Saalfeld. A town of Germany, in the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, on the Saale, 23 miles south from Weimar. Here the Prussians under Prince Louis Frederick of Prussia were defeated and their leader slain by the French under Lannes, October 10, 1806.

SaarbrÜck (anc. Augusti Mari, or SarÆpons). An open town on the left bank of the Saar, in Rhenish Prussia. It was founded in the 10th century, and was long subject to the bishops of Metz; it was afterwards ruled by counts (about 1237), and by the house of Nassau about 1380. It was captured by the French and retaken by the Germans, 1676; reunited to France, 1794-1814, and ceded to Prussia, 1815. On August 2, 1870, it was bombarded by the French under Frossard, and the Prussians in small force were dislodged, and the town occupied by the French general Bataille. The emperor Napoleon and his son were present during this bombardment. On August 6, the Prussian generals Goeben and Von Steinmetz, with the first army, recaptured SaarbrÜck, after a sanguinary conflict at the village of Spicheren. The heights taken by the French on the 2d are in Germany, those taken by the Germans on the 6th are in France, and both battles were fought between SaarbrÜck and the town of Forbach, which was captured and has given a name to the second conflict. The loss was great on both sides. The French general FranÇois was killed, and the 2d Corps under Frossard nearly destroyed. The French retreated to Metz. They were greatly superior in numbers at the beginning of the fight, but were badly commanded.

Sabander. The familiar of shah-bander, an Eastern title for captain or governor of a post.

Sabantines. Steel coverings for the feet; sometimes slippers or clogs.

Sabbatons. A round-toed armed covering for the feet, worn during a part of the 16th century.

Sabini. An ancient people of Central Italy, were generally supposed to have derived their name from Sabus, their chief tutelary deity. Their antiquity was very great. They were the parent-stock of many of the neighboring tribes, such as the Samnites, the Peligni, and the Picentes. The Sabini inhabited the mountain region lying to the northeast of Rome. They were a valiant warlike race, and at an early age of authentic history they issued from their mountain fastness and began a system of warlike aggression upon their neighbors. Gradually and by repeated attacks, their invading hordes subdued the aborigines, and advanced southward, occupying the land. At length, pushing their outposts to the very gates of Rome, they commenced to interfere with the affairs of that rising city. By victory or by compromise they gained admittance into the state upon very advantageous terms. They were not satisfied, but persisted in their encroachments upon the Roman territory, until defeated by Tullus Hostilius and by Tarquinius Priscus; however, they continued their raids until 449 B.C., when M. Horatius gave them a defeat which kept them quiet for more than a century and a half. They recovered in 290 B.C., only to be overthrown by Manlius Curius Dentatus with greater completeness than ever. They finally became a part of the Roman empire.

Sable. One of the tinctures in heraldry, implying black. In heraldic engravings, it is represented by perpendicular and horizontal lines crossing each other.

Sabot. Is a thick, circular disk of wood, to which, in fixed ammunition, the cartridge-bag and projectile are attached. For a spherical projectile, the sabot has a spherical cavity, and circular groove to which the cartridge-bag is tied; in the canister-sabot, the spherical cavity is omitted, and a circular offset is added. The effects of a sabot are: (1) To prevent the formation of a lodgment in the bore. (2) To moderate the action of the powder on the projectile; and, (3) To prevent the projectile from moving from its place. In consequence of the scattering of the fragments, it is dangerous to use the sabot in firing over the heads of one’s own men. The term is also applied to the soft metal device attached to the base of rifled projectiles to take the grooves of the bore.

Sabre. A long curved or straight cavalry sword, with a broad and heavy blade, used for cutting and thrusting.

Sabre. To strike, cut, or kill with a sabre.

Sabretache (Ger. Sabeltasche, “sword-pocket”). A square pocket or pouch suspended from the sword-belt on the left side, by three slings to correspond with the belt. It is usually scolloped at the bottom, has a device in the centre, and a broad lace round the edge. The color of it always corresponds with that of the uniform. The sabretache is an appointment or part of accoutrement of hussars in European armies.

Sabreur (Fr.). A blood-thirsty soldier; brave soldier.

Sabugal. A town of Portugal, on the Spanish frontier, where an affair took place between an English light division and the French, April 3, 1811, in which the latter were defeated.

Sac and Fox Indians. Two Algonkin tribes, who have always associated. They formerly dwelt in Canada, but afterward occupied a large tract of land on both sides of the Mississippi. The Sacs and Foxes often engaged in wars with the English, French, and Indians. They were gradually removed southwestward prior to 1849. There are now in the Indian Territory about 400 Sacs and Foxes. There are also about 200 Sacs and Foxes in Kansas, about 100 in Nebraska, and about 300 Sacs and Foxes in Iowa. See Fox Indians.

SacÆ. One of the most numerous and powerful of the Scythian nomad tribes, had their abodes in the steppes of Central Asia, which are now peopled by the Kirghiz Khasaks. They were very warlike, and excelled especially as cavalry, and as archers, both on horse and foot. Their women shared in their military spirit; and according to Ælian, they had the custom of settling before marriage whether the man or woman should rule the house, by the result of a combat between them. In early times they extended their predatory incursions as far west as Armenia and Cappadocia. They were made tributary to the Persian empire, to the army of which they furnished a large force of cavalry and archers, who were among the best troops that the kings of Persia had.

Saccatoo, or Socoto. A kingdom of Soodan, in Central Africa. Its inhabitants, the Fellatas, first made their appearance as conquerors, coming from the west, apparently from the Senegal; they profess the Mohammedan religion. Othman, or Danfodio, one of the Fellata chieftains, marshaled his countrymen under his colors for a crusade against the unbelievers. Though at first defeated in almost every encounter, yet the warlike spirit of fanaticism grew so high that Othman obtained for himself an extensive empire. Under Alin, who ascended the throne in 1837, great internal disturbance took place, which brought the country into a wretched condition.

Sachem. A chief of a tribe of the American Indians; a sagamore. See Sagamore.

Sack. The pillage or plunder, as of a town or city; the storm and plunder of a town; devastation; ravage. Also, to plunder or pillage, as a town or city; to devastate; to ravage.

Sackage. The act of taking by storm and pillage; sack.

Sacker. One who sacks; one who captures and plunders a town.

Sackett’s Harbor. A town in Jefferson Co., N. Y., on the south shore of Black River Bay, 8 miles east of Lake Ontario and 170 miles west-northwest of Albany, having a navy-yard, barracks, etc. In the war of 1812-15 it was an important port, where the frigate “Superior,” of 66 guns, was built in eighty days, and the “Madison” in forty-five days, from timber standing in the forest. It is a military post of the United States named Madison Barracks, which is generally garrisoned by artillery.

Sacramento, St. A Portuguese settlement in South America, claimed by Spain in 1680; but relinquished in 1713; was several times seized; ceded in 1777; acquired by Brazil in 1825.

Sacramentum Militare (Lat.). The oath formerly taken by the Roman soldiers when they were enrolled. This oath was pronounced at the head of the legion, in an audible voice, by a soldier who was chosen by the tribune for that purpose. He thereby pledged himself before the gods to expose his life for the good and safety of the republic, to obey his superior officers, and never to absent himself without leave. The aggregate of the legion assented to the oath without going through the formal declaration of it.

Sacred Battalion. A band of infantry composed of 300 young Thebans, united in strict friendship and affection, who were engaged, under a particular oath, never to fly, but to defend each other to the last drop of their blood. At the famous battle of Leuctra, in which the Spartans were signally defeated by Epaminondas, the Sacred Battalion was commanded by Pelopidas, and mainly contributed to the success of the day.

Sacred Wars. (1) Declared by the Amphictyons against Cirrha, near Delphi, for robbery and outrage to the visitors to the oracle, 595 B.C. Cirrha was razed to the ground, 586 B.C. (2) Between the Phocians and Delphians for the possession of the temple at Delphi, 448, 447 B.C. (3) The Phocians, on being fined for cultivating the sacred lands, seized the temple, 357. They were conquered by Philip of Macedon, and their cities depopulated, 346 B.C.

Sacriportus. A small place in Latium, of uncertain site, memorable for the victory of Sulla over the younger Marius, 82 B.C.

Sacs and Foxes. See Sac and Fox Indians.

Saddle. The seat which is put upon a horse for the accommodation of the rider. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups. Saddles were in use in the 3d century, and are mentioned as made of leather in 304; they were known in England about 600. Boots and saddles, is a sound on the trumpet which is the first signal for mounted drill, and for all other formations mounted; it is also the signal for the trumpeters to assemble.

Saddle-bags. Bags, usually of leather, united by straps, for transportation on horseback, one bag being placed on each side. In the U.S. service saddle-bags are issued to the cavalry as a part of the horse equipments.

Saddle-cloth. In the military service is a cloth under a saddle, and extending out behind; the housing.

Saddler. One whose occupation is to make and repair saddles. Each company of cavalry in the U.S. service is allowed one saddler. Saddlers are also employed in the cavalry service of European countries.

Saddler Corporal. In the British service, is a non-commissioned officer who has charge of the saddlers in the Household Cavalry.

Saddler Sergeant. Is a sergeant in the cavalry who has charge of the saddlers. In the U.S. service, saddler sergeants are non-commissioned staff-officers, and one is allowed to each cavalry regiment.

Saddle-Tree Maker. An artificer in the cavalry who makes and repairs saddle-trees.

Sadowa. A village of Bohemia, about 8 miles from KÖniggratz. Here, on the morning of July 3, 1866, the Prussians attacked the Austrians, and after a desperate struggle of seven hours, the latter were defeated and driven from the village by the 7th division of the Prussian infantry. This engagement formed the prelude to the decisive battle of KÖniggratz.

Safe-conduct. A passport granted, on honor, to a foe, enabling him to pass where it would otherwise be impossible for him to go with impunity. Safe-conducts are granted in war for the purposes of conference, etc.; and to violate the provisions of such a pass has always been esteemed a disgraceful breach of the laws of honor.

Safeguard. A protection granted by the general of an army for the safety of an enemy’s lands or persons, to preserve them from being insulted or plundered. For punishment of persons forcing a safeguard, see Appendix, Articles of War, 57.

Sagaie, or Zagie. A dart or javelin used by the inhabitants of Madagascar.

Sagamore. The head of a tribe among the American Indians,—generally used as synonymous with sachem, but some writers distinguished between them, making the sachem a chief of the first rank, and a sagamore one of the second rank.

Sagette (Fr.). An arrow; a bolt used in ancient times.

Sagittarii. In the Roman army, under the emperors, were young men armed with bows and arrows, who, together with the funditores, were generally sent out to skirmish before the main body. They constituted no part of the velites, but seem to have succeeded them at the time when the Socii were admitted into the Roman legions; for at that period the velites were discontinued.

Sagra. A small river in Magna GrÆcia, on the southeast coast of Bruttium, on the banks of which a memorable victory was gained by 10,000 Locrians over 120,000 Crotoniats. This victory appeared so extraordinary that it gave rise to the proverbial expression, “It is truer than what happened on the Sagra,” when a person wished to make any strong asseveration.

Sagum. An ancient military garment or cloak, made of wool, without sleeves, fastened by a girdle around the waist, and a buckle. It was worn by the Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. The generals alone wore the paludamentum, and all the Roman soldiers, even the centurions and tribunes, used the sagum.

Saguntum (now Murviedro). A wealthy and warlike town of ancient Spain, in Hispania Tarraconensis. It was besieged and destroyed by the Carthaginians under Hannibal in 218 B.C. Having withstood the siege for the greater part of a year, against an army of about 150,000 men, the Saguntines, now most severely pressed by famine, concluded, with an act of heroic defiance and self-sacrifice, a resistance that had been characterized by the most brilliant valor. Heaping their valuable effects into one vast pile, and placing their women and children around it, the men issued forth for the last time against the enemy; and the women, setting fire to the pile they had prepared, cast themselves upon it with their children, and found in flames the fate their husbands met in battle. The destruction of Saguntum directly led to the second Punic war.

Saikyr. In the Middle Ages, was a species of cannon smaller than a demiculverin, much employed in sieges. Like the falcon, it derived its name from a species of hawk.

Saint Augustine. A city, port of entry, and capital of St. John’s Co., Fla., 160 miles south of Savannah. It has the distinction of being the oldest town in the United States. The Spanish abandoned it in 1763, upon its cession to the English. Sir Francis Drake destroyed it in 1586; and it was besieged and burned by the governor of the Carolinas in 1702. Saint Augustine was a British depot during the Revolutionary war. It was of some importance as a military station during the Florida war, 1835-42.

Saint Bartholomew, Massacre of. See Bartholomew, St.

St. Bernard, Mount. See Bernard, St., The Great.

Saint-Cloud. A town of France, department of Seine-et-Oise, 5¹/₂ miles west from Paris. Henry IV. was assassinated at Saint-Cloud by Jacques ClÉment in 1589. Bonaparte here broke up the assembly of 500, and caused himself to be proclaimed first consul on November 9, 1799; and here, in July, 1830, Charles X. signed the ordonnances which cost him his throne.

Saint-Dizier. See Dizier, St.-.

Saint Domingo. See Domingo, San, and Hayti.

St. George, Grand Cross of. A Russian military honor, conferred on officers in the army and navy for distinguished bravery. It was conferred on the officer who sunk the Turkish monitor in May, 1877.

Saint-Germain-en-Laye. A town of France, in the department of the Seine-et-Oise, 14 miles west-northwest from Paris. The town, as well as the royal chateau, was sacked by the English in 1346, in 1419, and in 1438.

Saint Helena. See Helena, Saint.

Saint John of Jerusalem, The Order of the Knights Hospitallers of. Also called the Knights of Rhodes, and afterwards of Malta, the most celebrated of all the military and religious orders of the Middle Ages. It originated in 1048 in a hospital dedicated to St. John the Baptist, which was built for the reception of the pilgrims from Europe who visited the Holy Sepulchre. The nurses were at first known as the Hospitaller Brothers of St. John the Baptist of Jerusalem. The Seljuk (Seljook) Turks, who succeeded the Egyptian and Arabian Saracens in Palestine, plundered the hospice, and on the conquest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders under Geoffroy de Bouillon in 1099, the first superior, GÉrard, was found in prison. Released from durance, he resumed his duties in the hospice, and was joined by several of the Crusaders, who devoted themselves to the service of the poor pilgrims. By advice of GÉrard, the brethren took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience before the Patriarch of Jerusalem. Pope Pascal II. gave his sanction to the institution in 1113. After GÉrard’s death in 1118, Raymond du Pay succeeded as superior of the order, and to the former obligations of the order he added those of fighting against the infidels and defending the Holy Sepulchre. Various Hospices, called commanderies, were established in different maritime towns of Europe. The order having become military as well as religious, was recruited by persons of high rank and influence, and wealth flowed in on it from all quarters. On the conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1187, the Hospitallers retired to Margate, Phoenicia, whence the progress of infidel arms drove them first, in 1285, to Acre, and afterwards, in 1291, to Limisso, where Henry II., king of Cyprus, assigned them a residence. By the statutes of Raymond, the brethren consisted of three classes,—knights, chaplains, and serving brothers; these last being fighting squires, who followed the knights in their expeditions. The order was subsequently divided into eight languages,—Provence, Auvergne, France, Italy, Aragon, England, Germany, and Castile. Each nation possessed several Grand Priories, under which were a number of commanderies. The chief establishment in England was the Priory of Clerkenwell, whose head had a seat in the upper house of Parliament, and was styled first baron of England. In 1310, the knights, under their grand master, Foulkes de Villaret, in conjunction with a party of Crusaders from Italy, captured Rhodes and seven adjacent islands from the Greek and Saracen pirates, by whom they were then occupied, and carried on from thence a successful war against the Saracens. In 1523, they were compelled to surrender Rhodes to the sultan Solyman, and retired first to Candia, and afterward to Viterbo. In 1530, Charles V. assigned them the island of Malta, with Tripolis and Gozo. The knights continued for some time to be a powerful bulwark against the Turks; but after the Reformation a moral degeneracy overspread the order, and it rapidly declined in political importance; and in 1798, through the treachery of some French knights and the cowardice of the grand master, D’Hompesch, Malta was surrendered to the French. The lands still belonging to the order were also about this time confiscated in almost all the European states; but though extinct as a sovereign body, the order has continued during the present century to drag on a lingering existence in some parts of Italy, as well as in Russia and Spain. Since 1801, the office of grand master has not been filled up; a deputy grand master has instead been appointed, who has his residence in Spain. The order at first wore a long black habit, with a pointed hood adorned with a cross of white silk, of the form called Maltese, on the left breast, as also a golden cross in the middle of the breast. In their military capacity, they wore red surcoats with a silver cross before and behind. The badge worn by all the knights is a Maltese cross, enameled white, and edged with gold; it is suspended by a black ribbon, and the embellishments attached to it differ in the different countries where the order still exists.

Saint Louis. A city of St. Louis Co., Mo., which stands on the right bank of the Mississippi, 18 miles below its confluence with the Missouri, and 174 miles above the mouth of the Ohio. In 1764, Saint Louis was the depot of the Louisiana Indian trading company; in 1768 it was captured by a detachment of Spanish troops; and in 1804 was ceded with the whole country west of the Mississippi to the United States. During the civil war a hostile camp of State militia was captured near the city, which enabled the Federals to secure the arsenal and a great store of arms, and eventual possession of the State of Missouri.

St. Lucia. An island in the West Indies, taken from the French in June, 1803, by the English troops under Gen. Greenfield.

Saint-Malo. See Malo, St.

Saint Petersburg. See Petersburg, St.

Saint-Quentin. A thriving town in the north of France, department of Aisne, is situated on the Somme, about 80 miles northeast of Paris. A battle was fought here August 10, 1557, between the Spaniards assisted by a body of English troops, and the French, in which the latter were severely defeated. A battle took place here between the French under Faidherbe and the Germans under Von Goeben on January 19, 1871, in which the former were defeated, and the latter occupied Saint-Quentin.

Saint Regis. Situated partly in Bombay township, Franklin Co., N. Y., and partly in St. Regis township, Huntingdon Co., Quebec, Canada, on the St. Lawrence River, opposite Cornwall, with which it is connected by ferry. It is inhabited by the St. Regis Indians, an Iroquois tribe speaking the Mohawk dialect. They are divided into two parties, the British and the American, and owe their allegiance not according to residence, but according to descent in the female line. Their reservation in the United States is 14,000 acres, and that in Canada rather larger. Their ancestors settled here in 1760. The American party number about 700 souls, and the British about 800.

Saint Vincent, Cape. See Cape St. Vincent.

Saintes. A town of France, in the department of the Lower Charente, situated on the left bank of the Charente. The English were defeated here in 1242, by the French king Louis IX., afterwards Saint Louis.

Saker (Fr. sacre, sacret). An ancient 4- or 5-pounder of 13 feet, weighing from 2500 to 2800 pounds. According to Tartaglia, the sacre, in 1546, was a 12-pounder of 9 feet, and weighing 2150 pounds; it was similar to the aspic, but longer.

Salade (Fr.). Helmet or kind of iron hat with a grated, movable visor, which was worn during the 15th century by foot-soldiers.

Saladin. At first the coat of arms was so called, because the Christians who conquered Palestine assumed it in imitation of the Turks, whose chief was at that time Saladin.

Salahieh (written also Selahieh). A town of Lower Egypt, 37 miles northeast of Belbeys. It was taken by the French in 1798, and again in 1800.

Salamanca (anc. Salmantica). A famous town of Spain, capital of the modern province of the same name, on the right bank of the Tormes, 50 miles east-northeast from Ciudad Rodrigo. It was taken by Hannibal. It was almost totally destroyed by the French in 1812. In its vicinity was won one of the most famous victories of the Peninsular war, by the British under Wellington against the French under Marmont, July 22, 1812.

Salapia (Salapinus; now Salpi). An ancient town of Apulia, was situated south of Sipontum. During the second Punic war it revolted to Hannibal after the battle of CannÆ, but it subsequently surrendered to the Romans and delivered to the latter the Carthaginian garrison.

Salassi. A brave and warlike people in Gallia Transpadana, in the valley of the Duria, at the foot of the Graian and Pennine Alps. They defended the passes of the Alps in their territory with such obstinacy and courage that it was long before the Romans were able to subdue them. At length in the reign of Augustus, the country was permanently occupied by Terrentius Varro with a powerful Roman force; most of the Salassi were destroyed in battle and the rest, amounting to 36,000, were sold as slaves.

Salenckemen. On the Danube; here a victory was gained by the Imperialists, under Prince Louis of Baden, over the Turks, commanded by the grand vizier Mustapha Kiuprigli, August 19, 1691.

Salentini, or Sallentini. A people in the southern part of Calabria, who dwelt around the promontory of Iapygium. They were subdued by the Romans at the conclusion of their war with Pyrrhus, and having revolted in the second Punic war, were again easily reduced to subjection.

Salerno (anc. Salernum). A town of Naples, capital of the province of Principato Citra, 30 miles southeast from Naples. It was captured during the Social war by the Samnite general Papius. After the fall of the Western empire Salerno rose to its height. It passed first into the hands of the Goths, then into those of the Lombards, from whom it was taken by the Saracens in 905; but fifteen years after, it was recovered by the Greek emperor, and subsequently reverted to the Lombards. In 1076 Salerno was taken, after a siege of eight months, by Robert Guiscard; and thenceforward became the capital of the Norman possessions south of the Apennines. In 1193 the town was destroyed by the emperor Henry VI.

Salient. In heraldry, an attitude of a lion or other beast, differing but slightly from rampant. He is supposed to be in the act of springing on his prey, and both paws are elevated. Two animals counter-salient are represented as leaping in opposite directions.

