisoner has been arraigned on specific charges, it is irregular for a court-martial to admit any additional charge against him, even though he may not have entered on his defense. The trial on the charges first preferred must be regularly concluded, when, if necessary, the prisoner may be tried on any further accusation brought against him. On the trial of cases not capital, before courts-martial, the deposition of witnesses not in the line or staff of the army may be taken before some justice of the peace, and read in evidence, provided the prosecutor and person accused are present at the same, or are duly notified thereof. The examination of witnesses is invariably in the presence of the court; because the countenance, looks, and gestures of a witness add to, or take away from, the weight of his testimony. It is usually by interrogation, sometimes by narration; in either case, the judge-advocate records the evidence, as nearly as possible, in the express words of the witness. All evidence, whatever, should be recorded on the proceedings, in the order in which it is received by the court. A question to a witness is registered before enunciation; when once entered, it cannot be expunged, except by the consent of the parties before the court; if not permitted to be put to the witness, it still appears on the proceedings accompanied by the decision of the court. The examination-in-chief of each particular witness being ended, the cross-examination usually follows, though it is optional with the prisoner to defer it to the final close of the examination-in-chief. The re-examination by the prosecutor, on such new points as the prisoner may have made, succeeds the cross-examination, and finally, the court puts such questions as in its judgment may tend to elicit the truth. It is customary, when deemed necessary by the court, or desired by a witness, to read over to him, immediately before he leaves the court, the record of his evidence, which he is desired to correct if erroneous, and, with this view, any remark or explanation is entered upon the proceedings. No erasure or obliteration is, however, admitted, as it is essentially necessary that the authority which has to review the sentence should have the most ample means of judging, not only of any discrepancy in the statements of a witness, but of any incident which may be made the subject of remark, by either party in addressing the court. Although a list of witnesses, summoned by the judge-advocate, is furnished to the court on assembling, it is not held imperative on the prosecutor to examine such witnesses; if he should not do so, however, the prisoner has a right to call any of them. Should the prisoner, having closed his cross-examination, think proper subsequently to recall a prosecutor’s witness in his defense, the examination is held to be in chief, and the witness is subject to cross-examination by the prosecutor. Although either party may have concluded his case, or the regular examination of a witness, yet should a material question have been omitted, it is usually submitted by the party to the president, for the consideration of the court, which generally permits it to be put. The prisoner being placed on his defense, may proceed at once to the examination of witnesses: firstly, to meet the charge; and, secondly, to speak as to character, reserving his address to the court until the conclusion of such examination. The prisoner having finished the examination-in-chief of each witness, the prosecution cross-examines; the prisoner re-examines to the extent allowed to the prosecutor, that is, on such new points as the cross-examination may have touched on, and the court puts any questions deemed necessary. The prisoner having finally closed his examination of witnesses, and selecting this period to address the court, offers such statement or argument as he may deem conducive to weaken the force of the prosecution, by placing his conduct in the most favorable light, accounting for or palliating facts, confuting or removing any imputation as to motives; answering the arguments of the prosecutor, contrasting, comparing, and commenting on any contradictory evidence; summing up the evidence on both sides where the result promises to favor the defense, and finally, presenting his deductions therefrom. The utmost liberty consistent with the interest of parties not before the court and with the respect due to the court itself should, at all times, be allowed a prisoner. As he has an undoubted right to impeach, by evidence, the character of the witnesses brought against him, so he is justified in contrasting and remarking on their testimony, and on the motives by which they, or the prosecutor, may have been influenced. All coarse and insulting language is, however, to be avoided, nor ought invective to be indulged in, as the most pointed evidence may be couched in the most decorous language. The court will prevent the prisoner from adverting to parties not before the court, or only alluded to in evidence, further than may be actually necessary to his own exculpation. It may sometimes happen that the party accused may find it absolutely necessary, in defense of himself, to throw blame and even criminality on others, who are no parties to the trial; nor can a prisoner be refused that liberty, which is essential to his own justification. It is sufficient for the party aggrieved that the law can furnish ample redress against all calumnious or unjust accusations. The court is bound to hear whatever address, in his defense, the accused may think fit to offer, not being in itself contemptuous or disrespectful. It is competent to a court, if it think proper, to caution the prisoner as he proceeds, that, in its opinion, such a line of defense as he may be pursuing would probably not weigh with the court, nor operate in his favor; but, to decide against hearing him state arguments, which, notwithstanding such caution, he might persist in putting forward, as grounds of justification, or extenuation (such arguments not being illegal in themselves), is going beyond what any court would be warranted in doing. It occasionally happens that, on presenting to the court a written address, the prisoner is unequal to the task of reading it, from indisposition or nervous excitement; on such occasions, the judge-advocate is sometimes requested by the president to read it; but, as the impression which might be anticipated to be made by it may, in the judgment of the prisoner, be effected more or less by the manner of its delivery, courts-martial generally feel disposed to concede to the accused the indulgence of permitting it to be read by any friend named by him, particularly if that friend be a military man, or if the judge-advocate be the actual prosecutor. Courts-martial are particularly guarded in adhering to the custom of resisting every attempt on the part of counsel to address them. A lawyer is not recognized by a court-martial, though his presence is tolerated, as a friend of the prisoner, to assist him by advice in preparing questions for witnesses, in taking notes and shaping his defense. The prisoner having closed his defense, the prosecutor is entitled to reply, when witnesses have been examined on the defense, or where new facts are opened in the address. Thus, though no evidence may be brought forward by the prisoner, yet should he advert to any case, and, by drawing a parallel, attempt to draw his justification from it, the prosecutor will be permitted to observe on the case so cited. When the court allows the prosecutor to reply, it generally grants him a reasonable time to prepare it; and, upon his reading it, the trial ceases. Should the prisoner have examined witnesses to points not touched on in the prosecution, or should he have entered on an examination impeaching the credibility of the prosecutor’s evidence, the prosecutor is allowed to examine witnesses to the new matter; the court being careful to confine him within the limits of this rule, which extends to the re-establishing the character of his witnesses, to impeaching those of the defense, and to rebutting the new matter brought forward by the prisoner, supported by evidence. He cannot be allowed to examine on any points which, in their nature, he might have foreseen previously to the defense of the prisoner. The prosecutor will not be permitted to bring forward evidence to rebut or counteract the effect of matter elicited by his own cross-examination; but is strictly confined to new matter introduced by the prisoner, and supported by his examination-in-chief. A defense resting on motives, or qualifying the imputation attaching to facts, generally lets in evidence in reply; as, in such cases, the prisoner usually adverts, by evidence, to matter which it would have been impossible for the prosecutor to anticipate. The admissibility of evidence, in reply, may generally be determined by the answer to the questions: Could the prosecutor have foreseen this? Is it evidently new matter? Is the object of the further inquiry to re-establish the character of the witnesses impeached by evidence (not by declamation) in the course of the defense, or is it to impeach the character of the prisoner’s witnesses? Cross-examination of such new witnesses, to an extent limited by the examination-in-chief, that is, confined to such points or matter as the prosecutor shall have examined on, is allowed on the part of the prisoner.