Salient Places of Arms. In fortification, that part of the covered way which is opposite a salient of a bastion or demi-lune.

Sallet. The same as salade (which see).

Sally. A sudden offensive movement by the garrison of a fortified place, directed against the troops or works of the besiegers.

Sally-port. A gate or passage, by which the garrison of a fortress may make a sally or sudden attack on the besiegers. The name is applied to the postern leading from under the rampart into the ditch; but its more modern application is to a cutting through the glacis, by which a sally may be made from the covert way. When not in use, sally-ports are closed by massive gates of timber and iron.

Salsette. An island on the west coast of Hindustan, formerly separated from Bombay by a narrow channel 200 yards wide, across which a causeway was carried in 1805. Salsette formed part of the province of Aurungabad under the Mogul emperors; but fell into the hands of the Portuguese soon after their settlement in India. In 1739 it was conquered by the Mahrattas, and in 1774 it was taken by the British.

Saltant. In heraldry, in a leaping position, springing forward;—applied especially to the squirrel, weasel, rat, and also to the cat, greyhound, monkey, etc.

Saltillo. A city of Mexico, capital of the state of Coahuila, 250 miles west-southwest of Matamoras. Seven miles south is Buena Vista, famous for the battle fought there, February, 1847, when the Mexican forces were repulsed by an inferior U.S. army.

Salting-boxes. Were boxes of about 4 inches high, and 2¹/₂ inches in diameter, for holding mealed powder, to sprinkle the fuzes of shells, that they might take fire from the blast of the powder in the chamber.

Saltire. One of the ordinaries in heraldry. Its name is of uncertain etymology, representing a bend sinister conjoined with a bend dexter, or a cross placed transversely like the letter X. Like the other ordinaries, it probably originated, as PlanchÉ suggests, in the clamps and braces of the shield. The form of the saltire has been assigned to the cross on which St. Andrew is said to have been crucified; hence the frequency of this ordinary in Scotch heraldry. A saltire is subject to the variations of being engrailed, invented, etc., and may be couped. When two or more saltires are borne in a shield, they are couped, not at right angles, but horizontally; and as they are always so treated, it is considered superfluous to blazon them as couped. Charges disposed in the form of a saltire are described as placed saltireways, or in saltire. The former term is more properly applied to two long charges, as swords or keys, placed across one another (in which case the rule is, that the sword in bend sinister should be uppermost, unless otherwise blazoned); and the latter to five charges placed two, one, and two.

Saltpetre. Nitre, or nitrate of potassa, is composed of 54 parts nitric acid and 48 parts of potassa. It is spontaneously generated in the soil, and is a necessary ingredient of powder. It has occasionally been produced artificially in nitre-beds, formed of a mixture of calcareous soil with animal matter; in these, nitrate of lime is slowly formed, which is extracted by lixiviation and carbonate of potash added to the solution, which gives rise to the formation of nitrate of potassa and carbonate of lime; the latter is precipitated; the former remains in solution and is obtained in crystals by evaporation. Its great use is in the manufacture of gunpowder, and in the production of nitric acid. See Gunpowder.

Salute. A discharge of artillery in compliment to some individual; beating of drums and dropping of colors for the same purpose; or by earning or presenting arms according to the rank and position of an officer. A salute with cannon is a certain number of arms fired in succession with blank cartridges, in honor of a person, to celebrate an event, or to show respect to the flag of a country. The rapidity with which the pieces are discharged depends upon their caliber. Field-guns should have intervals of five seconds between discharges; siege-guns, eight; and guns of heavier caliber, ten. The minimum number of pieces with which salutes can be fired is 2 for field, 4 for siege, and 6 for sea coast guns.

Personages entitled to salutes, if passing a military post, as also foreign ships of war, are saluted with guns of heavy caliber, the most suitable being the 10-inch smooth-bore. The United States national salute is one for each State composing the Union; and the international salute, or salute to the national flag, is 21 guns. The President of the United States and the sovereign or chief magistrate of a foreign state receive a salute of 21 guns, both upon arrival and final departure from a military post. Members of the royal family,—i.e., the heir-apparent and consort of the reigning sovereign of a foreign state,—21 guns. The Vice-President of the United States receives a salute of 19 guns. The following civil and diplomatic authorities receive salutes as follows: members of the Cabinet, the chief justice, the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the governors within their respective States or Territories, a committee of Congress officially visiting a military post or station, the viceroy, governor-general, or governors of provinces belonging to foreign states, ambassadors extraordinary and plenipotentiary, 17 guns; envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary, 15 guns; ministers resident accredited to the United States, 13 guns; chargÉs d’affaires, or subordinate diplomatic agents left in charge of missions in the United States, 11 guns. A general-in-chief, field-marshal, or admiral receives a salute of 17 guns; a lieutenant-general, or vice-admiral, 15 guns; a major-general, or rear-admiral, 13 guns; a brigadier-general, or commodore, 11 guns. The officers of volunteers and militia, when in the service of the United States, receive the salute specified for their rank. Officers of foreign services visiting any military post, are saluted in accordance with their rank. Salutes are fired only between sunrise and sunset, and, as a rule, never on Sunday. A national salute is to be fired at noon on the anniversary of the independence of the United States at each military post and camp provided with artillery and ammunition. The international salute is the only salute that is returned, and this should be done as soon as possible; foreign ships of war, in return for a similar compliment, gun for gun on notice being officially received of such intention. If there be several forts in sight of or within 6 miles of each other, the principal only shall reciprocate compliments with ships in passing. The President of the United States, the sovereign or chief magistrate of a foreign country traveling in a public capacity, is saluted when passing in the vicinity of a military post. Personal salutes at the same place and in compliment to the same person, whether civil, diplomatic, military, or naval, are never to be fired oftener than once in twelve months, unless such person has, in the mean time, been advanced in rank.

Salvo. Is a concentrated fire from a greater or less number of pieces of artillery. Against a body of men, a salvo is generally useless, as the moral effect is greater in proportion to the area over which devastation is spread; but with fortifications the case is otherwise. For the purpose of breaching, the simultaneous concussion of a number of cannon-balls on masonry, or even earthwork, produces a very destructive result. The effect of a salvo of modern artillery, with its enormous steel shot, against iron-plated ramparts, has never yet been tried in actual war. The concentrated fire of a ship’s broadside forms a powerful salvo.

Samanide Dynasty. Began with Ismail Samani, who overcame the army of the Safferides, and established himself in the government of Persia, 902; his descendants ruled till 999.

Samarcand, or Samarkand (anc. Mazacanda). The most celebrated city of Central Asia, khanate of Bokhara, but annexed to the dominions of the czar in 1868. It is situated at the foot of Mount Chobanata, and is 145 miles nearly east by north from Bokhara. It was seized by the Arabs, 707, and from this time belonged either to the califate or to some of the dynasties which were offshoots from it, till 1219, when it was taken by Genghis Khan. In 1359 it was captured by Timour, and ten years afterward became the capital of his empire. On the division of his empire after his death, it continued the capital of Turkestan till 1468, when the attacks of the Uzbeks put an end to its prosperity.

Samaria. Anciently a city of Palestine, the chief seat of the Ephraimitic Baal-worship, and, from the seventh year of Omri’s reign, the capital of the kingdom of Israel. It was twice besieged by the Syrians (901 and 892 B.C.), under Ahab and Joram, on both occasions unsuccessfully; but in 721 (720) B.C., it was stormed by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, after a three years’ siege, and the inhabitants carried off into captivity. Their place was supplied by colonists from Babylon and other places. It was subsequently captured by Alexander the Great, when the “Samaritan” inhabitants were driven out, and their place supplied by Syro-Macedonians. It was again taken (109 B.C.) by John Hyrcanus, who completely destroyed it. Soon rebuilt, it remained for fifty years in possession of the Jews; but Pompey, in his victorious march, restored it to the descendants of the expelled Samaritans, who had settled in the neighborhood, and it was re-fortified by Gabinius. Its name was changed to Sebaste by Herod the Great. In the 3d century it became a Roman colony; but its prosperity perished with the Mohammedan conquest of Palestine, and is at present only a small village called Sebustieh, an Arab corruption of Sebaste.

Sambas. A town on the west coast of Borneo. It was attacked in 1812 and 1813 by the British, who were repulsed in their first attempt, but succeeded in capturing the town at the second attack.

Sambre. A river of French Flanders, which has been the scene of many sanguinary conflicts at different periods. It arises in the Ardennes, between La Capelle and Chateaux-Cambressis; runs from southwest to northeast; washes Landrecy, a fortified town, which was taken by the Imperialists in 1793. In its vicinity is Troisville, where, in 1794, the French were defeated by the British under the Duke of York. Maubeuge is situated in advance of the forest of Mormal. It was fortified by Vauban, and has a manufactory of fire-arms, and a garrison of infantry and cavalry. It was vainly besieged by the allies in 1814. Near it is Wattignies, where Jourdan beat the Austrians in 1813, and compelled them to raise the siege of Maubeuge. From hence the Sambre flows out of France, and passing into Belgium, washes Charleroi, a fortified place, captured by the French in 1672, 1677, 1693, 1736, 1792, and 1794. It leaves upon the heights on its right bank, Fleurus, a place rendered famous by four remarkable battles,—that of 1622, gained by the Spaniards over the Protestants of Germany; that of 1690, gained by Luxemburg over the Imperialists; the battle of 1794, gained by Jourdan over the allies; and the battle of 1815 (also designated the battle of Ligny), gained by Napoleon over the Prussians. The battle of 1794 was preceded by the siege of Charleroi, during which the French had six times crossed the Sambre in vain, and had been repulsed in six battles, the most celebrated of which are those of Grandreng, of the PÉchant, and of Marchienne.

Sambuque (Fr.) An ancient musical instrument of the wind kind, resembling a flute. It was also the name of an ancient engine of war used by Marcellus in besieging Syracuse. Plutarch relates that two ships were required to carry it. A minute description of this engine may be seen in Polybius.

Same, or Samos (anc. Cephallenia). A town situated on the eastern coast, opposite Ithaca; was taken and destroyed by the Romans, 189 B.C.

Samnites. The people of ancient Samnium, a country of Central Italy. They were an offshoot of the Sabines, who emigrated from their country between the Nar and Tiber, and the Anio, before the foundation of Rome, and settled in Samnium. This country was at the time of their migration inhabited by Opicans, whom the Samnites conquered, and whose language they adopted. The Samnites were distinguished for their bravery and love of freedom. Issuing from their mountain fastnesses, they overran a great part of Campania; and it was in consequence of Capua applying to the Romans for assistance against the Samnites that war broke out between the two nations in 343 B.C. The Romans found the Samnites the most warlike and formidable enemies whom they had yet encountered in Italy, and the war, which commenced in 343, was continued with few interruptions for the space of fifty-three years. It was not until 290, when all their bravest troops had fallen, and their country had been repeatedly ravaged in every direction by the Roman legions, that the Samnites sued for peace and submitted to the supremacy of Rome. They, never, however, lost their love of freedom; and, accordingly, they not only joined the other Italian allies in the war against Rome (90), but, even after the other allies had submitted, they still continued in arms. The civil war between Marius and Sulla gave them hopes of recovering their independence; but they were defeated before the gates of Rome (82), the greater part of their troops fell in battle, and the remainder were put to death. Their towns were laid waste, the inhabitants sold as slaves, and their place supplied by Roman colonists.

Samos. An island on the west coast of Asia Minor, which was colonized by Ionians about 1043 B.C. Samos was taken by the Athenians, 440; and, with Greece, became subject to Rome, 146. It was taken by the Venetians, 1125; taken by the emperor Leo in the 13th century, and then successively fell into the hands of the Venetians, Genoese, and Turks. At the time of the Greek insurrection the Samians zealously embraced the side of liberty. They expelled the Turks from the island, which they put into a state of defense, establishing an independent government. Various attempts were made by the Turks to regain the island, but they were all foiled by the courage of the people and the vigilance of the Greek fleet. In the treaty, however, which secured the independence and defined the limits of Greece, Samos was still left to Turkey, and the subsequent efforts that she has made have only secured a partial freedom.

San Antonio, called also San Antonio de Bexar. A city of Texas, U.S., is built near the sources of the San Antonio River, 110 miles southwest of Austin. It is one of the oldest Spanish towns on the continent, and in the Texan revolution of 1836 was the scene of the massacre of the Alamo, when a garrison of 150 men, led by Col. Travis, and including David Crockett, was surrounded by several thousand Mexicans, and after a heroic resistance killed to the last man. It contains a national arsenal.

San Jacinto. A small village of Harris Co., Texas, on Buffalo Bayou, near its entrance into Galveston Bay, about 18 miles east of Houston. On April 21, 1836, the main Texan army under Gen. Houston met the Mexicans, who were double their number, near San Jacinto. Furiously the Texans rushed to battle, with the cry, “Remember the Alamo!” They fought at less than half-rifle distance, and in less than half an hour wholly routed the Mexicans, killing and wounding a number greater than the whole Texan force. Among the prisoners taken after the battle was Santa Anna himself. The result of this battle was the undisputed independence of Texas.

San Salvador. The smallest of the Central American republics, and consists of a strip of territory stretching along between Honduras and the Pacific, and bounded on the west by Guatemala, and on the east by Fonseca Bay. It was conquered after a long and obstinate contest by Pedro de Alvarado, a lieutenant of Cortez. In 1821 it threw off the yoke, and joined the Mexican Confederation, from which, however, it seceded in 1823. In 1863, a war broke out between San Salvador and Guatemala, in which Honduras joined the former and Nicaragua the latter. The result was the defeat of San Salvador.

San Sebastian. A seaport of Spain, capital of Guipuzcoa, one of the Basque provinces, on the shore of the Bay of Biscay, 42 miles north-northwest of Pampeluna. From its position and strength, it has long been a place of much importance, and has sustained several sieges. The most memorable of these was in 1813, when the British under Wellington took it by storm.

San Severo. A town of Naples, capital of a district in the province of Capitanata. The inhabitants in 1799 made a gallant but vain resistance to the French under Duhesme, in revenge for which an indiscriminate slaughter was begun, and the town was only saved from total destruction by the heroism of the women, who threw themselves between the victorious soldiery and their victims.

Sandhurst Military College. See Military Academies (Great Britain).

Sangiac. A situation or appointment of dignity in Turkey. The sangiacs are governors of towns or cantons, and take rank immediately after the beglerbegs. (See Beg.) The name is also applied to the banner which he is authorized to display, and has been mistaken for Saint Jacques.

Sanjak. A Turkish word signifying “a standard,” is employed to denote a subdivision of an eyalet, because the ruler of such a subdivision, called sanjak-beg, is entitled to carry in war a standard of one horse-tail. The sanjak is frequently called liva, and its ruler a mirmiram.

Sanjak-Sherif. See Flag of the Prophet.

Sansculottes (i.e., “without breeches”). Was the name given in scorn, at the beginning of the French revolution, by the court party to the democratic “proletaires” of Paris. The latter accepted this superfine reproach with sardonic pride, and the term soon became the distinctive appellation of a “good patriot,” more especially as such a one often made a point of showing his contempt for the rich by neglecting his apparel, and cultivating rough and cynical manners. Toward the close of the Convention, the name, connected as it had been with all the sanguinary excesses of the period, naturally fell into bad odor, and soon after totally disappeared.

Santa FÉ. City and capital of the Territory of New Mexico, built among the Rocky Mountains, on a plain 7047 feet above the sea. It is an old Spanish Mexican town, about 20 miles east of the Rio Grande del Norte. The Spaniards were driven out of Santa FÉ in 1680 by the Pueblo Indians; but it was recaptured by the former in 1694, and held by them till the occupation by Americans in 1846. It was occupied by the Confederates for several days in 1862.

Santiago de Compostella. An important and once famous city of Spain, formerly the capital of Galicia. It was sacked by the Moors in 995, and held by them till it was taken by Ferdinand III. in 1235. It was taken by the French in 1809, and held till 1814.

Sap. In military engineering, is a narrow ditch or trench, by which approach is made from the foremost parallel towards the glacis or covert way of a besieged place. The sap is usually made by four sappers, the leading man of whom rolls a large gabion before him, and excavates as he progresses, filling smaller gabions with the earth dug out, and erecting them on one or both sides to form a parapet. The other sappers widen and deepen the sap, throwing more earth on to the parapet. A sap is considered to advance in average ground about 8 feet per hour. From the nearness of the enemy’s works, running a sap is an extremely dangerous operation. When possible, therefore, it is carried on at night; in any case, the sappers are relieved at least every hour. When a sap is enlarged to the dimensions of a trench, it bears that name. When the fire of the enemy is slack, so that many gabions may be placed and filled at the same time, it is called a flying sap. If two parapets, one on each side of the trench, be formed, it is then called a double sap.

Sap. To pierce with saps; to execute saps. Also, to proceed by mining or secretly undermining.

Sap-fagots. Are fascines 3 feet long, placed vertically between two gabions, for the protection of the sappers before the parapet is thrown over.

Sappers and Miners. Are soldiers belonging to the engineer corps, and now called engineers, whose business it is to make gabions, fascines, hurdles, etc., to trace lines and trenches, to drive the various kinds of saps, to descend into and pass the ditch, to destroy the enemy’s obstacles, to drain the trenches, to put up the various kinds of revetments, to post and superintend working parties, and to serve in the mines when required. They are also taught to adjust and sod the slopes, to erect palisades, fraises, etc., and to repair the defenses of a place, as also to erect bridges, and throw pontons over rivers, to plant torpedoes, and in fact to perform all the duties appertaining to engineer soldiers. In marching near an enemy, every column should have with its advance-guard a detachment of sappers, furnished with tools to open the way or repair the road. Bonaparte considered the proper proportion of engineer soldiers to an army to be 1: 40; but now in France it is 1: 33; in England 1: 34; in Prussia 1: 36; and in the United States 1: 60.

Sapping. The art of excavating trenches of approach, under the musketry-fire of the besieged.

Sap-roller. Consists of two large concentric gabions, 6 feet in length, the outer one having a diameter of 4 feet, the inner one a diameter of 2 feet 8 inches, the space between them being stuffed with pickets or small billets of hard wood, to make them musket-shot proof. Its use is to protect the squad of sappers in their approach from the fire of the place.

Saracens. A name variously employed by mediÆval writers to designate the Mohammedans of Syria and Palestine, the Arabs generally, or the Arab-Berber races of Northern Africa, who conquered Spain and Sicily, and invaded France. At a later date it was employed as a synonym for all infidel nations against which crusades were preached, and was thus applied to the Seljuks of Iconium, the Turks, and even to the pagan Prussians.

Saracen’s Head. A not unfrequent bearing in heraldry. It is represented as the head of an old man with a savage countenance.

Saragossa, or Zaragoza. A city of Spain, the capital of a province of the same name, and formerly of the kingdom of Aragon. It is situated on the Ebro, which divides the city into two parts. It was a place of importance under the Romans, but there are few remains of the Roman city. It was taken by the Moors in the 8th century, and recovered from them in 1118, after a siege of five years, during which a great part of the inhabitants died of hunger. It was taken by the French in 1809, after a siege of eight months, and one of the most heroic defenses recorded in the history of modern warfare.

Saratoga. A township of Saratoga Co., N. Y., situated on the Hudson, 28 miles north from Albany. It is remarkable in American history as the place where Burgoyne surrendered to the Americans in 1777. From September 19 to October 7 frequent animated skirmishes occurred between the British and the Americans, but on the latter date the battle of Saratoga began. Gen. Gates drew up his army on the brow of a hill, near the river, his camp being in the segment of a large circle, the convex side towards the enemy. Gen. Burgoyne’s troops were drawn up with his left resting on the river, his right extending at right angles to it across the low grounds, about 200 yards, to a range of steep heights. The Americans attacked the British along their whole line, when the action became general. The efforts of the combatants were desperate. Burgoyne and his officers fought like men who were defending, at the last cast, their military reputation; Gates and his army like those who were deciding whether themselves and their children should be freedmen or slaves. The invading army gave way in the short space of fifty-two minutes. The defenders of the soil followed them to their intrenchments, forced the guard and killed its commander. The works of the British were stormed, but darkness coming on, the Americans desisted, and rested on their arms upon the field which they had so bravely won, determined to pursue their victory with returning light. But Burgoyne, aware of the advantage which the Americans had gained, effected with admirable order a change of his ground. His entire camp was removed before morning to the heights. Gates was too wise to attack his enemy in his new position, but made arrangements to inclose them, which Burgoyne perceiving, put his army in motion at 9 o’clock at night and removed to Saratoga, 6 miles up the river, abandoning his sick and wounded to the humanity of the Americans. Burgoyne now made several efforts to effect a retreat; but in every way he had been anticipated. He found himself in a foreign and hostile country, hemmed in by a foe whose army, constantly increasing, already amounted to four times his own wasted numbers. His boats laden with supplies were taken, and his provisions were failing, and when he found he could not hold out any longer, his troops being in the utmost distress, he surrendered on October 17. The whole number surrendered amounted to 5752 men, which, together with the troops lost before by various disasters, made up the whole British loss to 9213 men. There also fell into the hands of the Americans 35 field-pieces and 5000 muskets. It was stipulated that the British should pile their arms at the word of command, given by their own officers, march out of their camp with the honors of war, and have free passage across the Atlantic; they, on their part, agreeing not to serve again in North America during the war.

Sarawak. A town and province of Borneo, on the northeast coast of the island. The Chinese inhabitants of this place rose in insurrection and massacred a number of Europeans, February 17 and 18, 1857; the rajah, Sir J. Brooke, raised a force and speedily chastised the insurgents, of whom 2000 were killed.

Sarbacane (Fr.). A blow-pipe, or long tube of wood or metal, through which poisoned arrows were shot by blowing with the mouth.

Sarceled. In heraldry, cut through the middle.

Sardar. In the East Indies, a chief or leader is so called.

Sardinia. A former kingdom in the south of Europe, composed of the island of Sardinia, Piedmont, Savoy, and the territories of Genoa and Nice. It takes its name from the island of Sardinia, and was, in 1860, merged in the new kingdom of Italy. From 1798 to 1814 the continental part of Sardinia formed a portion of the French empire. In 1848, Charles Albert, the reigning monarch, encouraged the inhabitants of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, or Austrian Italy, in their attempts to throw off the Austrian yoke, and marched to their assistance, when they broke into open revolt. He gained many victories at first over the Austrians, but he was subsequently defeated by Radetzky, and resigned his crown to his son, Victor Emmanuel. In 1855 Sardinia took part with Britain and France against Russia. In 1859 a war broke out between Austria on the one hand, and France and Sardinia on the other, which resulted in the defeat of the Austrians and the annexation of Lombardy to the Sardinian crown.

Sardinia, Island of. The largest after Sicily, of the islands of the Mediterranean, lies directly south of Corsica, from which it is separated by the Strait of Bonefacio. It was called Sardo by the Romans, and was colonized at a very early period. The first really historical event is its conquest, about 480 B.C., by the Carthaginians. They were forced to abandon it to the Romans (238 B.C.), who gradually subdued the rebellious natives, and made it a province of the republic; but on three several occasions, formidable outbreaks required the presence of a consul with a large army to restore the authority of Rome. It fell into the hands of the Vandals and other barbarians, and was recovered by the Eastern empire in 534, but was finally separated from the Roman empire by the Saracens. They were driven out in their turn by the Pisans. Pope Boniface took upon him to transfer it to the king of Aragon, who subdued the Genoese, Pisans, and the rest of the inhabitants, and annexed it to his own dominions in 1324. It remained united to the crown of Spain till the allies made a conquest of it in 1708. It was allotted to the emperor of Germany at the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. The Spaniards recovered it in 1717, but were obliged to abandon it two years after, when it was conferred on the duke of Savoy in lieu of the kingdom of Sicily, in 1720. From 1798 to 1814 it was the only portion of the Sardinian dominions left in the power of its sovereign, the French occupying the other portion of the kingdom.

Sardis, or Sardes. Anciently the capital of Lydia, in Asia Minor, stood at the foot of Mount Tmolus, now called Bozdag, about 50 miles northeast from Smyrna; the citadel on a steep rock was almost impregnable, being fortified by three walls. It was thus enabled to hold out when the lower town was taken by the Cimmerians in the reign of Ardys. During the Ionian revolt, 501 B.C., the insurgents, aided by the Athenians, took the city. It was taken by the Turks in the 11th century, and suffered a severe blow from Tamerlane, who almost entirely destroyed it about 200 years later.

Sarmatia. The ancient name of the country in Asia and Europe, between the Caspian Sea and the Vistula, including Russia and Poland. The SarmatÆ, or SauromatÆ, troubled the early Roman empire by incursions; after subduing the Scythians, they were subjugated by the Goths in the 3d and 4th centuries. They joined the Huns and other barbarians in invading Western Europe in the 5th century.

Sarno. A city of Southern Italy, in the province of Principato Citra, on the river of the same name, 13 miles northwest of Salerno. In the plain near Sarno, Teias, king of the Goths, in a desperate battle with the Greeks, commanded by Narses, in 553, was vanquished and slain, and the reign of the Goths in Italy brought to a close.

Sarrazine. A rough portcullis.

Sarre (Fr.). When artillery was first invented, this name was given to a long gun, of smaller dimensions than the bombarde.

Sasbach. A village of Baden, 28 miles southwest from Carlsruhe. Marshal Turenne was killed here by a random shot in 1675.

Sash. In the British army, is a military distinction worn on duty or parade by officers and non-commissioned officers. For the former, it is of crimson silk; for the latter, of crimson cotton. It is tied on the right side by the cavalry, and on the left side by the infantry. In Highland regiments, the sash is worn over the left shoulder and across the body. The sashes for the Austrian army are of crimson and gold; the Prussian army, black silk and silver; the Hanoverian wears yellow silk; the Portuguese, crimson silk, with blue tassels; the French have their sashes made of three colors,—white, pink, and light blue,—to correspond with the national flag. In the U.S. army, all general officers above the rank of brigadier-general may wear a sash of buff silk and gold-thread worn across the body; and for brigadier-generals, sashes of buff silk net, with silk bullion fringe ends, are worn around the waist.

SassanidÆ. A famous dynasty of Persia, which reigned from 226 to 651. They were the descendants of Artaxerxes or Ardishir, whose father, Babek, was the son of Sassan. Ardishir revolted against Artabanus, king of Parthia, and defeated him on the plain of Hormuz, 226, and re-established the Persian monarchy. The Roman armies could make no impression on the Persians under the SassanidÆ; but from time to time had to return defeated and humiliated from the Persian frontiers. Their last monarch, Yezdejerd, was defeated and the dynasty expelled in 652.

Satellites. Were certain armed men, of whom mention is made in the history of Philip Augustus, king of France. The satellites of Philip Augustus were men selected from the militia of the country, who fought on foot and horseback. The servants or batmen who attended the military knights when they went into action were likewise called satellites, and fought in their defense mounted or on foot.

Sattara. A town and capital of the province of the same name, in British India, in the Presidency of Bombay. In 1700 its fort offered a vigorous resistance for two months to Aurungzebe, who besieged it in person, but it was reduced by blockade; and in 1818 a few bomb-shells procured its surrender to the British.

Saturn. In heraldry, the black color in blazoning arms; sable.

Saucisson, or Sausage. Is a fascine of more than the usual length; but the principal application of the term is to the apparatus for firing a military mine. This consists of a long bag or pipe of linen, cloth, or leather, from 1 inch to 1¹/₂ inch in diameter, and charged with gunpowder. One end is laid in the mine to be exploded; the other is conducted to the galleries to a place where the engineers can fire in safety. The electric spark is now preferred to the saucisson.

Saumur. A town of France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire, 28 miles southeast of Angers. A striking event in the history of the town was its brilliant capture by Larochejaquelein and the Vendeans, June 10, 1793. In this action, the victors, with but a slight loss, captured 60 cannon, 10,000 muskets, and 11,000 republicans; it was a stronghold of the Protestants during the reign of Henry IV.

Savages, or Wild Men. In heraldry, are of frequent occurrence as supporters. They are represented naked, and also, particularly in the later heraldry, are usually wreathed about the head and middle with laurel, and often furnished with a club in the exterior hand. Savages are especially prevalent in the heraldry of Scotland. In more than one of the Douglas seals of the first half of the 15th century, the shield is borne in one hand by a single savage, who acts as sole supporter.

Savan Droog, or Savendroog. A strong hill fort of India, in the territory of Mysore, 19 miles west from Bangalore. It was stormed by the British in 1791; and after the fall of Tippoo Sahib in 1799, it was garrisoned by a native force.

Savannah. A city and port of Georgia, U.S., on the right bank of the Savannah River, 18 miles from its mouth. The city is surrounded by marshes and islands, and was defended by Fort Pulaski and Fort Jackson. Savannah was founded in 1733, by the English general Oglethorpe. In 1776 a British fleet, attempting to take the town, was repulsed after a severe action; but it was taken in 1778, and held in 1779 against the combined French and American forces. In the war of Secession, after many unsuccessful attacks by sea, it was taken by Gen. Sherman in February, 1865.

Saverne (anc. Taberna). A town of France, in the department of Bas-Rhin, on the Zorn, 19 miles northwest of Strasburg. It is a very ancient place, and was formerly fortified. It suffered very much during the Thirty Years’ War; and its fortifications were destroyed in 1696.

Savigliano. A fortified town of Northern Italy, in Piedmont, 28 miles south from Turin. The French defeated the Austrians here in 1799.

Savona. A maritime city of Northern Italy, in the province of Genoa, and 25 miles southwest from the city of that name. It is a very ancient city, and in the time of the Romans was called Sava; was destroyed by Rotharis (639), rebuilt by Ludovic the Pious (981), and was afterwards laid waste by the Saracens.

Savoy. Formerly a province in Northern Italy, east of Piedmont. It became a Roman province about 118 B.C. The Alemanni seized it in 395, and the Franks in 490. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till about 1048. The French subdued Savoy in 1792, and made it a department of France under the name of Mont Blanc in 1800; it was restored to the king of Sardinia in 1814; but was once more annexed to France in 1860.

Sawunt Warree. A native state of India, in the Presidency of Bombay. The first treaty between Sawunt Warree and the British took place in 1730, and had for its object to suppress the piracies of the Angria family in the island of Kolabah. But the chieftains of Sawunt Warree, being themselves addicted to piracy, drew upon them the hostility of the British in 1765. A series of wars, treaties, and negotiations ensued, which ended in the subjugation of the state in 1819 by a British force. The sea-coast was then ceded to the British, and the native government restored. Rebellions were raised against the chiefs in 1828, 1832, and 1838. The most important event that has since occurred, was the dangerous rebellion which began in the autumn of 1844, and was put down after some months of hard fighting by Lieut.-Col. Outram in the beginning of the following year.

Sawyer Projectile. See Projectile.

Saxons. A German people whose name is usually derived from an old German word, sahs, “a knife,” and are first mentioned by Ptolemy, who makes them inhabit a district south of the Cimbrian Peninsula. They are mentioned as brave and skillful sailors who often joined the Chauci in piratical expeditions against the coast of Gaul. In the 3d century they appear in England under Carausius, a Belgic admiral in the Roman service, who made himself “Augustus” in Britain by their help. They had firmly rooted themselves, at the beginning of the 5th century, in the present Normandy, and they fought against Attila in the Catalaunian Plain, 451. They also obtained a footing at the mouth of the Loire; but all the Saxons who settled in France disappeared before the Franks, or were probably incorporated with their more powerful kinsmen of Southern Germany. Along with the Franks, they destroyed the kingdom of the Thuringians in 531, and obtained possession of the land between the Harz and the Unstrut; but this district was in turn forced to acknowledge the Frankish sovereignty. From 719, wars between the Saxons and the Franks became constant; but the latter, after 772, were generally successful, in spite of the vigorous resistance offered by Wittekind, and in 804, the Saxons were finally subjugated by the arms of Charlemagne.

Saxony, Kingdom of. The second in importance and population of the minor German states, and a state of the new German empire. The earliest inhabitants of Upper Saxony, since the Christian era, were the Hermunduri; in the beginning of the 6th century their settlements were taken possession of by the Sorbs, a Slavic race. The Carlovingian rulers, dissatisfied with the ingress of those non-German tribes, erected “marks” to bar their progress; and Duke Otho the Illustrious of Saxony, and his celebrated son, Henry the Fowler, warred against them, the latter—subduing the Heveller, the Daleminzer, and the Miltzer—founded in their country the marks of Brandenburg Misnia (Meissen), and Lusatia (Lausitz), and planted colonies of Germans among the Sorbs. In 1090 the mark was bestowed on the house of Wettin, and was confirmed as a hereditary possession to that family in 1127. Frederick the Warlike (1381-1428) succeeded in uniting the severed portions of Saxony, to which were added various districts in Franconia, and in 1423 the electorate of Saxony. The Saxon elector was now one of the most powerful princes of Germany, but unfortunately the fatal practice of subdividing the father’s territories among his sons still continued; and during the reign of the elector, Frederick the Mild (1428-1464), a civil war broke out and was carried on for years. By a separate treaty of peace (1635), John George I. obtained Upper and Lower Lusatia, acquisitions confirmed by the treaty of Westphalia (1648). The reign of Frederick Augustus I. (1694-1733) well-nigh ruined the hitherto prosperous electorate. Frederick Augustus had been chosen king of Poland; and his attempt, in company with the czar and the king of Denmark, to dismember Sweden, brought down upon him and his two states the vengeance of the northern “fire-king.” Poland was utterly devastated, and Saxony exhausted in money and troops; the king was forced to sell many important portions of territory; Frederick Augustus II. (1733-1763), also king of Poland, took part in the war of the Austrian Succession against Maria Theresa, but finding the treaty of Berlin (1742) not so satisfactory for himself as he expected, he joined the empress in 1745. The country was atrociously ravaged during the Seven Years’ War, and a long time elapsed before it recovered its previous peaceful and prosperous state. In the conflict of 1866 the king of Saxony took the side of Austria, and his army fought in the battle of KÖniggratz, July 3. The Prussians entered Saxony June 18. Peace between Prussia and Saxony was signed October 21 (subjecting the Saxon army to Prussia), and the king returned to Dresden November 3. In 1870-71 the Saxon soldiers fought under the leadership of the crown-prince, afterward King Albert, as true allies by the side of the Prussians, and the interior development of the country has not only kept pace with, but in some respects even advanced beyond, that of the rest of Northern Germany.

Scabbard. Is the sheath for a sword or bayonet, at once to render the weapon harmless and to protect it from damp. It was usually made of black leather, tipped, mouthed, and ringed with metal, but is now generally made of bronzed steel. The cavalry wear scabbards of polished steel. These better sustain the friction against the horses’ accoutrements, but are objectionable from their noisiness, and the consequent impossibility of surprising an enemy. The sword-scabbard is suspended to the belt by two rings; the bayonet-scabbard hooks into a frog in connection with the waist-belt.

Scalade (from the Fr. escalade). A furious attack upon a wall or rampart, contrary to form, and with no regularity, frequently carried on with ladders, to insult the wall by open force.

Scale. To climb by a ladder, or as if by a ladder; to clamber up; as, to scale the ramparts.

Scale-armor. Consisted of small plates of steel riveted together in a manner resembling the scales of a fish. From the small size of the plates, it possessed considerable pliability, and was therefore a favorite protection for the neck, in the form of a curtain hanging from the helmet. Scale-armor is now obsolete, except, perhaps, among some Eastern potentates.

Scaling. Scaling a piece of artillery, is the flashing off of a small quantity of powder to clean out the bore; about one-twelfth of the shot’s weight. The practice is discontinued.

Scaling-ladders (Fr. echelles de siege). Are ladders used in scaling when a place is to be taken by surprise. They are made several ways; sometimes of flat staves, so as to move about their pins, and shut like a parallel ruler, for conveniently carrying them.

Scamper. To run away precipitately; said of troops.

Scandinavia. The ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and a great part of Denmark, whence proceeded the Northmen, or Normans, who conquered Normandy (about 900), and eventually England (1066). See Normans.

Scarf. In heraldry, a small ecclesiastical banner suspended from the top of a crozier.

Scarp, To. To cut down a slope so as to render it inaccessible. See Counterscarp, and Escarp.

Scarpe. In heraldry, a diminutive of the bend sinister, being half the breadth of that ordinary.

Sceptre. Originally a staff or walking-stick, hence in course of time, also a weapon of assault and of defense. At a very early period the privilege of carrying it came to be connected with the idea of authority and station. The sceptre of the kings of Rome, which was afterwards borne by the consuls, was of ivory, and surmounted by an eagle. Since that time there has been considerable variety in its form. The English sceptre now in use dates from Charles II.’s time, and is cruciform.

Schaife. In the Middle Ages, a quiver or bundle of arrows was so called.

Schellenberg. A village in the southeast of Upper Bavaria, 6 miles southwest from the Austrian town of Salzburg, near which occurred the first battle of the War of the Spanish Succession, in which the English took part. Maximilian Emmanuel, elector of Bavaria, had fortified the hill of Schellenberg to resist the progress of Marlborough; but on July 4, 1704, the work was attacked by the English, led on by Prince Ludwig, of Baden, and carried by storm after a bloody fight.

Schenkle Projectile. See Projectile.

Schierling. A town of Germany, in Bavaria, 12 miles south from Ratisbon. The Austrians were defeated by the French in its vicinity in 1809.

Schleswig, or Sleswick. Formerly a duchy of Denmark. Its history is identical with that of Holstein (which see).

Schliengen. A town of Baden, 22 miles southwest from Mulheim. The Archduke Charles of Austria defeated the French near this place in 1796.

Schmalkald, League of. The name given to the defensive alliance concluded provisionally for nine years at Schmalkalden, February 27, 1531, between nine Protestant princes and eleven imperial cities, with whom other five princes and ten imperial cities subsequently made common cause; and the elector of Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse were appointed chiefs of the league, and empowered to manage its affairs. The object of this formidable alliance, which included the whole of Northern Germany, Denmark, Saxony, and WÜrtemberg, and portions of Bavaria and Switzerland, was for the common defense of the religious and political freedom of the Protestants against the emperor Charles V. and the Catholic states. The league was not rendered superfluous by the religious peace of NÜrnberg in 1532, and on the rumor that the emperor was meditating new hostile measures against the Protestants, another meeting of the confederates was held December 24, 1535, which resolved to raise a permanent army of 10,000 foot and 2000 cavalry, and to prolong the league for ten years. The confederation was further consolidated by articles of guarantee, which were drawn up by Luther at Wittenberg in 1536, and being subscribed by the theologians present at the meeting of the league at Schmalkalden in February, 1537, were called the Articles of Schmalkald. Against the league the emperor, engaged as he was at the time in contests with the Turks and French, found himself unable to contend, though supported by the Holy League, a Catholic confederation formed in 1538, in opposition to the Protestant one. But impolitic management, mutual jealousies, and conflicting petty interests dissipated their energies, and prevented united action. The “War of Schmalkald” commenced by the advance of the army of the league, under Sebastian Schartlin, in Suabia, to bar the approach of the imperial army from Italy. Schartlin forced his way to the banks of the Danube, but the miserable jealousy of the Saxon princes paralyzed his action. The emperor, by a proclamation bearing date July 20, 1546, put the two chiefs of the league under the ban of the empire; Maurice, duke of Saxony, took possession of the electorate, by virtue of an imperial decree; and the Protestant army was forced to retreat. The elector of Saxony reconquered his electorate in the autumn of 1546, but meantime the imperial army subdued the northern members of the League of Schmalkald and advanced into Franconia to meet the combined armies of Saxony and Hesse. The latter were totally routed at MÜhlberg, April 24, 1547, and both chiefs fell into the emperor’s hands. This defeat, which has been ascribed to treason, and was perhaps as much owing to this cause as to weakness, finished the war. The object of the league, the guarantee of the liberty of religion to the Protestants, was subsequently effected by Maurice, now elector of Saxony, who, by a brilliant feat of diplomacy and generalship, compelled the emperor to grant the treaty of Passau, July 31, 1552, by which this freedom was secured.

Schoolmaster, Army. In the English army, the schoolmaster is a non-commissioned officer of the first class, ranking next to a sergeant-major. His pay varies with length of service. He has an advantage over other non-commissioned officers in quarters and certain allowances. To become an army schoolmaster, it is necessary either to be a certificated schoolmaster, or to have served the apprenticeship as a pupil-teacher, and to pass through a course of training for one year at the Royal Military Asylum, Chelsea. After the completion of the training, the candidate is required to enlist as a common soldier for ten years’ general service, whereupon he is immediately promoted to the rank of schoolmaster. A few of the most deserving schoolmasters are promoted to be superintending schoolmasters, when they rank as ensigns. The duties of the schoolmaster are to teach the soldiers and their children the rudiments of general knowledge, to examine the girls’ school, and to deliver lectures to the soldiers. There were in 1865 214 army schoolmasters in the British service.

Schoolmistress, Army. In the British service, is a person attached to each regiment or corps for the purpose of instructing the daughters of soldiers and their sons, under eight years old, in the rudiments of English and in plain needle-work. She must be a certified schoolmistress, or a pupil-teacher who has served her apprenticeship. After admission to the service, she is specially trained for six months at one of four training institutions. This training is at the expense of the government. Proper provision is made for the quarters and supplies of the schoolmistress, whose somewhat anomalous position among rough men calls for the most circumspect behavior on her part.

Schools of Artillery. See Artillery, Schools of.

Schultz’s Powder. A powder for fire-arms invented by Capt. Schultz of the Prussian army, sometimes called white gunpowder, though this term is also applied to other powder. It is made by treating grains of wood with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, by means of which a low form of nitro-cellulose is produced. The explosive power is heightened by steeping the prepared grains in a solution of nitre. Dittman’s sporting powder, manufactured in America, is believed to be a similar powder.

Schumla, Shoomla, or Shumla. A large fortified town of Turkey in Europe, in the province of Bulgaria, about 58 miles southwest from Silistria. The Russians have made several unsuccessful attempts to take it in their different wars with Turkey.

Schuwalow Gun (Fr.). A gun named after the inventor, a Russian general. It differed from a common gun in having an oval bore; the greater diameter lay in a horizontal direction; it had also a long cylindrical chamber.

Schweidnitz. A town of Prussian Silesia, on the left bank of the Weistritz, 42 miles southeast of Liegnitz. It is in part fortified, and was besieged and taken four times within fifty years, the last time by the French in 1807, when the defenses were in great part destroyed.

Schwytz. One of the cantons of Switzerland. It was one of the three original cantons that formed the Confederation in 1308 against the Austrian power; and from its name the modern appellation of the entire country has been derived.

Sciathus (now Skiatho). A small island in the Ægean Sea, east of the Magnesian coast of Thessaly. It is frequently mentioned in the history of the invasion of Greece by Xerxes. It subsequently became one of the subject allies of Athens. Its chief town was destroyed by the last Philip of Macedonia.

Science, Military. See Logistics, Stratagem, Strategy, Tactics, and War.

Scillus. A town of Elis, on the river Selinus, south of Olympia. It was destroyed by the Eleans in the war which they carried on against the PisÆans, whose cause had been espoused by the inhabitants of Scillus. The LacedÆmonians subsequently took possession of the territory of Scillus; they gave it to Xenophon after his banishment from Athens.