Triangles. A wooden instrument consisting of three poles so fastened at the top that they may spread at bottom in a triangular form, and by means of spikes affixed to each pole, remain firm in the earth. An iron bar, breast-high, goes across one side of the triangle. The triangles were used in some regiments for the purpose of inflicting military punishment when corporeal chastisement was much in vogue.

Triarii. In the Roman legions, consisted of veteran soldiers, who formed the third line in the order of battle.

Triballi. A powerful people in Thrace, a branch of the GetÆ dwelling along the Danube, who were defeated by Alexander the Great in 335 B.C., and obliged to sue for peace.

Tribune. In Roman antiquity, an officer or magistrate chosen by the people, to protect them from the oppression of the patricians or nobles, and to defend their liberties against any attempts that might be made upon them by the senate and consuls. The tribunes were at first two, but their number was increased ultimately to ten. There were also military tribunes, officers of the army, of whom there were from four to six in each legion.

Tribute. An annual or stated sum of money or other valuable thing, paid by one prince or nation to another, either as an acknowledgment of submission, or as the price of peace and protection, or by virtue of some treaty; as the Romans made their conquered countries pay tribute.

Trichinopoly. Capital of the district of the same name, of British India; in the presidency of Madras. It is pretty strongly fortified by walls about 2 miles in circuit, lofty, thick, and in some places double. There is also a fort built on a sienite rock about 600 feet high. Two or 3 miles southwest of the town is a large cantonment, containing barracks for a large number of troops. Trichinopoly was subject to a Hindoo rajah until 1732, when the nabob of Arcot gained possession of it; and in 1741 he was in turn dispossessed by the Mahrattas. During the wars between the French and English, the place was much contested; and in 1757, when besieged by the former, it was relieved by the rapid march of an English force under Capt. Calliaud.

Trick. A term used in heraldry to denote a mode of representing arms by sketching them in outline, and appending letters to express the tinctures, and sometimes numerals to indicate the repetition of changes.

Trident. In Roman antiquity, a three-pronged spear used in the contests of gladiators by the retiarius.

Triest, or Trieste (anc. Tergeste, or Tergestum). The principal seaport city of the Austrian empire, in Illyria, on the Gulf of Triest at the northeast extremity of the Adriatic Sea, 73 miles east-northeast of Venice. The ancient Tergeste first received historical mention in 51 B.C., when it was overrun and plundered by neighboring tribes. It owes its prosperity chiefly to the emperor Charles VI., who constituted it a free port, and to Maria Theresa. In 1797 and in 1805, it was taken by the French.

Trigger. A steel catch, which being pulled disengages the cock of a gunlock, and causes the hammer to strike the nipple in percussion-muskets, and the firing-pin in breech-loaders. The difference between a hair and common trigger is this: the hair-trigger, when set, lets off the cock at the slightest touch, whereas the common trigger requires a greater degree of force, and consequently its operation is retarded.

Trim. The chief town of the county of Meath, Ireland, on the Boyne, 27 miles northwest from Dublin. It was taken by Cromwell in 1649.

Trincomalee. A seaport town and magnificent harbor on the northeast coast of Ceylon. It is a place of great antiquity; it was here that the Malabar invaders of Ceylon built one of their most sacred shrines,—the “Temple of a Thousand Columns,” which was demolished by the Portuguese, who fortified the heights with the materials derived from its destruction, 1622. It was next held by the Dutch; but in 1672, during the rupture between Louis XIV. and the United Provinces, the French took Trincomalee, which was abandoned by the Dutch in a panic. In 1782, the French admiral Suffrein, in the absence of the British commander, took possession of the fort, and the English garrison retired to Madras. It was restored to the Dutch in the following year, and they retained it till the capture of Ceylon by the British in 1795. It was finally ceded to Great Britain, by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802.

Trinidad. An island belonging to Great Britain, and the most southerly of the West India Islands. It is separated from the mainland (Venezuela) by the Gulf of Paria. Trinidad was discovered by Columbus in 1498; and first colonized by the Spaniards, in 1588. In 1676, the French possessed it for a short time, but it was speedily restored to Spain; and in 1797, it was captured by the British, who have retained it ever since.

Trinobantes. A British tribe, which occupied Middlesex and Essex, and joined in opposing the invasion of Julius CÆsar, 54 B.C.; but they soon came to terms with the Romans.

Trinomalee. A town and fortress of India, in the Carnatic, where Col. Smith greatly distinguished himself against the united forces of Hyder Ali and Nizam Ali, subahdars of the Deccan, with an army of 43,000 horse and 28,000 foot; while the British commander had only 10,000 foot and 1000 horse. The result of this victory was that the Nizam detached himself from Hyder, and in February, 1768, concluded a treaty with the British.

Triparted. In heraldry, parted in three pieces; having three parts or pieces; as, a cross triparted.

Tripartite. Being of three parts, or three parties being concerned; hence, tripartite alliance, or treaty.

Triple Alliance. The name by which two different treaties are known in history, viz.: (1) A treaty concluded in 1668 at the Hague, between England, Holland, and Sweden, having for its object the protection of the Spanish Netherlands, and the checking of the conquests of Louis XIV. (2) An alliance concluded in 1717 between Britain, France, and Holland, against Spain, which included among its stipulations that the Pretender should quit France, and that the treaty of Utrecht should be carried into effect as regards the demolition of Dunkirk. The Protestant succession was guaranteed by this treaty in England, and that of the Duke of Orleans in France.

Tripoli, or Tripolis (in its modern Arabic form, Tarabulus). A seaport and one of the chief commercial towns of Syria, near the coast of the Mediterranean, on both sides of the river Kadisha. On the left side stands the castle built by Count Raymond of Toulouse, in the 12th century, when the city was taken by the Crusaders. It was conquered by the Egyptians in 1832; restored to the Porte, 1835, and it surrendered to the British in 1841.

Tripoli. A regency of the Ottoman empire, and the most easterly of the Barbary States, North Africa. The governor-general has the title, rank, and authority of a pasha of the Ottoman empire. The military force of the country consists of a body of Turkish soldiers, some 10,000 in number, whose business is to keep down insurrections, but who were formerly wont to vary it by creating them. In ancient times, Tripoli seems to have been tributary to the CyrenÆans, from whom, however, it was wrested by the Carthaginians. It next passed to the Romans. Like the rest of Northern Africa, it was conquered by the Arabs, and the feeble Christianity of the natives was supplanted by a vigorous and fanatical Mohammedanism. In 1552 (1551), the Turks got possession of it, and have ever since been the rulers of the country, though the authority of the sultan, up till 1835, had been virtually at zero for more than a century. In that year, however, an expedition was dispatched from Constantinople; the ruling dey, Karamanli, was overthrown and imprisoned; a new Turkish pasha, with viceregal powers, was appointed, and the state made an eyalet of the Ottoman empire. Several rebellions have since taken place (notably in 1842 and 1844), but they have always been suppressed.

Tripolitza (“three cities”). A town of Greece under the Turkish rule, 39 miles southwest from Corinth. In 1821 it was stormed by the Greek insurgents; and in 1828 razed to the ground by the troops of Ibrahim Pasha; it has since, however, been rebuilt.

Tripping. In heraldry, having the right fore foot lifted, the others remaining on the ground, as if he were trotting;—said of an animal, as a hart, buck, and the like, represented in an escutcheon.

Triumph (Lat. triumphus). Was the name given in ancient Rome to the public honor bestowed on a general who had been successful in war. It consisted in a solemn procession along the Via Sacra up to the Capitol, where sacrifice was offered Jupiter. The victor sat in a chariot, drawn by four horses,—his captives marching before, his troops following behind. Certain conditions had to be fulfilled before a triumph could be enjoyed, and it was the business of the senate to see that these were enforced. Under the empire, generals serving abroad were considered to be the emperor’s lieutenants, and therefore, however successful in their wars, they had no claim to a triumph. They received instead triumphal decorations, and other rewards. The oration, or lesser triumph, differs from the greater chiefly in these respects; that the imperator entered the city on foot, clad in the simple toga prÆtexta of a magistrate, that he bore no sceptre, was not preceded by the senate and a flourish of trumpets, nor followed by victorious troops, but only by the equites and the populace, and that the ceremonies were concluded by the sacrifice of a sheep instead of a bull. The ovation, it is scarcely necessary to add, was granted when the success, though considerable, did not fulfill the conditions specified for a triumph.

Triumph. To obtain victory; to meet with success.

Triumphal. Of or pertaining to triumph; used in triumph; indicating, or in honor of, a triumph or victory; as, a triumphal crown; a triumphal arch.

Triumphal Column. See Column, Triumphal.

Triumphal Crown. See Crown, Triumphal.

Triumphant. Celebrating victory; expressive of joy for success; as, a triumphant song.

Triumpher. One who was honored with a triumph in ancient Rome. One who triumphs or rejoices for victory; one who vanquishes.

TrojÆ Ludus. Among the Romans was a species of mock fight, similar to the tournaments of the Middle Ages, performed by young noblemen on horseback, who were furnished with arms suitable to their age.

Trojan War. In classical history, a celebrated epoch, which occurred nearly thirteen centuries before the Christian era, and which has formed the subject of the two finest poems in the world,—Homer’s “Iliad” and Virgil’s “Æneid.” This war was undertaken by the states of Greece to recover Helen, whom Paris, the son of Priam, king of Troy, had carried away from the house of Menelaus. (See Troy.)

Tromblon. A fire-arm which was formerly fired from a rest, and from which several balls and slugs were discharged. An ancient wall-piece.

Trombone. Formerly a species of blunderbuss for boat-service, taking its name from its unseemly trumpet mouth.

Troop. A company of cavalry. It is the same, with respect to formation, as a company in the infantry.

Troop Corporal-Major. The chief non-commissioned officer of a troop in the British Household Cavalry.