Scimeter. See Cimeter.

Scio, Chio, or Khio (anc. Chios). An island belonging to Asiatic Turkey, lying in the Grecian Archipelago, off the coast of Asia Minor. Chios became a member of the Ionian confederation of twelve states on the Asiatic islands and coast. Its insular position protected it against the Lydian, and for a time against the Persian power. But in the Ionian revolt the Chians lent their assistance to their fellow-countrymen by furnishing ships to the fleet, which was totally defeated by the Persians off Miletus, 494 B.C. The conquerors in consequence landed on the island, and ravaged it with fire and sword. The battle of Mycale, in 479, liberated Chios from the Persian yoke, but only to become a dependency of Athens. To this power it remained faithful till after the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war; but as that disastrous contest proceeded, and the fortune of war began to prove adverse to Athens, the Chians attempted to assert their liberty. They suffered several defeats from the Athenians, who laid waste the island, but could not conquer the capital. At a later period Chios was again subject to Athens, and again revolted, and seems to have maintained its independence for some time. It gave assistance to the Romans in their war with Antiochus, 190 B.C.; and afterwards, when allied with Mithridates, that monarch, suspecting the people of a bearing towards the Romans, sent a lieutenant, who carried the inhabitants away from the island, 86 B.C. They were restored by the Romans; and, in consideration of this calamity, the island was made a free state and an ally of Rome. Early in the 14th century, the Turks conquered the capital, and perpetrated a general massacre of its inhabitants; but from 1346 to 1566 Scio was held by the Genoese. In the latter year it was conquered by Solyman the Magnificent; and since that time, with the exception of a short period when the Venetians possessed it, the island has belonged to the Ottoman empire. In 1822, during the Greek insurrection, a number of Samians landed in Scio, and persuaded or forced its peaceful inhabitants to rise against the Turks. They did not succeed in mastering the castle, and soon an army was landed from Asia, who renewed the ancient calamities of the island. The plunder and massacre that ensued was so unsparing that in a short time only 2000 Christians were left out of a population of 110,000.

Scione. The chief town in the Macedonian peninsula of Pallene, on the western coast. It revolted from the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war, but was retaken by Cleon, whereupon all the men were put to death, the women and children sold as slaves, and the town given to the PlatÆans.

Scirtis. A wild and mountainous district in the north of Laconia, on the borders of Arcadia, with a town called Scirus, which originally belonged to Arcadia. Its inhabitants, the SciritÆ, formed a special division of the LacedÆmonian army. This body, which, in the time of the Peloponnesian war, was 600 in number, was stationed in battle at the extreme left of the line, formed on march the vanguard, and was usually employed on the most dangerous kinds of service.

Sconce. In fortification, is a term applied to any small redoubt or fort, detached from the main works for some local object, as the defense of a pass or fort, etc. The word is not now often used.

Scopetin (Fr.). A rifleman was formerly so called who was armed with the escopette.

Scordisci. A people in Pannonia Superior, who are sometimes classed among the Illyrians, but were the remains of an ancient and powerful Celtic tribe. They dwelt between the Savus and Dravus.

Scorpion (Fr.). A small kind of catapult, or large cross-bow, which threw heavy arrows by means of a steel bow, which was bent by a double-handed roller turned by one man.

Scorpion (Fr.). An ancient gun, whose dolphins represented the scorpion. Also the name of an implement used by the ancients for laying hold of the enemy’s battering ram.

Scotch Brigade. A brigade of Scotchmen, gentlemen, and others, who served under the elector of Bavaria in the reign of James I., and subsequently under Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years’ War.

Scotland. The northern division of the island of Great Britain. An account has been given under the article Picts (which see) of the early inhabitants of the country which has long been known by the name of Scotland. The original Scotia, or Scotland, was Ireland, and the Scoti, or Scots, at their first appearance in history were the people of Ireland. The original seat of the Scots in Northern Britain was in Argyle, which they acquired by colonization and conquest before the end of the 5th century, and from whence they spread themselves along the western coast from the Firth of Clyde to the modern Ross. The first prince of the British Scots mentioned in authentic annals was Fergus, son of Eric, who crossed over to Britain about the year 503. His great-grandson, Conal, was king of the British Scots when Columba began the conversion of the Northern Picts. His nephew, Aidan, who succeeded him was a powerful prince, and more than once successfully invaded the English border, but toward the end of his reign he received a severe defeat from the Northumbrian sovereign Ethelfrid at the battle of Degsestan. The history of Aidan’s successors is obscure. Their kingdom was overshadowed by the more powerful monarchy of the Picts, with which, as well as with its neighbors in the south,—the Britons of Cumbria,—it was engaged in almost unceasing conflict. The Scots were for some time under some sort of subjection to the English of Northumbria, but recovered their independence on the defeat and death of King Egfried in battle with the Picts at Nechtansmere in 685. In the middle of the 9th century, the Scots acquired a predominance in Northern Britain. Kenneth, son of Alpin, succeeded his father as king of the Scots. The Pictish kingdom was weakened by civil dissensions and a disputed claim to the crown. The Picts and Scots, each speaking a dialect of the Celtic tongue, gradually coalesced into one people. The reign of Constantine, son of Aodh, who succeeded in 904, was a remarkable one. Even before the establishment of the kingdom of the Picts and Scots in the person of Kenneth, Northern Britain had experienced the attacks of a new enemy, the Scandinavian invaders, generally spoken of under the name of Danes. Constantine resisted them bravely, but towards the end of his reign, he entered into an alliance with them in opposition to the English. A powerful army, composed of Scots, Picts, Britons, and Danes, disembarked on the Humber, and was encountered at Brunanburgh by Athelstan, king of England. A battle was fought there, the first of a series of unfortunate combats by Scottish princes on English ground. The confederate army was defeated, but Constantine escaped, and died 953. During the reign of Malcolm I., a portion of the Cumbrian kingdom was bestowed by Edmund, king of England, on the Scottish sovereign. The northern kingdom was still further increased in the reign of Kenneth, son of Malcolm, by the acquisition of Lothian and of Northern Cumbria, or Strathclyde. Alexander III. employed the period of his reign well; by a treaty with the king of Norway, he added to his kingdom Man and the other islands of the Western Sea. The reigns of David II. and his successors, Robert II. and Robert III., were the most wretched period of Scottish history. In the year 1411, half of the kingdom would have become barbarous if the invasion of the Lord of the Isles had not been repulsed at Harlaw (which see). The vigorous rule of James I. had restored a tranquillity to which his kingdom had long been unaccustomed; but strife and discord were again brought back on his assassination. The reigns of Charles II. and James VII. were more corrupt and oppressive than any which Scotland had experienced since the regencies in the minority of James VI.; the natural result was the revolution, which seated William and Mary on the throne. Under James VI., who succeeded to the throne of England, the kingdoms became united, from which period (1603) the annals of the two kingdoms became almost identical, though they both retained their independence, and continued to be ruled by separate titles till the Act of Union in 1707.

Scots Fusileer Guards. See Guards.

Scots Grays. The 2d regiment of dragoons in the British service is so named. They are considered a superior body of cavalry, and bear as their motto “Second to None.”

Scott Projectile. See Projectile.

Scotussa. A very ancient town of Thessaly, in the district of Pelasgiotis, near the source of the CynoscephalÆ, where Flamininus gained his celebrated victory over Philip, 197 B.C.

Scour, To. This term is frequently used to express the act of discharging ordnance or musketry, rapidly and heavily, for the purpose of dislodging an enemy. Hence, to scour the rampart, or the covert way. It likewise signifies to clear, to drive away; as, to scour the seas; also to run about in a loose desultory manner; as, to scour the country. To scour a line, is to flank it, so as to see directly along it, that a musket-ball entering at one end may fly to the other, leaving no place of security.

Scout. A person sent out in the front or on the flank of an army to observe the force and movements of the enemy. He should be a keen observer, and withal fleet of foot, or well mounted.

Scout-master-General. A person, formerly so called, under whose direction all the scouts and army messengers were placed.

Screw. See Elevating Screw.

Screw-jack. See Implements.

Scribe (Heb. Sofer). Among the Jews, originally a kind of military officer, whose business appears to have been the recruiting and organizing of troops, the levying of war-taxes, and the like. At a later period, especially at the time of Christ, it had come to designate a learned man, a doctor of the law.

Scutari. A town of Asiatic Turkey, opposite Constantinople. It was anciently called Chrysopolis, “golden city,” in consequence, it is said, of the Persians having established a treasury here when they attempted the conquest of Greece. Near here Constantine finally defeated Licinius, 323. Scutari Hospital was occupied by the sick and wounded of the Anglo-French army in 1854-55, whose sufferings were much alleviated by the kind exertions of Miss Florence Nightingale and a band of nurses under her.

Scutum. A Roman buckler made of wood, the parts being joined together with little plates of iron, and the whole covered with a bull’s hide. In the middle was an umbo, or boss of iron, which jutted out, and was useful to glance off stones or darts. The scuta, in general, were 4 feet long, and different in size from the clypei, which were less, and quite round.

Scythed. Armed or furnished with scythes, as some of the ancient chariots were.

Scythia. A name employed in ancient times to denote a vast, indefinite, and almost unknown territory north and east of the Black Sea, the Caspian, and the Sea of Aral. This country was inhabited by a race of people who were called ScythÆ, but who called themselves Scoloti. Only two important events in Scythian history are mentioned by Herodotus; the one is the invasion of Media by the Scythians, and the other that of Scythia by Darius. In 624 B.C. the Scythians entered Media, defeated Cyaxares, the reigning monarch, and occupied the land for twenty-eight years before they were expelled. It was at least ostensibly in revenge for this incursion that Darius Hystaspis determined to invade Scythia about 513 B.C. He formed a bridge across the Danube, and crossing that river obtained some advantages over the Scythians. But he was unable to effect any real conquest over these nomad tribes, and narrowly escaped having his retreat cut off by the destruction of the bridge.

Sea-coast Carriage. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Sea-coast Artillery. Is a species of artillery which is used for the defense of the sea-coast. In the United States it consists of 15-inch and 20-inch smooth-bores, 12-inch rifles, and 10-inch and 13-inch mortars. (See Ordnance.) The 24-pounder flank-defense howitzer, although no longer belonging to the system, is still employed in several of the forts on the sea-board. Sea-coast pieces are mounted on barbette, casemate, and flank-casemate carriages; and the carriage upon which the mortar is mounted is called its bed. These carriages do not subserve the purpose of transportation. The heaviest rifle-cannon should be placed on the salients and flanks of a fortification, having an enfilading fire on a channel. Heavy smooth-bore pieces should occupy the curtains and faces which bear, directly on the channel. The 24-pounder flank-defense howitzer is employed in the defense of ditches. Single- or double-shotted canister should be fired from it. The Gatling gun has been recommended as a desirable auxiliary in special cases. A 12-pounder field-piece may be usefully employed to prevent a landing, or to fire in close engagements at the rigging and boats of vessels. There are three kinds of fire generally employed,—direct, ricochet, and plunging. The first should be used when the surface of the water is rough, and the accuracy of the rebound cannot be depended on. In aiming at a vessel with direct fire, the piece should be pointed at the water-line. The effective range of direct fire is about one mile and a quarter. The intended effect of sea-coast mortars is to strike the decks of vessels, penetrating to the bottom and causing them to sink.

Sea-coast Howitzer. See Sea-coast Artillery.

Sea-horse. In heraldry, a fabulous animal, consisting of the upper part of a horse with webbed feet, united to the tail of a fish. A scalloped fin is carried down the back. The arms of the town of Cambridge are supported by two sea-horses, proper finned and maned or.

Sea-lion. In heraldry, a monster consisting of the upper part of a lion combined with the tail of a fish.

Sealkote. A town in the Punjab, near the left bank of the Chenab, 65 miles north-northeast from Lahore. All the European troops had been removed in July, 1857, to repress disturbances that had broken out elsewhere, and on the 9th of that month the native troops fired on their officers. A considerable number of Europeans were killed, and the survivors suffered great privations until the Sepoys, having plundered the station, started off in the direction of Delhi.

Search a Country, To. Is to examine minutely all the inlets and outlets, woods, rivers, etc., of a country through which an army is to advance.

Searcher. See Inspection of Cannon.

Seasoned Troops. Are troops that have been accustomed to climate, and are not so liable to become the victims of any endemical disorder as raw men unavoidably are.

Seat of War. The country in which a war is being carried on.

Sebastopol, or Sevastopol. A Russian seaport, fortress, and arsenal in the Crimea, in the government of Taurida. It is situated near the southwest extremity of the Crimea, on the southern side of the magnificent harbor or roadstead of Sebastopol, one of the finest natural harbors in the world. The siege of Sebastopol by the allied English and French armies will rank among the most famous sieges in history; it lasted for eleven months, from October, 1854, to September, 1855. Immediately after the battle of the Alma, September 20, 1854, the allied army marched to Sebastopol, and took up its position on the plateau between it and Balaklava, and the grand attack and bombardment commenced October 17, 1854, without success. After many sanguinary encounters by day and night, and repeated bombardments, a grand assault was made on September 8, 1855, upon the Malakoff tower and the redans, the most important fortifications to the south of the town. The French succeeded in capturing and retaining the Malakoff. The attacks of the English on the great redan and of the French upon the little redan were successful, but the assailants were compelled to retire after a desperate struggle with great loss of life. The French lost 1646 killed, of whom 5 were generals, 24 superior and 116 inferior officers, 4500 wounded, and 1400 missing. The English lost 385 killed, 1886 wounded, and 176 missing. In the night the Russians abandoned the southern and principal part of the town and fortifications, after destroying as much as possible, and crossed to the northern forts. They also sank or burnt the remainder of their fleet. The allies found a very great amount of stores when they entered the place, September 9. The works were utterly destroyed in April, 1856, and the town was restored to the Russians in July.

Second. The next in order to the first; the next in place or station; as, a second lieutenant of the artillery service.

Second Covert Way. In fortification, is that beyond the second ditch.

Second Ditch. In fortification, is that made on the outside of the glacis, when the ground is low and there is plenty of water.

Second Flank. See Flank, Oblique.

Second, To. To aid or assist; to support.

Secondary Bases. The bases established at the beginning of a campaign and from which the first advances are made, are known as primary bases. An army carries with it ammunition only sufficient for one battle, and but a few days’ supply of food. Other supplies of ammunition and provisions must be brought from the base; and as an army advances, the difficulty of keeping it supplied increases. Unless some additional provision be made for its supply, the army cannot advance and is then said to be “tied to its base.” As the necessary supplies cannot be obtained in the theatre of operations in sufficient quantities for the daily needs of an army, depots and magazines must be organized near the army from which these supplies can be procured, and these together form what is known as a secondary base.

Seconding. In Great Britain, is a temporary retirement to which officers of Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers are subjected when they accept civil employment under the crown. After six months of such employment the officer is seconded, by which he loses military pay, but retains his rank, seniority, and promotion in his corps. After being seconded for ten years, he must elect to return to military duty or to retire altogether.

Secrecy. In military economy this quality is peculiarly requisite. It signifies fidelity to a secret; taciturnity inviolate; close silence. Officers, in particular, should be well aware of the importance of it, as the divulging of what has been confidentially intrusted to them, especially on expeditions, might render the whole project abortive. The slightest deviation from it is very justly considered a breach of honor, as scandalous conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman. In official matters the person so offending is liable to the severest punishment and penalty.

Secretary of War. Is an officer of the executive department and member of the Cabinet, appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, and has charge of all duties connected with the army of the United States, fortifications, etc., issues of commissions, movement of troops, payment, commissary, etc., and engineering. The following is extracted from the law of the United States:

“There shall be at the seat of government an executive department to be known as the Department of War, and a Secretary of War, who shall be the head thereof.

“The Secretary of War shall perform such duties as shall from time to time be enjoined on or intrusted to him by the President relative to military commissions, the military forces, the warlike stores of the United States, or to other matters respecting military affairs, and he shall conduct the business of the department in such manner as the President shall direct.

“The Secretary of War shall have the custody and charge of all the books, records, papers, furniture, fixtures, and other property appertaining to the department.

“The Secretary of War shall from time to time cause to be collected and transmitted to him, at the seat of government, all such flags, standards, and colors as are taken by the army from enemies of the United States.

“The Secretary of War shall from time to time define and prescribe the kinds as well as the amount of supplies to be purchased by the subsistence and quartermaster departments of the army, and the duties and powers thereof respecting such purchases, and shall prescribe general regulations for the transportation of the articles or supply from the place of purchase to the several armies, garrisons, posts, and recruiting-places, for the safe-keeping of such articles, and for the distribution of an adequate and timely supply of the same to the regimental quartermasters, and to such other officers as may by virtue of such regulations be intrusted with the same, and shall fix and make reasonable allowances for the store rent and storage necessary for the safe-keeping of all military stores and supplies.

“The transportation of troops, munitions of war, equipments, military property, and stores, throughout the United States, shall be under the immediate control and supervision of the Secretary of War and such agents as he may appoint.”

The British secretary of war was formerly a high officer of the British ministry, having control of the financial arrangements of the army, and being the responsible medium for parliamentary supervision in military affairs. The formation of a war-office proper took place about 1620, the secretary of state having previously performed its duties. It was, however, limited to financial authority, neither the commander-in-chief nor the muster-general of the ordnance being subject to it. During the Russian war the evils of this divided authority led to the creation of a secretary of state for war, to control all the military departments. The secretaryship-at-war was merged in the superior office in 1855, and abolished by act of Parliament in 1863. See Minister.

Section. A certain proportion of a battalion or company, when it is told off for military movements and evolutions.

Sector of Explosion. At the moment that a gun is fired, there is a sort of spherical sector of fire formed in front of the piece, whose extremity presses against the bottom of the bore, while the external portion of it terminates in the air, which this sector compresses and drives in every direction; the air thus forming a support, the sector reacts with its full force upon the bottom of the bore and causes the recoil of the piece.

Secure, To. In a military sense, is to preserve, to keep, to make certain; as, to secure a plan; to secure a conquest. In the management of a musket, it signifies to bring it to a certain position, by which the lock is secured against rain. Hence, secure arms is a word of command which is given to troops who are under arms in wet weather.

Secuteur (Fr.). A gladiator who was armed with a helmet, shield, and sword, or leaden club, and who fought with the Retiaire.

Sedan. A town of France, department of Ardennes, on the Meuse; it is fortified, and contains an arsenal and several magazines. On July 6, 1641, a victory was gained at La MarfÉe, near Sedan, by the Count of Soissons and the troops of Bouillon and other French princes over the royal army supporting Richelieu. On August 29-31, 1870, a series of desperate conflicts took place here between the French Army of the North under MacMahon (about 150,000 men), and the greater part of the three German armies, under the king and crown-prince of Prussia and the crown-prince of Saxony (about 250,000 men), and was brought to a close on September 1, 1870. The battle began with attacks on the French right and left, about 5 A.M., and was very severe at 2 P.M. At 4 P.M. the Germans remained masters of the field, and the crown-prince of Prussia announced a complete victory, the chief part of the French army retreating into Sedan. The emperor Napoleon was present during the battle, and, it is said, stood at Iges, near Sedan, exposed for four hours to the German grenades. The impossibility of further resistance was then evident. The Germans had contracted their circle close around Sedan; their formidable artillery held all the heights, from which they could at pleasure wholly destroy the town and the army, and only 2000 men were in a condition to respond to their commander’s call, and to make a supreme effort to break through the enemy with the emperor, and escape to MontmÉdy. At first, Gen. de Wimpffen (called to the command when MacMahon was wounded), indignantly rejected the terms offered by the victor, and the emperor had a fruitless interview with Count Bismarck to endeavor to mitigate them. On September 2, 1870, a capitulation of Sedan and the whole army therein was signed by Gens. von Moltke and de Wimpffen, at the chateau of Bellevue, near Frenois. The conflict was principally carried on by the artillery, in which the Germans had the advantage, not only in number (600 to 500), but also in weight, range, and precision. The carnage was awful, and the field the next day was a mass of shattered bones, torn flesh, and colored rags. About 25,000 French prisoners were taken in the battle, and 83,000 surrendered the next day, together with 70 mitrailleures, 400 field-pieces, and 150 fortress guns. About 14,000 French wounded were found lying in the neighborhood, and about 3000 escaped into Belgium and laid down their arms. The great Army of the North ceased to exist. On September 1, the village of Bazeilles was stormed by the Bavarians and burnt, it was said, because the inhabitants fired on the ambulances; many women and children perished. The French denied the provocation. The place had been previously twice bombarded and stormed by the maddened combatants.

Sedgemoor. A wild tract of England, in Somersetshire, between Bridgewater and King’s Weston, where the Duke of Monmouth (the natural son of Charles II. by Lucy Walters), who had risen in rebellion on the accession of James II., was completely defeated by the royal army, July 6, 1685. The duke was made a prisoner in the disguise of a peasant, at the bottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger, fatigue, and anxiety.

Sedition. In a military sense, is to disobey orders, to cabal or form factions against the officer or officers in command; to loosen confidence; to resist or oppose orders, or to stir up mutiny. It is an offense in military law of the most fatal character, and always punished in a most exemplary manner.

Sedusii. A German people, forming part of the army of Ariovistus when he invaded Gaul, 58 B.C.; they are not mentioned at a later period, and consequently their site cannot be determined.

See, To. In a military sense, is to have practical knowledge of a thing; as, to see service. To have seen a shot fired is a figurative expression in the British service, signifying to have been in action; also, to have been under fire.