Troop Sergeant-Major. In the British service, is the chief sergeant of a troop.

Trooper. A private or soldier in a body of cavalry; a horse-soldier.

Trooping the Colors. Is a ceremony performed in the British service, at the public mounting of garrison guards.

Troop-ship. A merchant ship “taken up,” as it is called, for the conveyance of soldiers by sea.

Trophy. Was a memorial of victory erected on the spot where the enemy had turned to flight. Among the Greeks (with the exception of the Macedonians, who erected no trophies) one or two shields and helmets of the routed enemy placed upon the trunk of a tree served as the sign and memorial of victory. After a sea-fight the trophy consisted of the beaks and stern-ornaments of the captured vessels, set up on the nearest coast. It was considered wrong to destroy such a trophy, and equally wrong to repair it when it had fallen down through time, for animosity ought not to be perpetual. In early times the Romans never erected trophies on the field, but decorated the buildings at Rome with the spoils of the vanquished. In later times pillars and triumphal arches were employed to commemorate victories. Besides these, in modern times, the humiliation of an enemy is rendered lasting by such devices as the bridge of Jena, of Waterloo, and by the distribution of captured cannon. Morally considered, this practice is no improvement upon the simple and perishable trophies of the ancient Greeks.

Trophy-money. Was certain money formerly raised in the several counties of the kingdom of Great Britain, towards providing harness and maintaining the militia.

Trossulum (now Trusso). A town in Etruria, 9 miles from Volsinii, which is said to have been taken by some Roman equites without the aid of foot-soldiers; whence the Roman equites obtained the name of Trossuli. Some writers identify this town with Troilium, which was taken by the Romans 293 B.C.; but they appear to have been different places.

Trou de Loup (Wolf-hole). In field fortification, is a round hole, about 6 feet deep, and pointed at the bottom, like an inverted cone, with a stake placed in the middle. Trous de loup are frequently dug round a redoubt to obstruct the enemy’s approach. They are circular at the top, of about 4¹/₂ feet in diameter.

Trou de Rat (Fr.). Literally, a rat-hole, or rat-catch; figuratively, any disadvantageous position into which troops are rashly driven.

Trowel Bayonet. So called from its shape. A bayonet intended to serve also as an intrenching tool; invented by Lieut. Rice, 5th U.S. Infantry. It is used by part of the U.S. troops at the present time (1880).

Troy. The earliest traditions of the Greek people represent the country on both sides of the Ægean as peopled by various races, either of genuine Hellenic, or of closely affiliated tribes. Among those who peopled the eastern Asiatic coast were the Trojans. The story of the Trojan war is extremely simple. The Trojans, in the person of Paris, or Alexander, the son of the reigning monarch, Priam, are represented as having had certain dealings with the AchÆans, or Greeks of the Peloponnesus, in the course of which the gay young prince carries off from the palace of Menelaus, king of Sparta, his spouse Helen, the greatest beauty of her age. To revenge this insult, the Greeks banded themselves together and sailed against Troy with a large fleet. The most notable of the tribes who took part in this expedition were the Argives, or AchÆans, the Spartans, the Boeotians, and the Thessalians. Of the Thessalians, the most prominent captain was Achilles; and the general command of the whole expedition was committed to Agamemnon, king of MycenÆ. This well-appointed European army is represented as having spent nine years in besieging the god-built walls of the city of Priam without making any impression on its strength. A violent quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon, breaking out in the tenth year, so weakened the invading force that the Trojans, under Hector, pushed the Greeks back to the very verge of the sea, and almost set their ships on fire. At the critical moment, however, the Thessalian captain was reconciled to the head of the expedition; and with his return to the field the fortune of war changed; Hector, the champion of Troy, fell, and the impending doom of the city was darkly foreshadowed; it was finally captured and sacked, 1184 B.C. (the date generally accepted).

Troyes. A town of France, capital of the department of Aube, on the left bank of the Seine. It occupies the site of the ancient Augustobono, the chief town of the Tricasses. It suffered severely in the civil wars of the 15th century, and was taken by Joan of Arc in 1429. A treaty was concluded here between England, France, and Burgundy, May 21, 1420, whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should inherit the crown. Troyes was taken by the allied armies February 7; retaken by Napoleon February 23; and again taken by the allies March 4, 1814.

Truce. An agreement between belligerent parties, by which they mutually engage to forbear all acts of hostility against each other for some time, the war still continuing. Truces are of several kinds: general, extending to all the territories and dominions of both parties; and particularly, restrained to particular places; as, for example, by sea, and not by land. They are also absolute, indeterminate, and general; or limited and determined to certain things, for example, to bury the dead. During a truce, it is dishonorable to occupy more advanced ground, or to resort to any act which would confer advantage. A truce requires ordinarily to be confirmed by the commander-in-chief to become binding. It is lawful to break it before the prescribed period, on notice previously agreed on being given to the opposite party. This is called denouncing a truce.

Truce, Flag of. See Flag of Truce.

Truce of God. A suspension of arms, which occasionally took place in the Middle Ages, putting a stop to private hostilities, at or within certain periods.

Truck. Wooden-wheels for the carriage of cannon, etc. The trucks of garrison-carriages are generally made of cast iron. Trucks of a ship-carriage are wheels made of one piece of wood, from 12 to 19 inches in diameter, and their thickness is always equal to the caliber of the gun.

Truck, Casemate. See Implements.

Trumpet, or Trump. A wind instrument, made of brass or silver, used in the cavalry and mounted artillery.

Trumpet-call. A call by the sound of the trumpet.

Trumpeter. A soldier whose duty it is to sound the trumpet.

Trumpet-Major. The non-commissioned officer in charge of the trumpeters of a regiment of cavalry.

Truncheon. A club; a cudgel; also, a staff of command. The truncheon was for several ages the sign of office. Generals were presented with the truncheon as the sign of investiture with command; and all those officers who belonged to the suite of the general, and were not attached to regiments, carried a truncheon, or staff, whence the name of officers of the staff.

Trunnion-gauge. See Inspection of Cannon.

Trunnion-plate. In gunnery, is a plate in the carriage of a gun, mortar, or howitzer, which covers the upper part of the cheek, and goes under the trunnion.

Trunnions. In gunnery, are two cylinders at or near the centre of gravity of a gun, by which it is supported on its carriage. The axes are in a line perpendicular to the axis of the bore, and, in our guns, in the same plane with that axis. By means of the trunnions the piece is attached to its carriage; and by being placed at or near the centre of gravity, it is easily elevated or depressed.

Trunnion-square. See Inspection of Cannon.

Truxillo. A town of the republic of Venezuela, capital of a province of the same name. Though now a poor, mean place, it is said to have been, previously to 1678, when it was pillaged by the buccaneer Grammont, one of the finest and wealthiest cities of America.

Tubantes. A people of Germany, allies of the Cherusci, originally dwelt between the Rhine and the Yssel. They are subsequently mentioned as a part of the great league of the Franci.

Tube-pouch. See Implements.

Tuberated. In heraldry, knotted or swelled out.

Tuck. A long, narrow sword.

Tudela (anc. Tutella). A city of Spain, province of Navarre, on the right bank of the Ebro, 52 miles northwest from Saragossa. Here the French under Marshal Lannes totally defeated the Spaniards, on November 23, 1808.

Tugenbund (“League of Virtue”). This league was formed in Prussia soon after the peace of Tilsit, June, 1807, for relieving the sufferers by the late wars, and for the revival of morality and patriotism, gradually became a formidable secret political society, opposed to the French predominance in Germany. It excited the jealousy of Napoleon, who demanded its suppression in 1809. It was dissolved at the peace in 1815.

Tuileries, Palace and Gardens of the. Are situated in the middle of Paris, on the right bank of the Seine. In 1793, the National Convention held its sittings in the Tuileries; and when Bonaparte became First Consul, he chose it for his official residence. It was the imperial residence of Napoleon III.; but was burned down by the Commune in 1871.

Tulwar. In the East Indies means a sword.

Tumbril. A covered cart on two wheels, for the carriage of ammunition, tools, etc., belonging to the artillery. The name obtained a melancholy celebrity from being applied to the carts which served to carry the unfortunate victims of the French revolution to the guillotine.

Tunic. A close-fitting coat, with short sleeves, worn in ancient times by the Romans. This sort of clothing was prevalent among the French after their return from the Crusades to the Holy Land. They adopted it from the Saracens, and seemed ambitious of appearing in a garb which bore testimony to their feats of valor. These tunics, which were converted into a sort of uniform, obtained the name of saladines among the French, in compliment to the emperor Saladin.

Tunis. One of the Barbary States forming a considerable territory or regency of the Ottoman empire, in Northern Africa. Its history is nearly identical with the city of the same name (which see).

Tunis. A fortified city of Africa, and the capital of the country of that name, at the mouth of the Mejerdah, 400 miles east by north from Algiers. Tunis is situated about 3 miles to the southwest of the ruins of ancient Carthage, and it is itself a place of great antiquity. During the Punic wars it was repeatedly taken and retaken. In 439 it fell into the hands of the Vandals, but having been wrested from them about a century thereafter by Belisarius, it continued to be subject to the Greek empire till the end of the 7th century, when Northern Africa was overrun by the victorious armies of the Saracens and became a dependency of the caliphs of Bagdad. In 1286 Tunis became an absolute sovereignty under Aboo-Ferez, who soon added the greater part of Algiers and Tripoli. About this time it became notorious for its piracies, and in 1270, Louis IX. of France, in a chivalrous attempt to suppress them, lost both his army and his life. It remained under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, for Solyman the Magnificent. It was taken with great slaughter, and Barbarossa expelled, by the emperor Charles V., when 10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The country was subjugated by the Turks (1574), who at first governed it by a Turkish pasha and divan, with a body of Janissaries sent from Constantinople, but were ultimately obliged to allow the Moors to elect their own bey, only reserving to themselves the power of confirming the election and exacting a tribute. The piracies of the Tunisians subjected them to severe chastisement, first from the British under Admiral Blake, who reduced it, on the bey refusing to deliver up the British captives, 1655; and afterwards from France and Holland. During the 18th century it became tributary to Algiers. About the beginning of the 19th century, Hamuda Pasha threw off the Algerian yoke, subdued the Turkish militia, and created a native Tunisian army; in consequence of which Tunis virtually attained independence. An insurrection broke out April 18,1864, and in May, the European powers sent ships of war to protect their subjects.

Turin. A large city of Italy, capital of Piedmont, at the confluence of the Dora-Susina with the Po, 79 miles west-southwest from Milan. The foundation of Turin is generally attributed to a colony of Transalpine origin called Taurini, or Taurisci. Shortly after Hannibal crossed the Alps, he made himself master of the territory in which it is situated; but after his expulsion from Italy, the Romans resumed possession and converted Turin into a colony, which took the name of Colonia Julia. This name was afterwards changed into that of Augusta Taurinorum. It was taken and sacked by the Goths under Alaric. To ward off similar disasters, it was shortly after surrounded by walls, but did not escape the ravages of the Longobards. Charlemagne, into whose hands it subsequently passed, bestowed it as feudal tenure on its bishops. In 1418 (1416) it was declared by Amadeo V. the capital of the states of Savoy, and ultimately rose to be the capital of the whole Sardinian states. The French besieged this city; but Prince EugÈne defeated their army, and compelled them to raise the siege, September 7, 1706. In 1798, the French republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places and arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the island of Sardinia. In 1799 the French were driven out by the Austrians and Russians; but shortly afterwards the city and all Piedmont surrendered to the French. In 1814, it was delivered up to the allies, who restored it to the king of Sardinia.