Seetabuldee. A strong military position in Hindostan, near Nagpore, where a severe contest took place during the Mahratta war between the Boosla rajah and a small number of the British troops, in which the former were defeated.

Segbans. Are horsemen among the Turks who have care of the baggage belonging to cavalry regiments.

Segesta. A town situated in the northwest of Sicily, near the coast, between Panormus and Drepanum. Its inhabitants were constantly engaged in hostilities with Selinus; and it was at their solicitation that the Athenians were led to embark in their unfortunate expedition against Sicily. The town was taken by Agathocles, who destroyed or sold as slaves all its inhabitants, peopled the city with a body of deserters, and changed its name into that of DicÆopolis; but after the death of this tyrant, the remainder of the ancient inhabitants returned to the city, and it resumed its former name.

Seistan (formerly called Segestan). A khanat or principality of Asia, forming the southwest portion of Afghanistan. It was devastated by Tamerlane in 1383.

Sejant, or Assis. In heraldry, is the term of blazon applied to a beast in his usual sitting posture. A lion borne in full face, with his forepaws extended sideways, is blazoned sejant affrontÉ, as in the crest of Scotland.

Sejour (Fr.). In a military sense, signifies a halting day.

Selection. The act of choosing in preference to others; hence, selection of officers to act upon the staff, etc.; to select quarters, etc. See Quarters, Choice of.

Seleucia ad Tigrin (also called Seleucia Babylonia, Seleucia AssyriÆ, and Seleucia Parthorum). A great city on the confines of Assyria and Babylonia, and for a long time the capital of Western Asia. It commanded the navigation of the Tigris and Euphrates. It was burned by Trajan in his Parthian expedition, and again by L. Verus, the colleague of M. Aurelius Antoninus. It was again taken by Severus.

Seleucia Pieria (ruins, called Seleukeh, or Kepse, near Suadeiah). A great city and fortress in Syria, founded by Seleucus in April, 300 B.C. In the war with Egypt, which ensued upon the murder of Antiochus II., Seleucia surrendered to Ptolemy III. Euergetes (246 B.C.). It was afterwards recovered by Antiochus the Great (219). In the war between Antiochus VIII. and IX., the people of Seleucia made themselves independent (109 or 108); afterwards they successfully resisted the attacks of Tigranes for fourteen years (84-70). The city had fallen entirely into decay by the 6th century of our era.

Selictar. A Turkish sabre.

Seljuks, or Seljuk-Turks. A small Turkish tribe which, at an early date, took possession of Bokhara and the surrounding country. They attracted the notice of Sultan Mahmoud, the founder of the dynasty of the Ghuznevides, who had advanced into Bokhara with his army, and was so impressed with the fine military qualities of their chief, that he induced them to cross the Oxus and to occupy the country of Khorassan. He had soon reason to repent of this fatal error. Like all those wandering hordes, the Turkomans were shepherds or robbers. They either molested the neighboring states by petty inroads, or, with the whole united force of the nation, they practiced robbery on a great scale, seizing on kingdoms and despoiling nations. The first migrations of these Eastern Turkomans is generally fixed in the 10th century. They became formidable to Mahmoud, and more especially to his successor, Massoud, who, from inability to resist their progress, was forced to grant them lands. He was afterwards defeated by them in a great battle; and the victorious Turks, under their leader, Togrul Beg, whom they now elected king, invaded Khorassan, and finally expelled the Ghuznevides, the descendants of Mahmoud, from the eastern provinces of Persia. They fled eastwards towards the Indus, and established the Ghuznian empire in the northwestern provinces of India. This empire was maintained with various success till about the year 1184, under the Ghuznian emperors, when they were superseded by that of the Afghan or Patan emperors, who completed the conquest of the greatest part of Hindustan Proper about 1210. Togrul Beg hastened to improve his victory over the Persian monarch. Turning his arms to the west, he invaded Irak, in the centre of Persia, and advancing westward of the Caspian Sea into Azerbijan, the ancient Media, he made his first approaches to the confines of the Roman empire. He afterwards proceeded to Bagdad, and by his conquest of that place, gained possession of the caliph. His successors Alp Arslan and Malek Shah extended the empire transmitted to them by Togrul Beg. They subdued the fairest portions of Asia. Jerusalem and the Holy Land were taken and pillaged by the Seljuks, and it was the vexation and rapine to which the Christian pilgrims were exposed in their journey to Jerusalem, that gave rise to those wild and warlike expeditions for the recovery of the Holy Land, known under the name of the Crusades. The empire under Malek Shah extended from the Mediterranean to the Chinese frontier, and from the Caspian to the Arabian Sea. Upon the death of Malek Shah the empire was divided up into petty sultanates, which finally caused the overthrow of the Seljuk empire. The Turkish dynasty of the Seljuks continued for 215 years, and with the overthrow of its dynasty in 1299, and on its ruins, arose the Turkish empire.

Selkirkshire (formerly called the Ettrick Forest). A small inland county of Scotland, in the Lowlands. Among the interesting historical scenes this county contains is the field of Philiphaugh, where the great Marquis of Montrose was defeated by the Covenanters under Gen. Leslie.

Sell Out. In the British service, was a term generally used when an officer was permitted to retire from the service, selling or disposing of his commission or commissions. It was the correlative word to buy in. Officers who purchased commissions were usually allowed to sell out.

Sellasia. A town in Laconia, north of Sparta, situated near the River Œnus, and commanded one of the principal passes leading to Sparta. Here the celebrated battle was fought between Cleomenes III. and Antigonus Doson, 221 B.C., in which the former was defeated.

Selling Ammunition. See Appendix, Articles of War, 16.

Selymbria, or Selybria (now Selivria). An important town in Thrace, on the Propontis. It was a colony of the Megarians. It was conquered by Philip, father of Alexander.

Semaphore. A machine for facilitating the internal communications of the country by means of telegraphic signals, especially between the government and the military or naval functionaries of the outposts; but its use has been entirely superseded by the introduction of the railways and the electric telegraph.

SemÉ. In heraldry, when a charge is repeated an indefinite number of times so as to produce the appearance of a pattern, the term semÉ (sometimes aspersed or powdered) is applied to it. When a field is semÉ, it is treated as if it were cut out of a larger extent of surface, some of the charges being divided by the outline of the shield. The term crusilly denotes semÉ of cross crosslets, and billetty semÉ of billets.

Semendria. A frontier fortress of the principality of Servia, on the right bank of the Danube, 28 miles southeast of Belgrade. It has frequently been stormed by the nations who have contended for the Danube from the Middle Ages to the present century.

Seminara. A town of Naples, province of Calabria Ultra II. Near here Gonsalvo de Cordova, the great captain, was defeated by the French, in 1495; but defeated them April 21, 1503.

Seminoles. A tribe of Indians who formerly inhabited Central Florida, but now located on a reservation in the Indian Territory. During the time they were in Florida they became allies of the British in their incursions into Georgia during the Revolutionary war. They commenced a series of border-forays in 1794, when their numbers were largely increased by fugitive slaves and negroes; their force was also augmented by the Creeks in 1808. They invaded the frontiers of Georgia in 1812 and 1817, when they massacred a number of persons; but were speedily punished by Gen. Gaines and subsequently by Gen. Jackson. Florida was purchased by the United States in 1819, and the Seminoles made treaties with the United States a few years afterwards. The government resolved to move the Seminoles to a reservation beyond the Mississippi, in conformity with a treaty signed in 1832, but the Indians, headed by Osceola, their chief, resisted, which gave rise to a prolonged bloody war, which began in December, 1835. This war cost the U.S. government $10,000,000 and 1500 lives. The greater portion of the Seminoles were subdued and transported beyond the Mississippi in 1842, only about 300 remaining in the Everglades of Florida, under their chief, Billy Bowlegs. The Seminoles on their new reservation in Indian Territory were divided in their sentiments during the civil war, some of them taking up arms for the South; a civil contest ensued, in which those remaining loyal to the Union were defeated with great slaughter in December, 1861. After the civil war the two bands were reunited and purchased a reservation from the Creeks, where they are now industrious and prosperous. In 1870 they numbered 2553.

Semi-steel. See Ordnance, Metals for, Steel.

Sempach. A small town of Switzerland, in the canton of Lucerne, situated on the eastern shore of the Lake of Sempach. It was one of the outposts of the confederate cantons against their Suabian and Austrian assailants in the 14th century. Under the walls of Sempach took place the second great conflict of the confederate Swiss cantons with Austria, in which the nobles of Austria, in spite of their valor and overwhelming numbers, were slaughtered like sheep by the Swiss. The Swiss lost but 200 men, while the loss of the Austrians was ten times as great. The anniversary of this great victory is still celebrated by prayer and thanksgiving on the field of battle.

Sena. A town on the coast of Umbria, at the mouth of the small river Sena, was founded by the Senones, a Gallic people, and was made a colony by the Romans after the conquest of the Senones, 283 B.C. In the civil war it espoused the Marian party, and was taken and sacked by Pompey.

Seneca Indians. One of the tribes of the Six Nations, and the most numerous and warlike of that confederation. When they first became known they were located in the region between the Lakes of Cayuga, Seneca, Canandaigua, and Ontario. In the 17th century they waged successful wars against the Hurons and other tribes to the westward, and finally the defeated tribes were adopted by the Senecas, who by this means of recruiting their ranks became a powerful people. They were firm allies of the English, as was attested in several battles against the French, and took a valiant part in the memorable battle wherein Gen. Braddock was killed; they again suffered severely in the campaign led by Gen. Sullivan in 1779. They removed to Lake Erie in 1784. The Senecas were allies of the Americans in the war of 1812-14. In 1870 there were 240 Senecas on a reservation in Indian Territory, and 3017 on a reservation in the State of New York.

Seneffe, or Senef. A town in the province of Hainault, Belgium, about 11 miles northwest of Charleroi. Seneffe is notable for its proximity to the battle-field on which William of Orange (III. of England), at the head of the forces of the coalition against France, fought the French army under the great CondÉ, August 11, 1674. In William’s army there were four lieutenants,—Montecuculi, Duke Charles of Lorraine, the Prince of Waldeck, and the Prince of Vaudemont, the first three of whom subsequently attained prominence as military commanders. Of the allied forces of 60,000 men, the Dutch lost from 5000 to 6000 men, the Spaniards 3000, and the Imperialists 600; while the French army, which entered into the conflict 30,000 strong, could scarcely muster 20,000 after the battle. Under the walls of Seneffe, Moreau, in 1794, defeated the Austrians.

Senegal. French colonies on the river of that name in Senegambia, West Africa, settled about 1626; several times taken by the British, but recovered by the French, to whom they were finally restored in 1814.

Seneschal. In the origin of the office, probably an attendant of the servile class, who had the superintendence of the household of the Frankish kings. In the course of time, however, the seneschalship rose to be a position of dignity, held no longer by persons of servile race, but by military commanders, who were also invested with judicial authority. The lieutenants of the great feudatories often took the title of seneschal. A similar office in England and Scotland was designated steward.

Seniority. Priority of rank and standing in the army. As regards regiments, this precedence is regulated by the number of the corps; among individuals, it is decided by the date of the commission. Where commissions of the same date interfere, reference is to be had to the dates of former commissions.

Senones. A powerful people in Gallia Lugdunensis, dwelt along the upper course of the Sequana (now Seine). A portion of this people crossed the Alps about 40 B.C., in order to settle in Italy; but the greater part of Upper Italy being already occupied by other Celtic tribes, the Senones were obliged to penetrate a considerable distance to the south, and took up their abode on the Adriatic Sea, between the modern Ravenna and Ancona. They extended their ravages into Etruria; and it was in consequence of the interference of the Romans while they were laying siege to Clusium, that they marched against Rome and took the city, 390 B.C. They were defeated by Camillus, 367 B.C. They defeated Metellus, the consul, at Arretium, 284, but were almost exterminated by Dolabella, 283. They invaded Greece in 279; were defeated by Antigonus Gonatus, 278, and sued for peace. See Rome.

Sent to the Front. A term applied to bodies of troops or individual soldiers when ordered from camp or garrison to the scene of active hostilities.

Sent to the Rear. A term applied to bodies of troops or individual soldiers when ordered from the immediate scene of active hostilities to the rear of the command in which they are serving, so as to be out of immediate danger.

Sentence. Decision, determination, final judgment. There is an appeal allowed from the sentence of a regimental court-martial to the opinion of a general one.

Sentinel, or Sentry (from the Lat. sentire, “to feel or perceive,” through the Ital. sentinella). A private soldier, marine, or sailor, posted at a point of trust, with the duty of watching the approach of an enemy, or any person suspected of hostile intentions. Sentinels mount guard over dÉpots of arms, the tents of commanding officers, etc. During the night, each sentinel is intrusted with the “word,” or countersign; and no person, however exalted in position, may attempt to approach or pass him without giving that as a signal. In such case, the sentinel is bound to arrest the intruder, and if necessary to shoot him. It has happened before now that the commander-in-chief of an army has been prisoner in the hands of one of his own sentinels. When an army is in the field, the sentinels are its eyes, for they guard the approaches in every direction some distance in front of the main body of troops. In the event of an attack, they give the alarm, and retire slowly on their supports. There is usually an agreement, tacit or expressed, between commanders that their outlying sentinels shall not fire upon one another, which would only be productive of useless bloodshed. Under martial law, death is the penalty to a sentinel sleeping on post. Sentinels will present arms to general and field-officers, to the officer of the day, and the commanding officer of a post; to all other officers they will carry arms. Staff-officers above the rank of captain are entitled to the same compliments from sentinels as are given to field-officers.

Sentinum, Battle of. See Rome.

Sentry. The same as sentinel. “Sentry go,” is the warning given by the sentry at the guard-room or tent that it is time to relieve sentries.

Sentry-box. A box to cover a sentinel at his post, and shelter him from the weather.

Sepadar. Is an East Indian term for an officer of the rank of brigadier-general.

Sepahi. An East Indian term for a feudatory chief, or military tenant; a soldier.

Sepoy. Corrupted from the Indian word sipahi, “a soldier.” This word sipahi, in its more familiar form of spahis, is known in most Eastern armies; and is itself derived from sip, “a bow and arrow,” the ordinary armament of an Indian soldier in ancient times. The word Sepoy now denotes a native Hindoo soldier in the British army in India. The Sepoys consist of Mohammedans, Rajpoots, Brahmans, and men of other castes, besides Sikhs, Ghoorkas, and men of various hill-tribes. They are generally officered by Europeans.

Septembrizers. In the French revolution a dreadful massacre took place in Paris, September 2-5, 1792. The prisons were broken open and the prisoners butchered, among them an ex-bishop, and nearly 100 non-juring priests. Some accounts state the number of persons slain at 1200, others at 4000. The agents in this slaughter were named Septembrizers.

Sepulchre, Knights of the Holy. A military order, established in Palestine about the year 1114. Those of this class chose Philip II., king of Spain, for their master, in 1558, and afterwards his son; but the grand master of the order of Malta prevailed on him to resign; and when afterwards the Duke de Nevers assumed the same quality in France, the same grand master, by his interest and credit, procured a like renunciation by him, and a confirmation of the union of this order to that of Malta.

Sequani. A Celtic nation of ancient Gaul. Before the conquest of Gaul by CÆsar, the Arverni and Ædui, the two most powerful nations of that country, were in a state of hostility; and the Sequani allied themselves with the former. In order more effectually to crush their enemies, these two nations hired a large body of Germans, under Ariovistus, from over the Rhine. With their assistance they totally defeated the Ædui; but the Germans seized for themselves a third part of the territory of the Sequani, and would have made further encroachments, had not CÆsar defeated them, and expelled them from the land.

Serakhur, Serang. In the East Indies are non-commissioned officers who are employed in the artillery and on board ships of war. In the artillery the former title answers to that of sergeant; in the naval service the latter to that of boatswain.

Seraphim, or Jesus, Order of The. An ancient Swedish order of knighthood, instituted in 1334; but dormant from the period of the Reformation until 1748. The number of knights, besides the king and members of the royal family, is limited to 24.

Seraskier, or Seri-Asker (Pers. “head of the army”). The name given by the Turks to every general having the command of a separate army, and, in particular, to the commander-in-chief or minister of war. The seraskier, in the latter sense, possesses most extensive authority, being subordinate only to the sultan and grand vizier. He is selected by the monarch from among the pashas of two or three tails.

Seraskur (Ind.). This word is sometimes written seraskier, and signifies the commander-in-chief of a Turkish army.

Serdans. Colonels in the Turkish service are so called.

Seregno. A town in the province of Milan, Italy, 13 miles north from Milan. It is noted for the heroic resistance which the women of the city made against the conscription, and which ultimately induced Bonaparte to rescind his order for the bombardment of the place. The Austrians, in 1848, severely chastised Seregno for its patriotism.

Sergeant. A non-commissioned officer in a company, battery, or troop, usually selected from among the corporals on account of his general intelligence and good conduct. He is vested with the command of small detachments, and sometimes with his company in the absence of his superior officers.

Sergeant, Armorer-. In the British service, is a trained artificer who repairs the arms of a corps.

Sergeant, Band-. In the British service, is a non-commissioned officer who is responsible for the discipline of the band, as is the bandmaster for instruction. In the United States service a principal musician performs this duty.

Sergeant, Color-. See Color-Sergeant.

Sergeant, Cook. In the British service, is a non-commissioned officer who superintends the cooking for the corps.

Sergeant, Covering. Is a non-commissioned officer, who, during the exercise of a battalion, regularly stands or moves behind each officer commanding or acting with a platoon or company.

Sergeant d’Armes (sergeant of arms), Fr. Philip Augustus, fearing to be assassinated on the instigation of the sheik of the mountain, during his stay in Palestine, organized for the protection of his person a corps of sergeants d’armes, consisting of gentlemen, which he armed with bronze war-clubs, and bows and arrows, whose duty it was to accompany him everywhere.

Sergeant, Drill-. See Drill-Sergeant.

Sergeant, Hospital. In the British service, is a non-commissioned officer who carries out the orders of the surgeon as regards discipline in a hospital.

Sergeant Instructor in Fencing. In the British service, is a sergeant who performs the duties implied by his title in regiments of cavalry.

Sergeant Instructor in Gunnery. A sergeant of artillery who aids the officer instructor in teaching gunnery.

Sergeant, Lance-. Is a corporal who acts as a sergeant in a company, but only receives the pay of a corporal.

Sergeant-Major. The chief non-commissioned officer in a regiment, and, from the nature of his duties, in a great degree an assistant to the adjutant. He must be master of every point connected with the drill, interior economy, and discipline of a regiment. It is his duty, on receiving the orders from the adjutant, to assemble the orderly sergeants, and issue the orders and details correctly. He is to keep a regular duty roster of the sergeants and corporals, and to proportion the number of men to be furnished for duty according to the strength of their respective companies. Finally, it is always expected that he should set an example to the non-commissioned officers by his activity, zeal, and personal appearance. In the British cavalry service this non-commissioned officer is termed regimental sergeant-major, the chief non-commissioned officer of a troop being styled troop sergeant-major. Similarly in the artillery there are the brigade sergeant-major and the battery sergeant-major.

Sergeant, Orderly. See Orderly Sergeant.

Sergeant, Pay-. See Pay-Sergeant.

Sergeant, Paymaster-. See Paymaster-Sergeant.

Sergeant, Pioneer. See Pioneer Sergeant.

Sergeant, Quartermaster. See Quartermaster Sergeant.

Sergeant, White. Is a term of ridicule in the British service, applied to those ladies who, taking advantage of the weakness of their husbands, neglect their domestic concerns to interfere in military matters.

Seringapatam (anc. Sri-Rungaputtun, “City of Vishnu”). A celebrated fortress of South India, and under Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sahib, the capital of Mysore, at the west angle of the island of the Cavery (Kaveri). Seringapatam was besieged by Lord Cornwallis in 1791, and again in 1792, when Tippoo purchased a peace by ceding half his dominions and paying 330 lacs of rupees to the British and their allies. It was again besieged in 1799 and taken by storm on May 3 (4), on which occasion Tippoo was killed, and the dynasty of Hyder terminated; the ancient Rajpoot line being restored to the sovereignty of Mysore.

Serjeant. See Sergeant.

Serpenteau (Fr.). A round iron circle, with small spikes, and squibs attached to them. It is frequently used in the attack and defense of a breach. It likewise means a fusee, which is filled with gunpowder, and is bent in such a manner, that when it takes fire, it obtains a circular rapid motion, and throws out sparks of light in various directions.

Serpentine (Fr.). An ancient wall-piece, with a matchlock, carrying an 8-ounce leaden ball, with a charge of 4 ounces of powder. It was 6 or 7 feet long, and weighed from one to two hundred-weight.

Serpentix (Fr.). Cock of the ancient matchlock, also the lock itself. Also, an ancient 24-pounder gun, of 13 feet, weighing 4360 pounds, whose dolphins represented the figures of serpents.

Serre-demi File (Fr.). That rank in a battalion which determines the half of its depth, and which marches before the demi-file. Thus a battalion standing six deep, has its serre-demi file in the third rank, which determines its depth.

Serre-file (Fr.). The last rank of a battalion, by which its depth is ascertained, and which always forms its rear. When ranks are doubled, the battalion resumes its natural formation by means of the serre-files. Serre-file literally signifies a “bringer up.”

Servans d’Armes, or Chevaliers Servans (Fr.). Were persons belonging to the third class of the order of Malta. They were not noblemen, although they wore the sword and the cross.

Servants. In the British service, regimental and staff officers are allowed the indulgence of a steady and well-drilled soldier for a servant; and field-officers, keeping horses, two each. These soldiers are to take their share of any duty on which the officer to whom they are attached is employed, and they must fall in with their respective troops and companies at all reviews, inspections, and field-days. In the U.S. service, officers are not permitted to employ soldiers as servants.