Turkey. Or the Ottoman empire, called by the Turks Osmanli Vilayeti, includes large portions of the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and consists of Turkey Proper, which is under the direct rule of the sultan, and of numerous dependent and tributary states, governed by their own princes. The existing Turkish empire dates only from the end of the 13th century, when it was founded by Osman, or Othman, a Turk of noble family, who had been driven westward from Khorasan by the invasion of Genghis Khan. Osman first invaded the Greek territory of Nicomedia on July 27, 1299; but the true era of the empire may be dated from the conquest of the city of Prusa, the capital of Bithynia, which surrendered to his son Orchan in 1326. Murad I. (Amurath) subdued, without resistance, the whole of Thrace from the Hellespont to Mount HÆmus, and made Adrianople the seat of vice-royalty. Murad was succeeded by his son Bajazet (Byazid), whose reign forms one of the most splendid epochs in the Turkish annals. His armies were victorious in every country that he undertook to conquer, until at last he encountered the famous Mogul chief, Tamerlane, who defeated the Turkish army and took Bajazet captive. After the death of Tamerlane, Solyman, the son of Bajazet, obtained the European dominions of his father and eventually assumed the title of sultan. At his death in 1421 he bequeathed an undivided empire to his successor, Amurath II., in whose reign the Turkish empire rose in splendor and opulence. He enlarged the empire by conquests, and was succeeded in 1451 by Mohammed II., the conqueror of Constantinople. Mohammed laid siege to Belgrade, three years after the taking of Constantinople, from which, after an obstinate resistance, he was at length repulsed with the loss of his large ordnance and 40,000 of his best troops. Abandoning his attempts upon Hungary, the sultan undertook an expedition into Greece, and about 1460 succeeded in subduing the whole of the Morea. Mohammed continued to overrun Europe with his victorious armies, until death stopped his triumphant career in 1481. A series of domestic broils continued to take place until Selim ascended the throne in 1512. He was a successful prince, and during his short reign conquered Egypt, Aleppo, Antioch, Tripoli, Damascus, and Gaza, and defeated the Persians. On the death of Selim, Solyman the Magnificent ascended the Ottoman throne, and like several of the preceding monarchs he continued to humiliate his enemies and add new territory to his dominions. His dominions extended from Algiers to the river Euphrates, and from the farther end of the Black Sea to the extremity of Greece and Epirus. The latter years of his reign were embittered by domestic dissensions and cruelties. He died while besieging Sigeth, a city of Hungary, in 1566. His son and successor, Selim II., besieged and took Cyprus; but in the famous sea-fight at Lepanto, in 1571, the Turkish fleet was utterly destroyed by Don John of Austria. Selim afterwards invested and took Tunis by storm. On his death Amurath III. ascended the throne, and extended his dominions. His son, Mohammed III., ascended the throne in 1595, but he was involved in a series of wars which proved disastrous to the Turkish arms, and the country continued to decline, although each successive monarch continued to wage war with the neighboring provinces, which nearly always ended disastrously to the Turkish arms; the country was also torn asunder by internal strife. The downward course of Turkey was for a time stayed by Mustapha II., who succeeded to the throne in 1695; he commanded his troops in person, and passed the Danube at the head of 50,000 men, carried Lippa by assault, and closed a campaign against the Austrians with success. But two years afterwards he was defeated by Prince EugÈne, in the bloody battle of Zenta, where the Turks left 20,000 dead on the field, and 10,000 were drowned in their attempt to escape. Shortly after this disaster Mustapha was dethroned. During the reign of Mustapha III., in 1769, a destructive war broke out with Russia which lasted till 1774, when the Turks were compelled to make the dishonorable treaty of Kainargi. Another disastrous war broke out between Russia and Turkey in the autumn of 1787, in which Austria took sides with the former. This war, which was concluded in 1792, was a series of terrible conflicts, in which much desperate valor was displayed on the one side, and many brave actions were performed on the other; but in which Turkey lost much territory. Turkey was drawn into the French revolutionary war by the invasion of Egypt by the French, and in 1807 she was convulsed by a sanguinary insurrection, which cost Selim his throne, and raised Mahmoud to it. During the event of this insurrection, a war which had been going on with Russia had languished; but on the accession of Mahmoud, the armies on both sides were augmented, and the contest was carried on with great ferocity. The campaign of 1811 was short, but disastrous to the Porte, the main body of the Ottoman army having surrendered as prisoners of war. In 1821 began that celebrated insurrection which, after a bloody war of eight years, terminated in the complete emancipation of the Greeks from the Turkish yoke. In 1828 war again broke out between Turkey and Russia. The first campaign was unfavorable to Turkey, but not completely decisive; it ended with the loss of Varna; but, in 1829, the Russians having crossed the Balkans, a treaty of peace was concluded, which was both humiliating and injurious. Shortly after occurred that rupture between the sultan and Mehemet Ali, the pasha of Egypt, which shook the Ottoman empire to its foundation. In every conflict the Turkish troops were overthrown. The battle of Homs decided the fate of Syria, and the victory at Konieh placed the sceptre almost within the grasp of the ambitious pasha. In this extremity the sultan was reduced to apply to Russia for aid. A peace was concluded by which the pasha augmented his territory. In 1839 the Turks were again defeated in several battles by the Egyptians; but the latter were reduced to subjection by the allied powers, Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, and compelled to pay an annual tribute to Turkey. In October, 1858, the Porte declared war against Russia, and in 1854 the French and English entered into the contest as allies of Turkey. In the latter part of this war, Sardinia also sent an army to co-operate with those of the allies. The result of this war, which was virtually ended by the treaty of Paris signed on March 30, 1856, was, that Turkey gained some territory, and took her place as a member of the European confederation of states. A revolution took place in Constantinople in 1876, which resulted in the deposition of Abd-ul-Aziz, and the accession to the throne of Murad V., who in his turn was superseded by Hamid II. For important battles, etc., which occurred in Turkey, see names of towns, places, etc., under separate headings in this work.