Serve. To be in service; to do duty; to discharge the requirements of an office or employment; and, specifically, to act as a soldier, seaman, etc. To serve a piece, in the artillery, is to load and fire with promptitude and correctness. To serve the vent, to stop it with the thumb.

Servia. One of the Danubian principalities, nominally included in the Ottoman empire, but in reality only tributary to that power. It is bounded on the north by Austria, on the east by Wallachia and Bulgaria, on the south by Rumli and Bosnia, and on the west by Bosnia. In the earliest times of which we have any record, Servia was inhabited by Thracian or Illyrian races; shortly before Christ it was subjugated by the Romans, and formed part of the province of Illyricum, whose fortunes it shared during the vicissitudes of the empire. Overrun successively by the Huns, Ostrogoths, Longobards, etc., it reverted to the Byzantine rulers about the middle of the 6th century, but was wrested from them by the Avars in the 7th century, who in turn were routed by the Serbs, and compelled to give up the country. They were converted to Christianity in the 9th century, but this did not in the least abate their ardor for battle, and for nearly 200 years they were almost constantly at war with the neighboring Bulgarians,—the inveterate enemies of their Byzantine liege lord. In 1043, however, the royal governors were expelled, and they became an independent kingdom. For the next 100 years the Serbs had to fight hard to maintain their independence, and the struggle terminated in their favor; and in 1165, Stephen Nemanja founded a dynasty which lasted for two centuries, during which period the kingdom of Servia attained the acmÉ of its power and prosperity. Eventually the progress of the Turks, however, was fatal to its welfare, and in 1389 King Lazar fell in the disastrous battle at Kossovapolje. Sultan Bajazet divided the country between Lazar’s son and son-in-law, compelled them to pay tribute and follow him in war. Gradually the Serbs sunk more and more under the Turkish yoke, until, in 1459, Servia was thoroughly subjugated by the sultan Mahmoud. It was uniformly the theatre of the bloody wars between Hungary and Turkey, and frequently suffered the uttermost horrors of devastation. Prince EugÈne’s brilliant successes for a moment flashed a ray of hope into the miserable hearts of the long-suffering Serbs, and by the treaty of Passarowitz (1718), a considerable portion of the country was made over to Austria; but in 1739 it reverted to Turkey, and for the next sixty years the cruelty and oppressions of the pashas and their Janissaries surpass all belief. At length the unhappy people could endure the tyranny of their foreign masters no longer, and in 1801 an insurrection broke out, headed by George Czerny, which, by the help of Russia, ended in the triumph of the patriots, and in the election of Czerny by the people as prince of Servia. The invasion of Russia by France, however, left the Serbs at the mercy of their late rulers and the war again broke out. Czerny was forced to flee, and the tyranny of the Turks became more ferocious than ever. Again the people flew to arms under the leadership of Milosch Obrenovitch, and were a second time successful in winning back their liberties. Milosch ruled as prince of Servia until 1839, when he was forced to abdicate; but in 1858 he was restored to his former dignity. In the war between Russia and Turkey in 1876, the Servians took the side of the former, but were not actively engaged.

Service. In a military sense is the art of serving the state in war. All studies, acts, and efforts of the profession of arms have this end in view. To belong to the army and to belong to the land service, are the same thing. In a more restricted sense, service is the performance of military duty. In its general sense, service embraces all details of the military art. But in its restricted sense, actual service is the exercise of military functions. To see service, is a common expression denoting actual collision with an enemy. To retire from service, to quit the army, or resign.

Service, Foreign. See Foreign Service.

Service, Home. See Home Service.

Service, Secret. Any service performed by an individual in a clandestine secret manner. It likewise means intelligence or information, given by spies when countries are engaged in war, for which they receive pecuniary compensation.

Serviceable. Capable of performing all military duty, or of being used in the military service.

Servile or Slave War. See Rome.

Session. The actual sitting of a court, council, etc., or the actual assembly of the members of such a body for the transaction of business. Hence, also the time, period, or term during which a court, council, and the like, meet daily for business; or the space of time between the first meeting and prorogation or adjournment.

Sestus. A town in Thrace, situated at the narrowest part of the Hellespont, opposite Abydos in Asia, from which it was only seven stadia distant. It was always reckoned a place of importance in consequence of its commanding, to a great extent, the passage of the Hellespont. It was for some time in possession of the Persians, but was retaken by the Greeks, 478 B.C., after a long siege. It subsequently formed part of the Athenian empire.

Set. A word used in a military sense in various combinations; as, to set a sentinel, is to place a soldier at any particular spot for its security. To set on, is to attack. To set at defiance, is to defy, to dare to combat, etc. To set up, is to make a man fit for military movements and parade.

Seteef, or Setif (anc. Sitipha, or Sitifi). A town of Algeria, distinguished by the obstinate resistance it made against the Saracens, when Northern Africa was overrun by that fierce and warlike people. The old city is now in ruins.

Setendy. In the East Indies, the militia is so called.

Setia. An ancient town of Latium, in the east of the Pontine Marshes; originally belonged to the Volscian confederacy, but was subsequently taken by the Romans and colonized. It was here that the Romans kept the Carthaginian hostages.

Setter. In gunnery, a round stick, to drive fuzes, or any other compositions, into cases of paper.

Sevastopol. See Sebastopol.

Seven Weeks’ War. The war declared by Prussia, on June 18, 1866, which ended in the total defeat of Austria and her allies. See Prussia.

Seven Years’ War. This was the third, last, and by far the longest and most terrible of the contests for the possession of Silesia. This long and desperate war was maintained by Frederick II. of Prussia against Austria, Russia, and France, from 1756 to 1763. It made no change in the territorial distribution of Europe, but it increased tenfold the moral power of Prussia, and gave its army a prestige it retained till the battle of Jena. It cost Europe 1,000,000 lives, and prostrated the strength of almost all the powers who had engaged in it.

Seville, or Sevilla (anc. Hispalis, or Hispal). A famous city of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, on the left bank of the Guadalquiver, 60 miles north-northeast of Cadiz. It was captured by Julius CÆsar, 45 B.C. It surrendered to the Moors at once, after the defeat of Don Roderick on the Guadalete, and it continued its allegiance to the caliph of Damascus until 756; it surrendered to Ferdinand III. of Castile on November 23, 1248, when 300,000 Moors left for Granada and Africa. In 1810 it was taken and ravaged by Soult. It was taken by assault by the British and Spaniards, August 27, 1812. It capitulated to Espartero in 1843. The peace of Seville between England, France, and Spain, and also a defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, was signed November 9, 1729.

Sevir. A captain of cavalry among the Romans was so called.

Sextant. An instrument of reflection for measuring angular distances between objects. It is constructed on the same optical principle as Hadley’s quadrant, but usually of metal, with a nicer graduation, telescopic sight, and its arc the sixth, and sometimes the third part of a circle.

Seymeny-bassy. Appellation given to the lieutenant-general of Janissaries in the Turkish service.

Shabrack, or Shabraque. A Hungarian term, generally used among cavalry officers, to signify the cloth furniture of a troop-horse.

Shaft. A body of a long, cylindrical shape; a stem, stalk, trunk, or the like. Hence, the stem of an arrow, upon which the feather and head are inserted; hence, an arrow; a missile weapon. Also, the handle of a weapon; as, the shaft of a spear. It likewise means a perpendicular excavation into the earth for the purpose of mining.

Shafted. In heraldry, borne on a shaft;—applied to a spear-head.

Shaftesbury. A town of England, in Dorsetshire, 95 miles southwest of London. It was destroyed by the Danes both before and after 888, but each time it was afterwards restored.

Shag-bush. An old term for a hand-gun.

Shahporee, or Shapuree. An island of British Burmah, lying off the coast of Aracan. The capture of this island by the Burmese led to the first British war with that nation, in 1824.

Sham. False; counterfeit; pretended; as, a sham fight.

Shamaka, Shamachi, or Shemakha. A town of Russia in Asia, Transcaucasia, 207 miles east-southeast from Tiflis. It was taken and sacked by Nadir Shah in 1734.

Shambrie. In the manÈge, is a long thong of leather, made fast to the end of a cane or stick, for the purpose of animating a horse, or of punishing him if he refuses to obey the rider.

Shang-hae, or Shanghai. A seaport city of China, in the province of Kiangsu, on the river Woo-sung, one of the five ports opened for European commerce. It was captured by the British, June 19, 1842, by the Taeping rebels, September, 1853; retaken by the imperialists, 1855. The rebels were defeated near here by the English and French, allies of the emperor, March 1, 1862.

Sharp. Fierce; ardent; fiery; violent; impetuous. “In sharp contest of battle.”

Sharps Rifle. One of the oldest of successful breech-loading rifles. The chamber of this piece is fixed, and the barrel closed by a vertical sliding breech-piece, which moves nearly at right angles to the axis of the piece. The fire-arm is loaded by depressing the lever, or trigger-guard, which withdraws the slide and opens the breech for the insertion of the cartridge. Originally a paper cartridge was used, the rear end of which was broken open by the breech-piece in closing; this was superseded by a linen cloth cylinder to contain the powder, one end of which overlaps and is gummed to the base of the bullet; the other is closed with a layer of thin bank-note paper. The flame of the percussion-cap penetrates through this paper and ignites the powder. The linen case is carried out with the bullet and drops to the ground a short distance in front of the piece. A metallic cartridge is now used.

Sharpsburg. See Antietam Creek.

Sharpshooters. An old term applied in the army to riflemen.

Sharp-shooting. A shooting with great precision and effect.

Shawnees. A tribe of American Indians, which were first known on the banks of Fox River, Wisconsin, in 1648. They were a warlike tribe, and waged war with the Iroquois. The Shawnees eventually became a scattered race, and dispersed to several parts of the country; we find a part of them afterwards taking part with the French in their wars in America; joined in Pontiac’s conspiracy, but were subdued by Col. Boquet. They took a prominent part in the Western wars, especially against the expeditions of Harmer, Wayne, etc.; but made peace at Greenville in 1795. They afterwards effected an alliance with some tribes of Northwestern Indians, and under their celebrated leader Tecumseh gave battle to the whites under Gen. Harrison, at Tippecanoe, but were defeated. Tecumseh, with a band of Shawnees, proceeded to Canada at the outbreak of the war of 1812, and made an alliance with the English, who gave him a brigadier-general’s commission; he was killed while leading the right wing at the battle of the Thames in 1813. Since then the Shawnees have again reunited and are now upon reservations in Indian Territory, and numbered in 1870 about 800.

Sheaf. A bundle of arrows.

Sheathe. To put into a sheath, case, or scabbard; to inclose or cover with a sheath or case. To sheathe the sword, to put an end to war or enmity; to make peace.

Sheeting. The term sheeting is applied to the coarse hempen cloth used for making tarpaulins.

Sheffield. A large town of England in the West Riding of Yorkshire, at the confluence of the Sheaf and Don, 43 miles southwest from York. During the civil wars in the time of Charles I., the castle sustained a long siege for the king, but scarcely a vestige of it can now be discerned.

Shell. To throw shells or bombs upon; to bombard; as, to shell a town.

Shell Extractor. An instrument for extracting headless cartridge-cases from breech-loading small-arms.

Shell-hooks. See Implements.

Shelling. The act of bombarding a fort, town, or position.

Shell-jacket. An undress military jacket.

Shell-plug Screw. See Implements.

Shell-proof. Capable of resisting bomb-shells.

Shells. Hollow projectiles; also, the cases of metallic cartridges for use in small-arms. See Projectiles.

Shelter. In a military sense, that which protects the troops in the field. There are various means resorted to for this purpose. A common arrangement is as follows: A cross-bar is supported by two uprights; against this cross-bar a number of poles are made to lean; on the back of the poles abundance of fir branches are laid horizontally; and lastly, on the back of the fir branches is another set of leaning poles, in order to make all secure by their weight. A cloth of any kind is made use of to give shelter by an arrangement of this kind. The corners of the cloth should be secured by a simple hitch in the rope, and not by a knot. The former is sufficient for all purposes of security, but the latter will jam, and you may have to injure both cloth and string to get it loose again. It is convenient to pin a skewer in the middle of the sides of the cloth, round the ropes.

Shelter-tents affording an excellent protection for 6 soldiers may be made as follows: Three tent-sticks are fixed into the ground, whose tops are notched; a light cord is then passed round their tops, and fastened into the ground with a peg at each end. Two sheets are then buttoned together and thrown over the cord, then two others, which are buttoned to the previous ones. Lastly, another sheet is thrown over each of the slanting cords, and buttoned to the others. The sides of the tent are, of course, pegged to the ground. There are many modifications in the way of pitching these tents. For want of sticks muskets can be used.

Huts are also frequently used as a means of protection by troops, as there is scarcely any place which does not furnish materials for their construction.

Walls.—Those principally in use are as follows: Skins, canvas, felt, tarpaulin, bark, reed mats, reed walls, straw walls, wattle-and-dab, log huts, fascines or fagots, boards, etc., fastened by malay-hitch, brick, sunburnt or baked, turf, stones, gabions, bags or mats filled with sand or shingle, snow huts, underground huts, tents over holes in earth.

Roofs.—Many of the above list would be perfectly suitable for roofs; in addition may be mentioned slating with flat stones, thatch, sea-weed, and wood shingles.

Straw walls of the following kind are very effective, and they have the advantage of requiring a minimum of string (or substitute for string) in their manufacture. The straw or herbage of almost any description is simply nipped between two pairs of long sticks, which are respectively tied together at the two ends, and at a sufficient number of intermediate places. The whole is neatly squared and trimmed. A few of these would help in finishing the roof or walls of a house. They can be made movable so as to suit the wind, shade, and aspect. Even the hut door can be made on this principle.

Malay hitch is the name given to a wonderfully simple way of attaching together wisps of straw, rods, laths, reeds, planks, poles, or anything of the kind into a secure and flexible mat; the sails used in the far East are made in this way, and the movable decks are made of bamboos joined together with a similar but rather more complicated stitch.

Shenandoah. A river of Virginia, United States, the largest tributary to the Potomac, drains the beautiful and fertile valley between the Blue Ridge and the principal range of the Alleghanies. In the war of 1861-65, this valley was the scene of numerous conflicts, was successively occupied by the opposing armies, and finally laid waste by Gen. Sheridan in the autumn of 1864.

Shield. A piece of defensive armor, borne on the left arm, to ward off the strokes of the sword and of missiles. It has been constantly used from ancient times, through the Middle Ages, till the invention of fire-arms. The large shield worn by the Greeks and Romans (clipeus) was circular, and often ornamented with devices. Another form of shield (scutum) was used by the Roman heavy-armed infantry, square, but bent to encircle the body. The early shield or knightly escutcheon of the Middle Ages was circular in outline, and convex, with a boss in the centre; the body generally of wood, and the rim of metal. There were many other kinds of shields, made of leather, wood, basket-work, etc., employed up to the introduction of fire-arms, when they became practically useless, although some savage nations employ shields at the present time.

Shield. To cover, as with a shield; to cover from danger; to defend; to protect; to secure from assault or injury.

Shift. In a military sense, to change place or station. Hence, to shift quarters.

Shiloh. A locality in Tennessee, a few miles from Pittsburg Landing, situated on the Tennessee River. Here on April 6-7, 1862, a great battle was fought between the Union troops under Grant and the Confederate army under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. The Confederates began the attack, taking the Union forces by surprise, who, after a brave resistance during the first day, were compelled to retire before the victorious Confederates, who, however, lost their gallant chief, Gen. Johnston. The Federals having been reinforced during the night, commenced the attack on the 7th, along the whole of the rebel line, which was resisted gallantly, and the field was stubbornly contested until about 4 o’clock in the afternoon, when the Union army regained their lines of the day before, and drove the enemy off the field. The Confederates retreated to Corinth. The loss of the Confederates was 1735 killed, about 8000 wounded, and 960 missing. Grant’s loss was estimated at something under this number.

Shirvan, or Shirwan. A province of Russia in Asia, in the country of the Caucasus. Shirvan formed until the 6th century a part of the monarchy of Armenia; but was afterwards conquered by the Persians, and made a part of that empire under Khosroo Nooshirvan, who called this country after his name. The rulers of Shirvan carried on many wars with Persia, over which country they repeatedly gained great advantages. Finally, in the end of the 15th century, it was completely brought under Persian sway. The Russians gradually invaded the country, and it was ceded to them in 1812.

Sholapore. Capital of the collectorate of the same name, in British India, in the Presidency of Bombay. It is strongly fortified, and was taken by escalade by a British force under Gen. Pritzter.

Shoomla. See Schumla.

Shoot. To let fly or cause to be driven with force, as an arrow or bullet;—followed by a word denoting the missile, as an object. Also, to discharge, causing a missile to be driven forth;—said of the weapon or instrument, as an object; as, to shoot a gun and the like.

Shooter. One who shoots; an archer; a gunner; a shot. Also, that which shoots; as, a five-shooter.

Shooting-iron. A fire-arm is sometimes so called.

Shoshones, or Snakes. A tribe of North American Indians inhabiting the country between the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains, and from Idaho southward into Utah. They have generally been peaceable; but they collided with the whites on several occasions, which resulted disastrously for them, several of their bands being almost annihilated. Treaties were formed with them on several occasions between 1863 and 1868, and attempts have been made to place them upon reservations. All the property of a dead Shoshone is buried with him, and formerly his favorite wife and horse were killed over the corpse. In 1870 they numbered about 4000 souls.

Shot. See Projectile.

Shot. The act of shooting; discharge of a missile weapon. Also, the flight of a missile weapon, or the distance which it passes from the engine; as, a cannon-shot; a musket-shot, etc. Also, a marksman; one who practices shooting; as, an excellent shot.

Shot. To load with shot over a cartridge; as, to shot the guns.

Shot, Canister-. See Canister-shot.

Shot, Case-. See Case-shot.

Shot, Chain-. See Chain-shot.

Shot, Grape-. See Grape-Shot.

Shot-belt. A belt having a pouch for carrying shot.

Shot-gauge. An instrument for measuring the diameter of round-shot.

Shot-tower. A lofty tower for making shot, by dropping from its summit melted lead, which cools in the descent, and is received into water or other liquid.

Shoulder. The upper part of a blade of a sword. Also, the salient angle of the flank of a bastion. To shoulder, to lay on the shoulder, or to rest anything against it. Hence, to shoulder arms, a word of command in the manual exercise.

Shoulder-belt. See Belts.

Shoulder-knot. An ornamental knot of gold cord on cloth of the same color as the facings of the arm to which the officer belongs, with insignia of rank and number of regiment embroidered on the cloth ground. They are worn on the shoulder by commissioned officers of the army, and are sometimes embroidered. A kind of epaulette.

Shoulder-strap. A narrow strap, 1³/₈ inches wide by 4 inches long, bordered with an embroidery of gold ¹/₄ inch wide. It is worn on the shoulder of a commissioned officer in the army, indicating by a suitable device the rank he holds in the service. See Rank, Insignia of.

Shrapnel. See Projectile, Smooth-bore Projectiles.

Shrewsbury. An ancient town of England, in Shropshire, on the Severn. It was the scene of many military events, the inhabitants always taking an active share in the various contests of the most turbulent period of English history, from the conquest to the civil war. It was taken by Llewellyn the Great, prince of North Wales, in 1215, during the disturbances between King John and the barons. The famous battle of Shrewsbury, in which Henry IV., then prince of Wales, first distinguished himself in the field, and the fiery Hotspur was slain, was fought in 1403.

Shropshire, Battle of. In which the Britons were completely subjugated, and Caractacus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, through the treachery of the queen of the Brigantes, a prisoner to the Romans.

Shunt Gun. A rifled fire-arm having two sets of grooves, down one of which the shot is passed in loading, and along the other of which it passes out when fired, having been shunted from one set to the other, when at the bottom, by turning upon its axis.

Shuternaul. In the East Indies, is a sort of arquebuse, which is fixed upon the back of a camel.

Siberia, or Siberi. A vast territory in Northern Asia, belonging to Russia, and including all the Russian possessions in that continent, with the exception of the Transcaucasian and Armenian provinces. Siberia seems to have been first made known to the Russians by a merchant named Anika Stroganoff; and soon after the conquest of West Siberia was effected by the Cossack Vassili Yermak, an absconded criminal, at the head of a numerous band of wild followers. After Yermak’s death, in 1554, the Russians pursued their conquests eastward, founding Tomsk in 1604, and though they often experienced serious reverses, their progress was rapid, the Sea of Okhotsk being reached in 1639, and Irkutsk founded in 1661. Frequent disturbances have occurred between the Russians and the Chinese and Tartars, which have resulted in the extension southward of the Siberian boundary into Manchuria and Turkestan.

Sicarii (i.e., Assassins). The name given by the Romans to certain savage mountain tribes of the Lebanon, who were, like the Thugs of India, avowed murderers by profession. In the same mountains there existed, at the time of the Crusades, a branch of the fanatic sect called “Assassins,” whose habits resembled those of the Sicarii, and whose name the Crusaders imported into Europe; but these were of Arabian origin.

Sicilian Vespers. The name given to the massacre of the French in Sicily, on the day after Easter (March 30), 1822, the signal for the commencement of which was to be the first stroke of the vesper-bell. On the evening of Easter Monday, the inhabitants of Palermo, enraged (according to the common story) at a gross outrage which was perpetrated by a French soldier on a young Sicilian bride, suddenly rose against their oppressors, the French, and put to the sword every man, woman, and child, and did not even spare those Italians and Sicilians who had married Frenchmen. This example was followed by Messina and other towns, and the massacre soon became general over the island. The French were hunted like wild beasts, and dragged even from the churches, where they vainly thought themselves secure. More than 8000 of them were slain by the Palermitans alone. This event was the final overthrow of Charles of Anjou’s domination in Sicily.