Turks. The name of a numerous, important, and widely-spread family of the human race, members of which are to be found as well on the banks of the Lena in Siberia, as on those of the Danube and the shores of the Adriatic in Europe. They consist of many different tribes, but speak very nearly the same language. For history of the Turks, see Turkey and other countries inhabited by them.

Turma. In the Roman cavalry, a troop consisting of 30 horsemen. There were 10 turmÆ in every legion, and 3 decuriÆ in every turma.

Turn. To give another direction, tendency, or inclination; to direct otherwise; to deflect. To turn a hostile army, to turn the enemy’s flank, and the like, to pass round and take a position behind it, or upon the side of it. To turn tail, to retreat ignominiously.

Turn Out, To. To bring forward, to exhibit; as, to turn out the guard; to turn out so many men for service. To turn in, to withdraw; to order under cover; as, to turn in the guard.

Turnau (Boh. Turnov). A walled town of Bohemia, circle of Jung-Bunzlau, on the east bank of the Iser, 50 miles northeast from Prague. Here was fought, in July, 1866, a battle between the Prussians and Austrians, in which the former were victorious.

Turnhout. A well-built town of Belgium, province of Antwerp, 34 miles east-northeast from the city of Antwerp. Turnhout is historically noteworthy as the scene of two battles, the first won January 22, 1597, by the Netherlands, under Maurice, prince of Orange, over the Spaniards; and the second October 27, 1789, by the patriots, under Van der Mersch, over the Austrians.

Turning. In tactics, a manoeuvre by which an enemy or position is turned.

Turning and Boring. See Ordnance, Construction of.

Turret. In military antiquity, a movable building, of a square form, consisting of 10 or even 20 stories, sometimes 120 cubits high, usually moved on wheels, and employed in approaches to a fortified place, for carrying soldiers, engines, ladders, casting bridges, and other necessaries.

Turtukai, or Tortokan. A town of Turkey in Europe, in Bulgaria, situated on the Danube. It is opposite Oltenitza, where the Russians were defeated by the Turks in a series of battles which extended over three days, in November, 1853.

Tuscany (Ital. Toscana). A former grand duchy of Italy, hounded on the north by the duchies of Parma and Modena, and the Papal States; east and south by the Papal States; west by the Mediterranean. Tuscany embraces the far greater part of ancient Etruria, shared the common fate of all the other Italian states, and fell under the Romans about 280 B.C. From the Romans it passed first to the Goths, next to the Lombards, and then to Charlemagne, who governed it by counts. After numerous vicissitudes, the whole of Tuscany became united, in 1557, under the Medici family. In 1737 the Medici became extinct and the grand duchy passed to the Duke of Lorraine. It was declared by Napoleon I. an integral part of the French empire; but, on his downfall in 1814, it was restored to the Archduke Ferdinand. On August 20, 1860, the National Assembly at Florence unanimously voted its annexation to and it now forms part of the new kingdom of Italy.

Tuscaroras. A tribe of North American Indians, who at the settlement of North Carolina had fifteen towns on the Tar and Neuse Rivers, and 1200 warriors. In 1711, they began a war with the settlers, and after a series of savage encounters were defeated, and joined the Iroquois in New York, where they became the allies of the English. About 400 of them still reside on a reservation in the western part of the State of New York.

Tusculum. An ancient city of Latium, on a western prolongation of the Alban hills, about 15 miles east-southeast of Rome. It was one of the most strongly fortified places in all Italy, both by nature and art. After the expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome, Octavius Mamilius, the chief man in Tusculum, is said to have supported their cause, and led an army against the Romans; but he was totally defeated and slain at the small lake Regillus, near Tusculum. Thereupon an alliance was formed between Tusculum and Rome, which lasted unbroken for 140 years, until, in 357 B.C., the whole of the Latin cities, and Tusculum among the rest, joined in a war with Rome, which ended in their entire and final subjection to that power. The ancient city continued to exist amid all the vicissitudes of the times till near the end of the 12th century, when it was demolished by the Romans, and the town of Frascati rose in the vicinity.

Tuttlingen. A town of WÜrtemberg, on the right bank of the Danube, 20 miles west-southwest from Sigmaringen. Tuttlingen is historically notable as the scene of a battle in 1643, during the Thirty Years’ War, in which an Austrian Bavarian force under Hatzfeld and Mercy defeated the French.

Twist. This term is employed by gun-makers to express the inclination of a groove at any point, and is measured by the tangent of the angle made by the groove with the axis of the bore.

Two-handed. Used with both hands; as, a two-handed sword.

Tyana (ruins at Kiz Hisar). A city of Asia Minor, stood in the south of Cappadocia, at the northern foot of Mount Taurus, on the high road to the Cicilian Gates. It was a position of great natural strength, which was improved by fortifications. Under Caracalla it was made a Roman colony. It was taken in 272 B.C. by Aurelian, in the war with Zenobia, to whose territory it then belonged.

Tycocktow Island. An island in the Canton River, China, 8 miles long and 6 miles broad. It is situated at the entrance of the Bocca Tigris, a few miles below Canton. The British took the fort on this island in 1841.