Sicily (anc. Sicilia). The largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, situated between Italy and the coast of Africa, and separated on the northeast from Naples by the Strait of Messina; it is a province of the kingdom of Italy. It was successively occupied by the Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans. For history of the Carthaginians in Sicily, see Carthage. The western part of Sicily was made a Roman province in 241 B.C.; but after the revolt of Syracuse in the second Punic war, and the conquest of that city by Marcellus, the whole island was made a Roman province. On the downfall of the Roman empire, Sicily formed part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths; but it was taken from them by Belisarius in 536, and annexed to the Byzantine empire. In the 8th and 9th centuries the Saracens succeeded in conquering it. The Normans conquered the island in the 11th century under Roger Guiscard, duke of Apulia. It passed successively into the hands of France (see Sicilian Vespers), Germany, and Spain. By the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, it was given to the Duke of Savoy; was added to the kingdom of Naples in 1720. The war of 1734, however, carried on by France and Spain against Austria, transferred the crown of Naples, or, as it was subsequently termed, of the Two Sicilies, to a branch of the royal family of Spain; it remained in their hands until the French revolution led, in 1799, to the expulsion of the royal family from Naples. In 1815, Ferdinand IV. of Naples assumed the title of Ferdinand I. of the Two Sicilies. In 1847, 1848, and 1849, the Sicilians made several attempts, in common with the Neapolitans, to rid themselves of their obnoxious monarch, Ferdinand II., but without success. The Bourbons were, however, driven from the throne by Garibaldi in 1860, and in the same year Sicily was united to the new kingdom of Italy. See Naples.

Sick and Hurt. A board so called, to which the agents, commissaries, etc., belonging to the several military hospitals in Great Britain were responsible.

Sick Call. A military call which is sounded on the drum, bugle, or trumpet, whereby the sick men are warned to attend the hospital.

Sick-flag. The yellow quarantine flag hoisted to prevent communication; whence the term of the yellow flag and yellow admirals. There are two others,—one with a black ball, the other with a square in the centre,—denoting plague or actual diseases.

Sick Report Book. A book in which the names of the men who are sick in a company, troop, etc., are entered, also the names of their diseases, and probable cause of same. This book is signed by one of the company officers to which the men belong, and the attending surgeon.

Sicyonia. A small district in the northeast of Peloponnesus. Its chief town was Sicyon, which was destroyed by Demetrius Poliorcetes. In the Persian war the Sicyonians sent fifteen ships to the battle of Salamis, and 300 hoplites to the battle of PlÆtÆ. In the interval between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars the Sicyonians were twice defeated and their country laid waste by the Athenians,—first under Tolmides in 456 B.C., and again under Pericles in 454 B.C. In the Peloponnesian war they took part with the Spartans.

Side-arms. Such arms as are suspended by the side and attached to the person, such as a bayonet or sword.

Sidon, or Zidon (now Saida, or Seida). For a long time the most powerful, and probably the most ancient, of the cities of Phoenice. It was the chief seat of the maritime power of Phoenice until eclipsed by its own colony, Tyre. It submitted to Shalmanezer at the time of the Assyrian conquest of Syria. In the expedition of Xerxes against Greece the Sidonians furnished the best ships in the whole fleet. Sidon received the great blow to her prosperity in the reign of Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), when the Sidonians, having taken part in the revolt of Phoenice and Cyprus, and being betrayed to Ochus by their own king Tennes, burned themselves with their city, 351 B.C. It was rebuilt. On September 27, 1840, the town was taken from the pasha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of his allies, assisted by some ships of the British squadron, under Admiral Sir Robert Stopford and Commodore Charles Napier.

Siege (Fr. siege, “a seat, a sitting down”). Is the sitting of an army before a hostile town or fortress with the intention of capturing it. With certain elements, the success of a siege is beyond doubt; the result being merely a question of time. These elements are: First, the force of the besiegers shall be sufficient to overcome the besieged in actual combat, man to man. If this be not the case, the besieged, by a sortie, might destroy the opposing works and drive away the besiegers. The second element is, that the place must be thoroughly invested, so that no provisions, reinforcements, or other aliment of war can enter. The third element is, that the besiegers be undisturbed from without. For this it is essential that there shall not be a hostile army in the neighborhood; or if there be, that the operations of the besiegers be protected by a covering army able to cope with the enemy’s force in the field. The ancients executed gigantic works to produce these effects. To complete the investment they built a high and strong wall around the whole fortress; and to render themselves secure from without they built a similar wall, facing outwards, beyond their own position. The first was circumvallation, the second contravallation. It was thus that CÆsar fortified himself while besieging Alexia, and maintained 60,000 men within his ring. In modern warfare it is considered preferable to establish strong posts here and there round the place, and merely sentinels and videttes between. Let us now assume that a fortress of great strength has to be reduced, and that the force of the enemy in the vicinity has been either subdued or held in check by a covering army. By rapid movements the place is at once invested on all sides. This step constitutes merely a blockade; and if time be of little importance, it is a sufficient operation, for hunger must sooner or later cause the fortress to surrender; but if more energetic measures are required, the actual siege must be prosecuted. Advantage is taken of any hidden ground to establish the park of artillery and the engineer’s park; or, if there be none, these parks have to be placed out of range. The besieging force is now encamped just beyond the reach of the guns of the fortress; and their object is to get over the intervening ground and into the works without being torn to pieces by the concentrated fire of the numerous pieces which the defenders can bring to bear on every part. With this view, the place is approached by a series of zigzag trenches so pointed that they cannot be enfiladed by any guns in the fortress. In order to accommodate the forces necessary to protect the workers, the trenches at certain intervals are cut laterally for a great length, partly encircling the place, and affording safe room for a large force with ample battering material. These are called parallels, and they are generally three in number. The distance of the first parallel will increase as small-arms become more deadly; but with smooth-bore muskets it has been usual to break ground at 600 yards from the covered way of the fortress, while in the case of Sebastopol, ground was broken at 2000 yards. The engineers having, by reconnoissances, decided the locality of the parallel, and taken advantage of any inequalities of surface, a strong body of men is sent to the spot soon after nightfall. The attention of the garrison is distracted by false alarms in other directions. Half the men are armed cap-a-pie, and lie down before the proposed parallel; while the other half, bearing each a pick and shovel, and two empty gabions, prepare for work. Each man deposits the gabions where the parapet of the trench should be. He then digs down behind them, filling the gabions with the earth dug out, and after they are filled, throwing it over them, to widen and heighten the parapet. Before daylight the working party is expected to have formed sufficient cover to conceal themselves and the troops protecting them. During the day, they—being concealed from the garrison—widen and complete their parallel, making it of dimensions sufficient to allow of wagons and bodies of troops with guns passing along. During the same night other parties will have been at work at zigzags of approach from the depots out of range to the first parallel, which zigzags will be probably not less than 1000 yards in length. As a rule, the defenders will not expend ammunition on the first parallel, for its extent (often several miles) will render the probability of doing material damage extremely small. For this reason also, the dimensions of the parapet and its solidity are of far less importance in the first parallel than in the more advanced works of attack. The first parallel being completed, the engineers select points near its extremities, at which they erect breastworks to cover bodies of cavalry, who are kept at hand to resist sorties from the garrison. The length of the parallel is usually made sufficient to embrace all the works of two bastions at least. Sites are then chosen for batteries, which are built up of fascines, gabions, sand-bags, and earth. They are placed at points in the parallel formed by the prolongation of the several faces of the bastions, ravelins, and other works of the fortress, which faces the batteries are severally intended to enfilade by a ricochet fire. Other batteries will be formed for a vertical fire of mortars. By these means it is hoped that the traverses on the hostile ramparts will be destroyed, the guns dismounted, and the defenders dispersed, before the final approaches bring the assailants to the covered way. The sappers will now commence their advance towards the points, or salient angles, of the two bastions to be attacked. If, however, the trench were cut straight towards the fortress, its guns could easily destroy the workmen, and enfilade the approach. To prevent this, it is cut into short zigzags, the direction always being to a point a few yards beyond the outmost flanking-works of the garrison. The side of each trench nearest the fortress is protected by gabions and sand-bags, as in the case of the parallel. At intervals short spurs of trench, incipient parallels, are cut, to contain infantry, to act as guards to the sappers. The second parallel is about 300 yards from the enemy’s works, and has to be more strongly formed than the first. It often terminates in a redoubt to hold some light artillery, and a strong force of infantry, who could assail any sortie in flank; or it may run into the first parallel, giving easier access for troops than through the zigzags. The second parallel is revetted with sand-bags, in which loop-holes are left for musketry. After passing the second parallel, the angles of the zigzags become more acute, to prevent enfilading. At about 150 yards, certain demi-parallels are cut, and armed with howitzer-batteries to clear the covered way, while riflemen also act from it. The third parallel is at the foot of the glacis. Thence the place, after being sufficiently battered, is taken by a storming party, who make their way over the glacis; or the covered way is topped by the double sap, which is a safer plan for the array generally, though much more deadly to the sappers. When the crest of the covered way has thus been reached, batteries of heavy artillery will be there established, for the purpose of breaching the walls of the ravelin and bastion; while at the same time miners will first seek to destroy the defenders’ countermines (which would otherwise be likely to send these batteries into the air), and then will excavate a tunnel to the ditch at the foot of the counterscarp. If the breach becomes practicable, a storming party will emerge from this tunnel or gallery, and seek to carry the opposite work by hard fighting. If inner works still subsist, which would tear assailants to pieces, the double sap may be continued across the ditch, if a dry ditch, right up the breach, that counter-batteries may be formed. If the ditch be wet, means must be adopted for a causeway or a bridge. By these means, however obstinate may be the defense, if the besieging force be sufficiently strong, and aid do not arrive from without, the ultimate success of the attack becomes certain. Vauban raised attack to a superiority above defense, first by the introduction of ricochet fire, which sweeps a whole line; and secondly by originating parallels. Before his time, the whole attack was conducted by zigzag approaches, in which the troops actually in front could be but few, and were therefore unable to withstand strong sorties of the garrison, who, in consequence, frequently broke out and destroyed the works of the besiegers, rendering a siege an operation of the most uncertain character.

Siege and Sea-coast Ammunition. See Ordnance, Ammunition for.

Siege Artillery. Is heavy ordnance used for battering purposes, and of too weighty a character to take the field. A siege-train of guns and their ponderous ammunition is usually maintained in the rear of an army, ready to be brought up for use when required. See Artillery.

Siege Carriages. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Siege-train. The number and kind of pieces composing a siege-train must altogether depend on circumstances; but the following general principles may be observed in assigning the proportion of different kinds and calibers, and the relative quantity of other supplies, for a train of 100 pieces:

Guns, about three-fifths the whole number (60); howitzers, one-fourth (25); mortars, 10-inch siege, one-eighth (12), 8-inch siege, 3; Coehorn mortars, in addition to the 100 pieces, 6. Total number of guns, 106.

Carriages, for guns and howitzers, one-fifth spare, 102; for 10-inch mortars, one-sixth spare, 14; for 8-inch mortars, 4.

Mortar-wagons, one for each 10-inch mortar and bed, and for three 8-inch mortars and beds, 14.

Wagons, for transporting implements, intrenching and miners’ tools, laboratory tools and utensils, and other stores, each loaded with about 2700 pounds,—say 140.

Carts, carrying balls, etc., on the march, 50.

Park battery-wagons, fully equipped, 28.

Park forges, fully equipped, 8.

Sling-carts, large, 5.

Sling-carts, hand, 4.

Total number of carriages, 369.

Draught-horses, for each gun and howitzer, with its carriage, 8; for each spare gun-carriage, 6; for each mortar-wagon, 8; for each battery-wagon, 6; for each forge, 6; for each cart, 2; for each sling-cart, large, 2; spare horses, one-tenth. Total, about 1900 horses.

Siemens-Martin Steel. See Ordnance, Metals for, Steel.

Siena, or Sienna. A city of Central Italy, about 30 miles southeast from Florence. In the Middle Ages, Siena became one of the powerful city republics of Italy. It embraced the Ghibelline cause, and in conjunction with the forces of Pisa, defeated the Tuscan Guelfs, in the memorable battle of Monte Aperto (1206). Through intestine quarrels it was subjugated by the emperor Charles V., and given to his son in 1555, who ceded it to Cosmo of Tuscany, 1557. It was incorporated with France, 1808-14.

Sierra Leone. A district of Western Africa, situated on the Atlantic. The British settlement of Sierra Leone was established in 1787, when 400 negroes, with 60 wives, mostly women of bad character, were removed to it from London. The settlement was attacked by the French in September, 1794, and by the natives in February, 1802.

Sight. A small piece of brass or iron fixed to a cannon or a musket, to serve as a point of direction, and to assist the eye in aiming the piece.

Sight. To give the proper elevation and direction to by means of a sight; as, to sight a rifle or cannon. To take sight, to take aim; to look for the purpose of directing a piece of artillery, or the like.

Sight, Angle of. See Pointing.

Sight, Breech-. See Breech-sight.

Sight, Buckhorn-. A form of rear-sight much used in sporting rifles, which takes its name from the curved form of the notch used. This form of notch is now attached to the Springfield rifle in use by U.S. troops.

Sight, Coarse. An aim of a piece in which a considerable portion of the front-sight covers the object.

Sight, Elevating. The rear-sight of a small-arm, arranged to give varying heights of sight for different ranges. There are a variety of forms. The leaf-sight has a number of hinged leaves of different lengths. The one now used in the U.S. army has one hinged leaf. Up to 500 yards, the elevation is given by moving the sighting-piece up a curved incline. Above 500 yards, the leaf is turned up to the perpendicular.

Sight, Fine. An aim in which only the summit of the front-sight is used to get the line of sight.

Sight, Front-. The sight nearest the muzzle of a cannon or small-arm. In military arms, it is set on a short projection which is used also as the bayonet-stud. In cannon of old model, using the tangent scale, or pendulum hausse, the height of the front-sight is made equal to the dispart, making the natural line of sight parallel to the axis of the piece. See Dispart.

Sight, Line of. See Pointing.

Sight, Peep-. A form of rear-sight for small-arms in which the marksman looks through a small hole.

Sight, Plane of. See Pointing.

Sight, Quarter-. The quarter-sights of a cannon are divisions marked on the upper quarters of the base-ring, commencing where it would be intersected by a plane parallel to the axis of the piece, and tangent to the upper surface of the trunnions; used for giving elevations up to three degrees, and especially for pointing at a less elevation than the natural angle of sight. Now obsolete.

Sight, Rear-. The sight nearest the breech of a cannon or small-arm. The term is specially applied to small-arms.

Sight, Telescopic. An apparatus for sighting a cannon or small-arm, consisting of a telescope so mounted as to give varying angles of sight; used especially for long ranges. Rifles with such an attachment are sometimes called telescopic rifles.

Sight, Trunnion. A front-sight fixed on or near the trunnions of a gun.

Sign. An indication or token. In astronomy, one of the twelve divisions of the zodiac.

Sign. To affix a signature; to subscribe.

Sign Language. A pantomimic system of communicating ideas, extensively used by North American Indians. The range of its use is not exactly known, but it is common among all the tribes of the plains and many of those beyond the Rocky Mountains. It is in one sense the court language of the Indians, being the only means of communication between tribes not speaking a common dialect. According to Gen. Marcy, it is accurately used and perfectly understood by all the Indians from the Gila to the Columbia. The same author tells a remarkable story, which seems to show that the system is very nearly, if not exactly, the same as that used in teaching mutes in deaf and dumb asylums.

Signal. Any sign made for marching, fighting, etc. Signals are likewise given by the drum, bugle, and trumpet, during the exercise of a battalion. See Signal Service.

Signal Code. See Signaling.

Signal Equipments. See Equipments, Signal.

Signal Service. In the U.S. army there is one chief signal-officer of the army, with the rank, pay, and emoluments of a brigadier-general, and 400 enlisted men. The chief signal-officer is assisted in his duties by commissioned officers detailed from the line for that purpose. In war times the Signal Service of the U.S. army is equipped to maintain communications by telegraph, signals, etc., between different sections of an army or armies, or between land and sea forces. The enlisted men are thoroughly drilled in the art of field telegraphy. In peace times the Signal Service has a corps of observers stationed in large towns, and important commercial centres, to give timely warning of the approach of storms, rise of rivers, and all other important weather news for the guidance of merchants and others.

Signaling. Is of remote origin. A rude code of signals addressed to the eye is common among the savage races of the present day, and doubtless existed from the earliest times among the historical races. The Indians of the great plains of North America avail themselves for night-signals of fires lighted on elevated points, and of dense clouds of smoke made by suddenly heaping green brush upon a fire for day-signals. Gen. Marcy, in his “Army Life on the Border,” shows that similar signals can be used in this region with great advantage by troops engaged in Indian campaigning. Messages exchanged in this way must be preconcerted. This method of signaling dates from a remote antiquity. Alphabetical signaling—a system in which a written language is conveyed by means of its elements—is first described by Polybius, about 260 B.C., and seems to have been devised, or at least greatly improved by him. He formed a code by arranging the letters of the Greek alphabet in several columns. A given letter was represented by a number of lanterns or torches or other signals, which gave the number of the column, and a second set of signals giving the number of the letter in the column. Capt. John Smith, of Virginia fame, is said to have used the system of Polybius during the siege of Vienna. Alphabetical signaling thus early adopted remained without improvement, and too cumbersome for general application till recent times. Message signaling by torches, flags, and rockets has been generally used, especially at sea, where it has a wide application both in war and commerce. The signals usually represented numbers, which were referred to printed codes. The invention of the magnetic telegraph led to the Morse alphabet, which crystallized the hitherto vague idea of representing letters by the combination and arrangement of a few simple elements. In the general service code of the United States, there are used two elements. These can readily be represented by sounds, motions, numbers, colors, etc. The ordinary method of signaling is by waving a flag by day and a torch at night. See also Telegraph, Field.

Sikh Wars. Two brief but desperate contests waged between the British power in India and the Sikhs in 1845-46, 1848-49, which resulted in the destruction of the latter as an independent nation. The first had its origin in the dissensions which convulsed the Sikh country after the death of Runjeet Singh, and which necessitated the exercise of wary regard on the part of the Calcutta authorities. At length an army of Sikhs, flushed with their triumph over all lawful authority in their own country, crossed the Sutlej, and extended their ravages over British territory; but their advanced guard was met by Sir Henry Hardinge, the governor-general, at the head of four regiments of infantry and one of dragoons, and routed at Mudki with heavy loss. Three days after, the main body, which had in the mean time crossed the river and intrenched itself at Feroze-Shah, was attacked by a larger force of British under Gough and Hardinge, and after a bloody conflict, which lasted two days, also routed. Still undismayed by these reverses, they again intrenched themselves at Sobraon; but a fresh body which had just crossed the Sutlej at Aliwal 19,000 strong with 68 pieces of cannon, was wholly routed and driven across the river by Sir Harry Smith, at the head of 7000 men, with 32 guns; and their main body was soon after similarly dispersed at Sobraon (which see). The British then crossed the river, took Lahore, and restored the authority of the young Maharajah from whom they took the territory between the Beas and the Sutlej; the treaty confirming this settlement being made at Lahore, March 9, 1846. But the internal disturbances in the kingdom of Lahore soon became as active as before, and induced the Maharajah’s prime minister to put the country under the Company’s protection; and a residency with a guard of regular troops was then established in the capital. On April 20, 1848, two British officers were murdered by a Sikh chief, the dewan of Moolraj of Multan; and as it was found to be but a premonitory symptom of a general outbreak, a small force of British under Lieut. Edwardes, aided by a body of Sikhs, under the rajah of Bhawalpur, gallantly attacked the army of Moolraj, which, after a desperate conflict of nine hours, they defeated on June 18, and, both sides in the mean time having received reinforcements, again on July 1; Multan was then laid siege to, but the defection of 5000 auxiliary Sikhs under Shere Singh (the son of the Sirdar Chuttur Singh, the governor of Hazara, who had been for some time in revolt, and had driven the British from his district), compelled the British to retreat. For some time, the British authorities in the Punjab were hampered by a want of military force, and though the Maharajah and much of his army still opposed the Sikh rebels, little reliance could be placed upon most of it. Shere Singh now succeeded in raising his army to 40,000, but was defeated by Lord Gough at Ramnuggur (November 22). The inconsiderate haste of Gough at Chillianwalla, January 13, nearly lost him that great battle, which was saved only by the extreme valor of his soldiers; but amends for this fault were made at Gujerat, where the power of Shere Singh and his allies was completely broken. Meanwhile, the fortress of Multan had, after a protracted bombardment, been captured, and the Company, seeing no other mode of protecting their territories from annoyance by these warlike fanatics, annexed the Punjab, March 29, 1849, and thus terminated the existence of the Sikhs as an independent nation.

Sikhs. The term Sikh, a corruption of the Sanscrit s’ishya, signifying “disciple,” is applied to a community of which the Punjab, in Northern India, constitutes, substantially, the confines. Less commonly, even among themselves, the members of this community are also known as Sinhs (vulgarly Singhs), that is, “Lions,” a title given them by Govind, the last and most influential of their hierarchs. Every name of a Sikh male now terminates with the word Sinh. Originally a body of mere religionists, the Sikhs, from the energy which they developed under repression, and the inducements which they offered as proselytizers, grew by degrees, in strength and numbers, and ended in a formidable nationality. Their originator, Nanak, was born in 1469, in the vicinity of Lahore, and died in 1539, not far from the place of his nativity.