Tykoczin. A town of Russia in Europe, situated on the Narew, 17 miles northwest from Bialystock. A battle was fought between the Russians and Poles here in 1831.

Tyler’s Insurrection. Arose in opposition of the poll-tax imposed on all persons above fifteen, November 5, 1380. One of the collectors acting with indecent rudeness to Wat Tyler’s daughter, the father struck him dead, June, 1381. His neighbors took arms to defend him, and in a short time almost the whole of the population of the southern and eastern counties were in a state of insurrection, extorting freedom from their lords, and plundering. On June 12, 1381, they gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000 men. On June 14, they murdered Simon of Sudbury, archbishop of Canterbury, and Sir Robert Hales, the royal treasurer. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley, which took place on the 15th at Smithfield, where the latter addressed the king in a menacing manner, now and again lifting up his sword. On this the mayor, Walworth, stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of the king’s knights dispatched him. Richard temporized with the multitude by promising them a charter, and thus led them out of the city, when Sir R. Knollys and a band of knights attacked and dispersed them with much slaughter. The insurrection in Norfolk and Suffolk was subdued by the bishop of Norwich, and 1500 of the rebels were executed.

Tympanum. A drum, a musical instrument which the ancients used, and which consisted of a thin piece of leather or skin, stretched upon a circle of wood or iron, and beat with the hand. Hence the origin of our drum.

Tyrant. A name given in modern times to an arbitrary and oppressive ruler, but originally applied, not necessarily to one who exercised power badly, but merely to one who had obtained it illegally, and therefore equivalent to our word usurper. If the one who thus rose to power as a “tyrant” happened to be a man of sense, and wisdom, and generosity, his “tyranny” might prove a blessing to a state torn by the animosities of selfish oligarchs, and be the theme of praise in after-ages, as was the case with the “tyrannies” of Pesistratos, Gelon, and others; but if he was insolent, rapacious, and cruel, then he sought to reduce the citizens to a worse than Egyptian bondage, and his name became infamous to all time. Such has been the fate of most of the “Thirty Tyrants of Athens.” It was the method of exercising authority pursued by these and similar usurpers that latterly, even in ancient times, gave the word tyrant that evil significance it has ever since uninterruptedly retained.

Tyre (ruins at Sur). One of the greatest and most famous cities of the ancient world, stood on the coast of Phoenice, about 20 miles south of Sidon. The Assyrian king Shalmanezer laid siege to Tyre for five years (713 B.C.), but without success. It was again besieged for thirteen years by Nebuchadnezzar, and there is a tradition that he took it (572 B.C.), but the matter is not quite certain. At the period when the Greeks began to be well acquainted with the city, its old site had been abandoned, and a new city erected on a small island about half a mile from the shore, and a mile in length, and a little north of the remains of the former city, which was now called Old Tyre. In 322 B.C. the Tyrians refused to open their gates to Alexander, who laid siege to the city for seven months, and united the island on which it stood to the main land by a mole constructed chiefly of the ruins of Old Tyre. After its capture and sack by Alexander, Tyre never regained its former consequence. It recovered, however, sufficiently to be mentioned as a strong fortress and flourishing port under the early Roman emperors; it even took an active part (193) in the contest between Septimius Severus and Pescennius Niger, which, resulting in the success of the former, brought back to it some of its ancient distinction. In St. Jerome’s time it was again one of the noblest and most prosperous cities of the whole East. In the 7th century it came under the dominion of the Saracens; and so remained until taken by the Crusaders. On February 11, 1124, the Christian army encamped before it, and on June 15 it fell into their hands. The strength of its fortifications, the splendor of its houses, and the excellence of its harbor, excited their admiration. On the evening of the day on which Acre was taken by the Mohammedans (May 19, 1291), Tyre was abandoned by the Crusaders, and the Saracens entered it the following morning. It was captured by the French, April 3, 1799; and by the allied fleet, during the war against Mehemet Ali, 1841.

Tyrol. The most western province of the Austrian empire, is bounded on the north by Bavaria, on the east by Salzburg, Carinthia, and Venetia, on the south by Italy, and on the west by Switzerland and Italy. In early times Tyrol formed part of RhÆtia, was conquered by the Romans, 15 B.C. Subsequently it was overrun by various German tribes; still later the southern valley fell to the share of the Lombards, and the northern valleys to the Bavarians. The dukes of Austria acquired possession of it in 1363. The French conquered Tyrol in 1805, and united it to Bavaria, much to the discontent of the population; but in 1809 an insurrection broke out, headed by Andreas Hofer, an innkeeper, who drove the Bavarians out of the Tyrol, and thoroughly defeated some French detachments, but was overpowered at last by reinforcements sent from France. The Tyrolese riflemen were very effective in the Italian war in 1859.

Tyrone. An inland county of the province of Ulster, in Ireland. According to some authorities the Erdini, and to others the Scoti, were the earliest known inhabitants of this district. The chief town of Tyrone was Dungannon, which, though several times taken and sacked by the English forces in their attempts to reduce the country to obedience to the royal authority, continued to be of importance until the close of the reign of Elizabeth, when it was burned by Hugh O’Neill, earl of Tyrone, to prevent its falling into the hands of the English. The insurrection of 1641 may be said to have had its commencement in this county, by the capture of Charlemont Fort and Dungannon by Sir Phelim O’Neill; and in 1646 the Parliamentary forces under Gen. Munroe received a signal defeat from Hugh Roe O’Neill at Benburb. During the greater part of the war between King William and King James, this county was in the possession of the forces of the latter, and suffered much from the partisan warfare carried on chiefly by the townsmen of Enniskillen.