Silence. To cause to cease firing by a vigorous cannonade; as, to silence the batteries of an enemy.

Silesia. A province of the kingdom of Prussia, included in the limits of the new German empire, lies south of the provinces of Brandenburg and Posen. Formerly a province of Poland; was invaded by John of Bohemia in 1325; ceded to him, 1355. In 1740, Frederick II. of Prussia, taking advantage of the helpless condition of Maria Theresa of Austria, laid claims to certain portions of Silesia; and without declaring war, marched into and took possession of the province, maintaining his hold despite the utmost efforts of Austria in 1740-1742, and 1744-1745, called the first and second Silesian wars. After the third Silesian war, better known as the Seven Years’ War (which see), it was finally ceded (1763) to Prussia. It was overrun by the French in 1807.

Silistria. A strongly fortified town of Bulgaria, in Turkey in Europe, on the right bank of the Danube. Here in 971, the Byzantine emperor, John Zimisces, routed the Russians under Sviatoslav. It was taken by the Russians, June 30, 1829, and held some years by them as a pledge for the payment of a large sum of money by the Porte, but was eventually returned. In 1854 it was again besieged by the Russians (30,000 strong), under Prince Paskewitsch, and many assaults were made. The Russian general was compelled to return in consequence of a dangerous contusion. On June 2, Mussa Pasha, the brave and skillful commander of the garrison, was killed. On June 9, the Russians stormed two forts, which were retaken. A grand assault took place on June 13, under Prince Gortschakoff and Gen. Schilders, which was vigorously repelled. On the 15th, the garrison assumed the offensive, crossed the river, defeated the Russians, and destroyed the siege-works. The siege was thus raised, and the Russians commenced their retreat as Omar Pasha was drawing near. The garrison was ably assisted by two British officers, Capt. Butler and Lieut. Nasmyth, the former of whom, after being wounded, died of exhaustion. They were highly praised by Omar Pasha and Lord Hardinge, and Lieut. Nasmyth made a major.

Sill. In fortification, the inner edge of an embrasure.

Silladar Horse. Indian irregular cavalry, raised and maintained on the principle of every man furnishing and maintaining his own horse, arms, equipments, etc., in return for his pay.

Sillon. In fortification, a work raised in the middle of a ditch, to defend it when it is too wide. It has no particular form, and is sometimes made with little bastions, half-moons, and redans, which are lower than the works of the place, but higher than the covert way. It is more frequently called an envelope.

Silures. A powerful people in Britain, inhabiting South Wales, who long offered a formidable resistance to the Romans, and were the only people in the island who at a later time maintained their independence against the Saxons.

Silver Stick. Is the title given to a field-officer of the Life Guards, when on duty at the palace. The silver stick is in waiting for a week, during which period all reports are made through him to the gold stick (which see), and orders from the gold stick pass through to the brigade. In the absence of the gold stick on levees, and drawing-room days, he goes to the royal closet for the parole.

Simancas. A town of Spain, province of Valladolid. Near it Ramirez II. of Leon and Fernando of Castile gained a victory over Abderahman, the Moorish king of Cordova, August 6, 938. The archives of Castile are kept in the fortress of this place, and many valuable documents and records were burnt by the French troops quartered in the town in 1809.

Simonoseki. A town of Japan, at the southwestern extremity of the island of Nipon, and at the entrance of the island sea Suonada. In 1863 three vessels belonging to the American, Dutch, and French governments were fired into from batteries on the shore of Simonoseki Strait; this assault was subsequently returned by French and American war-vessels. In 1864 a combined fleet of Great Britain, France, Holland, and the U.S. men-of-war bombarded and destroyed Simonoseki. The Japanese government had to pay an indemnity of $3,000,000.

Simulation. The vice of counterfeiting illness or defect, for the purpose of being invalided.

Sinalunga. A town of Central Italy, in the province of Sienna. Here Garibaldi was arrested in 1867, whilst attempting to cross into the Papal territory to take command of the volunteers who intended to march upon Rome.

Sinde, or Scinde. (Called also Sindh, or Sindia, and Sinday, from sindhoo, or sindhu, “a collection of waters.”) An extensive territory of British India, included in the presidency of Bombay, comprising the lower course and delta of the Indus. It was traversed by the Greeks under Alexander, about 326 B.C.; conquered by the Persian Mohammedans in the 8th century; tributary to the Ghaznevide dynasty in the 11th century; conquered by Nadir Shah, 1739; reverted to the empire of Delhi after his death, 1747. After various changes of rulers, Sinde was conquered by the English. Sir Charles James Napier, the British envoy, at the head of a considerable military force, marched against the enemy, totally routed them at Meeanee (February 17, 1843), and by defeating the ameers of Mirpur, at Dubba, near Hyderabad (March 24), completed the subjugation of Sinde. For two years afterwards, Napier was actively employed in reducing the marauding tribes of the west, who pillaged the province; and so successful was the “Sheitanka bhai” (Devil’s Brother), as the robber tribes named him, that they were completely rooted out of their fastnesses, and most of them transported to distant regions.

Sine Die (“without day”). When the court or other body rise at the end of a session or term they adjourn sine die. In law this does not preclude further proceedings by the same court.

Single Combat. A contest in which no more than two are engaged.

Single-stick. A cudgel used in fencing or fighting. Also, a game at cudgels, in which he who first brings blood from his adversary’s head is pronounced victor.

Sinister. In heraldry, the left-hand side of a shield. As shields are supposed to be carried in front of the person, the sinister side is that which covers the bearer’s left side, and therefore, lies to the spectator’s right. See Points of the Escutcheon.

SinopÉ (Turk. Sinub). A town of Asiatic Turkey, province of Anatolia, on the southern side of a little promontory running eastward into the Black Sea, 80 miles northwest of Samsun. Ancient SinopÉ was the most important of all the Greek colonies on the shores of the Euxine. Having been destroyed in the invasion of Asia by the Cimmerians, it was restored by a new colony from Miletus, 632 B.C. It remained an independent state till it was taken by Pharnaces I., king of Pontus. After an obstinate resistance to the Romans under Lucullus, it was taken and plundered, and proclaimed a free city. The bay of SinopÉ, which affords the finest anchorage for ships along the whole northern coast of Asiatic Turkey, was the scene of a bloody naval engagement, or rather massacre, November 30, 1853, when a Turkish squadron of 13 ships was suddenly attacked and destroyed (except one vessel which conveyed the tidings to Constantinople) by a Russian fleet of 6 sail of the line, 2 sailing-vessels, and 3 steamers; 4000 lives were lost by fire or drowning, and Osman Pasha, the Turkish admiral, died at Sebastopol of his wounds. In consequence of this event, the Anglo-French fleet entered the Black Sea, January 3, 1854.

Sinople. In heraldry, the same as Vert (which see).

Sinuessa. An ancient town of Italy, on the shore of the Mediterranean, near the confines of Latium and Campania. It was colonized by the Romans in 296 B.C. It suffered much during the invasion of Hannibal, who, in 217, carried his devastations up to the very gates.

Sioux Indians. See Dakota Indians.

Sir. The title of a knight or baronet, which, for distinction’s sake, is always prefixed to the knight’s or baronet’s Christian name, either in speaking or in writing to him.

Siraceni, Siraci, or Siraces. A powerful people of Sarmatia Asiatica, dwelt in the district of Siracene, east of Palus MÆotis, as far as the river Rha (now Volga). The Romans were engaged in a war with them in 50.

Sirmium (now Mitroviz). An important city in Pannonia Inferior, was situated on the left bank of the Savus. It was founded by the Taurisci, and under the Romans became the capital of Pannonia, and the headquarters of all their operations in their wars against the Dacians and the neighboring barbarians. It contained a large manufactory of arms, a spacious forum, an imperial palace, etc. It was the residence of the admiral of the first Flavian fleet on the Danube, and the birthplace of the emperor Probus.

Siscia. An important town in Pannonia Superior, situated upon an island formed by the rivers Savus Colapis and Odra. It was a strongly-fortified place, and was conquered by Tiberius in the reign of Augustus, from which time it became the most important town in all Pannonia.

Sissopoli, or Sizeboli. A town of Turkey in Europe, 80 miles northeast from Adrianople. It was taken by the Russians in 1829.

Sistova, or Schistab, called also Shtab. A town of Turkey in Europe, in Bulgaria, on the right bank of the Danube, 24 miles east-southeast from Nicopolis. A treaty of peace (“peace of Sistova”) was signed here between Austria and Turkey in 1791.

Sit. In a military sense, to take a stationary position; as, to sit before a fortification, to lie encamped for the purpose of besieging it.

Sitka. Called by the Russians New Archangel, is the most important settlement in Alaska. It is situated on the west side of Baranoff Island, in lat. 57° 3'. The population is mainly composed of Indians and Russian half-breeds. A census taken in 1875 made the total number, excluding Indians, 502. For many years Sitka was the headquarters of the Russian American Company. Upon the transfer of the Territory, in 1867, to the United States, Sitka became the headquarters of the military department of Alaska. It remained an army post till 1877, when the garrison was withdrawn. The inhabitants are at present protected from the Indians by a naval vessel.

Sixain. In the Middle Ages, was an order of battle, wherein six battalions being ranged in one line, the second and fifth were made to advance, to form the vanguard; the first and sixth to retire, to form the rear-guard; the third and fourth remaining on the spot, to form the corps or body of the battle.

Six-shooter. A pistol with six barrels, or capable of firing six shots in quick succession; especially a six-barreled or six-chambered revolver.

Size, To. In a military sense, to take the height of men for the purpose of placing them in military array, and of rendering their relative statures more effective.

Skalitz. A small town of Austria, in the northwest of Hungary, near the borders of Moravia, on the left bank of the March. It was stormed by the Prussian general Steinmetz, June 28, 1866; whereby the junction of the divisions of the Prussians was greatly facilitated.

Skean, Skeen, or Skeine. A Celtic word which signifies a knife. It was a weapon in the shape of a small sword or knife, which was worn by the Irish in ancient times.

Skedaddle. To betake one’s self to flight; to run away with precipitation, as if in a panic; to withdraw, as an army, or part of an army, from the presence of an enemy, especially in a hasty or secret manner.

Skeleton. A word applied to regiments that have become reduced in their number of men.

Sketch, Military. The delineation of a small portion of ground for military purposes. The scale is generally larger than that of a map.

Skid. In military language, is any timber which is used as a base to keep one object from resting on another. Thus, a row of cannon in store will be kept from the ground by skids. The term is also applied to the drag which is put on the wheels of carriages in going up hills, to prevent rolling backwards.

Skierniwice. A town of Russia, situated on the Bzura, 38 miles southwest from Warsaw. The French were defeated here, in 1809, by the Russians.

Skinners. A name assumed by a predatory band in the Revolutionary war, who, professing allegiance to the American cause, but influenced by a desire to plunder, roamed over the “neutral ground” lying between the hostile armies, robbing those who refused to take the oath of fidelity.

Skipton. A town of England in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 38 miles west of York. The old castle of Skipton was founded in the time of William the Conqueror; it was a place of great strength in the 17th century, and held out for three years against the Parliamentary forces. In 1649 it was dismantled, but subsequently rebuilt by the Countess of Pembroke.

Skirmish. A slight fight in war; a light combat between detachments from armies which are yet at a considerable distance from each other, or between detached and small parties.

Skirmish. To fight slightly or in small parties; to engage in a skirmish; to act as skirmishers.

Skirmisher. One who skirmishes; one of such troops as are sent forward in advance, or move deployed in loose order on the flanks of a marching column, to discover and intercept hostile forces.

Skiver. A dirk to stab with.

Skottefer. Formerly a name applied to an archer.

Sky-rocket. See Pyrotechny.

Slash. A cut; a wound; also, a cut in cloth. It was formerly used to express the pieces of tape or worsted lace which were placed upon the arms of non-commissioned officers, in order to distinguish them from privates.

Slash. To strike violently and at random with an edged instrument; to lay about one indiscriminately with blows.

Slashed. Cut in stripes or lines. Hence, slashed sleeves and pockets, which are peculiar to the British cavalry, when the officers or men wear long coats.

Slaughter. The extensive and unnecessary destruction of human life; carnage. Also, to visit with great destruction of life; to kill; to slay in battle.

Slavonia, or Sclavonia (called by the native Slavonska). A territory or province of the Austrian empire, formerly incorporated with Hungary, but now forming part of the kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia. The country anciently formed part of the province of Pannonia. During the barbarian migrations, the land was overrun, now by one and now by another tribe, and at length remained in the possession of the Avars. These, however, were conquered about the end of the 8th century by Charlemagne, who settled in their place a tribe of Slavonians from Dalmatia. When, in the 10th century, the Hungarians conquered Pannonia, they also made themselves masters of the whole of Slavonia, except Syrmia, which still remained subject to the Eastern emperors. It was, however, the object of contention, and the scene of bloody conflicts between the Greeks and the Hungarians, until, after various vicissitudes, it was finally ceded to the latter in 1165. From 1526, when it was conquered by the Turks, Slavonia remained in their possession till it was restored to Hungary by the peace of Carlowitz in 1699. In 1734 its size was diminished by the formation of the Military Frontier, and in 1848 it was separated from Hungary.

Slavonians, or Slaves (native name Slowene, or Slowane). The general name of a group of nations belonging to the Aryan family, whose settlements extend from the Elbe to Kamtschatka, and from the Frozen Sea to Ragusa on the Adriatic, the whole of Eastern Europe being almost exclusively occupied by them. The original names of the Slavic tribes seem to have been Winds, or Wends (Venedi), and Serbs. The latter of these names is spoken of by Procopius as the ancient name common to the whole Slavic stock. The Slavonians proper are a handsome, tall, and slender race.

Sleepers. Small joists of timber, which form the foundation for the platform of a battery, and upon which the boards for the flooring are laid. Also, the undermost timbers of a gun or mortar.

Sleets. The parts of a mortar extending from the chamber to the trunnions, to strengthen that part.

Sleeves, Gunner’s. See Implements.

Sliding-rings. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Nomenclature of Artillery Carriage.

Sligo. A maritime county in the northwest of Ireland, and the province of Connaught. It formed part of the kingdom of Connaught previously to the arrival of the English, in the reign of Henry II. Subsequently it came into the possession of one of the family of the O’Connors, kings of Connaught, who was called O’Connor Sligo. After a protracted struggle between the natives and the English, it fell into the hands of the De Burgos, who either by force or treaties had made themselves masters of the greater part of the ancient kingdom of Connaught. It became the theatre of several conflicts in the war against O’Neil, chieftain of Tyrone, in the latter part of Elizabeth’s reign. The most remarkable of these was that with Sir Conyers Clifford, who in attempting to pass into the country from Roscommon with a body of from 1500 to 2000 men, in order to relieve Belleek, was attacked in a defile of the Curlew Mountains by O’Roark, chieftain of Breffney, was himself killed and his troops were driven back with considerable loss. During the civil wars of 1641, the Irish kept possession of the open country until nearly its close, when they were reduced to submission by the Parliamentary forces under Ireton. In the subsequent war of 1688 this country was held by the forces of King James for some time, but ultimately yielded to the victorious arms of William III. The French force which landed at Killalla under Gen. Humbert in 1798, had a severe skirmish at Coloony with the Limerick militia, commanded by Col. Vereker, afterwards Viscount Gort, which ended in the retreat of the latter.

Sligo. The chief town of the above county, and a seaport, situated on the mouth of the river Garrogue. In 1641, it was taken without opposition, by the Parliamentarians, under Sir Charles Coote, who was afterwards attacked by a force collected by the Roman Catholic archbishop of Tuam, which retreated in consequence of an alarm being spread that a large force was approaching to relieve the town. When retiring they were attacked by the Parliamentarian forces, the archbishop killed, and on his person was found the important document exposing the secret communications which took place between Charles I. and the Irish Catholics. Coote subsequently evacuated the town, which thence continued in possession of the royalists till the termination of the war. In 1688 it was taken for King William by the Enniskilleners, who, in turn, were driven out by Gen. Sarsfield; but the place ultimately surrendered to the Earl of Granard.

Sling. A weapon much in use before the introduction of fire-arms, consisted of a piece of leather, with a round hole in the middle, and two cords of about a yard in length. A round pebble being hung in the leather by cords, the latter were held firmly in the right hand, and swung rapidly round. When the stone had attained great speed, one string was disengaged, on which the stone flew off at a tangent, its initial velocity being the same as it had at the last moment of revolution. This velocity gives far greater range and force than could be imparted in mere throwing. The men who used this weapon were called slingers.

Sling. A leather strap attached to a musket, serving to support it across the soldier’s back, as occasion may require.

Sling-cart. See Hand Sling-cart.

Slingers. See Sling.

Slope Arms. A word of command in the British service, for placing the musket upon the shoulder with the butt advanced. In marches, soldiers are almost invariably permitted to slope arms.

Slope, Interior. See Interior Slope.

Slopes. The approaches to the crest of heights are by slopes, which may be either gentle or steep. When these slopes are gentle, the fire from the crest can be made an effective one by reason of its “grazing action.” Especially will it be so with artillery fire when properly directed. When slopes are quite steep, the fire will be a plunging one, and will be apt to pass over the heads of the attacking troops. Especially will this be the case with the fire of artillery.

Sloping Swords. In the British service, is a position of the sword among cavalry, when the back of the blade rests on the hollow of the right shoulder, the hilt advanced.

Slow Time. The same as common time, by which troops on foot march at the rate of ninety steps per minute.

Slow-match. See Laboratory Stores.

Slugs. Cylindrical or cubical pieces of metal, discharged from a gun.

Slur-bow. A species of cross-bow formerly used for discharging fire and arrows.

Smalcald. See Schmalkald, League of.

Small-arms. Are portable fire-arms known as muskets, rifles, carbines, pistols, etc., and were first invented about the middle of the 14th century. At first they consisted simply of a tube of iron or copper, fired from a stand or support. They were loaded with leaden balls, and were touched off by a lighted match held in the hand. They weighed from 25 to 75 pounds, and consequently two men were required to serve them. The difficulty of loading these weapons, and the uncertainty of their effects, as regards range and accuracy, prevented them from coming rapidly into use, and the cross-bow was for a long time retained as the principal projectile weapon for infantry. The difficulty of aiming hand-cannon, arising from their great weight, was in a measure overcome by making them shorter, and supporting them on a tripod, by means of trunnions which rested on forks. This arm was called an arquebuse (which see). The next improvement in the arquebuse was to make it lighter, and inclose it in a piece of wood called the stock, the butt of which was pressed against the left shoulder, while the right hand applied the match to the vent. It was still very heavy, and in aiming, the muzzle rested in the crotch of a fork placed in the ground. To give steadiness to the aim while applying the match to the priming, a species of lock was next devised, which consisted of a lever holding at its extremity a lighted match. In firing, the lever was pressed down with the finger until the lighted end of the match touched the priming. This apparatus, known as the serpentine, continued in use until it was replaced by the wheel-lock, which was invented in Nuremburg, in 1517. (See Wheel-lock.) The petronel was a wheel-lock arquebuse of larger caliber and lighter weight than its predecessors. See Petronel.

Musket.—The musket was first introduced by the Spaniards, under Charles V. The original caliber of the musket was such that 8 round bullets weighed a pound; the piece was, consequently, so heavy that it was necessary to fire it from a forked rest inserted in the ground. The size of the bore was finally reduced to 18 bullets to the pound; and from this arm was derived the late smooth-bored rifle.

Rifle.—It is generally stated that the rifle was invented by Gaspard Zoller, of Vienna, and that it first made its appearance at a target-practice at Leipsic, in 1498. The first rifle-grooves were made parallel to the axis of the bore, for the purpose of diminishing the friction of loading forced or tightly-fitting bullets. It was accidentally discovered, however, that spiral grooves gave greater accuracy to the flight of the projectile, but the science of the day was unable to assign a reason for this superiority, and the form, number, and twist of the grooves depended on the caprice of individual gunmakers. About 1600, the rifle began to be used as a military weapon for firing spherical bullets. In 1729, it was found that good results could be attained by using oblong projectiles of elliptical form. The great difficulty, however, of loading the rifle, which was ordinarily accomplished by the blows of a mallet on a stout iron ramrod, prevented it from being generally used in regular warfare. The improvements which have been made of late years have entirely overcome this difficulty, and rifles have now superseded the smooth-bored arms.

Muzzle-loading Guns.—The following are among the most prominent muzzle-loading guns in use prior to 1860:

The Lancaster Elliptic Rifle.—So called, although the elliptical rifle is very old. The bore in this rifle is slightly oblate; the twist found, by experience, to be most advantageous is one turn in 52 inches, the approved diameter of the bore .498 inch, the length of the barrel being 32 inches. An eccentricity of .01 inch in half an inch is found sufficient to make the bullet spin on its axis to the extreme verge of its flight. The length of the bullet found to answer best with these rifles is 2¹/₄ diameters in length, with a windage of four- or five-thousandths of an inch.

Nuthall’s Rifle.—In the ordinary mode of grooving rifles, sharp angles are left between the groove and “land” (those parts of the smooth-bore left in their original state after the process of grooving has been completed). These create great friction with the projectile, both in loading and discharging. Maj. Nuthall removes these objections by rounding off the “lands” into the grooves, that is, making them a series of convex and concave curves, the bore assuming a beautiful appearance to the eye, for the smoothness and evenness with which the lands and grooves blend into each other.

Enfield Rifle.—This rifle has three grooves, taking one complete turn in 78 inches, firing a bullet resembling the MiniÉ, except that a wooden cup was substituted for one of iron. Its diameter is .577 of an inch, its bullet weighs 530 grains, and ranges with great accuracy for 800 yards, and fairly up to 1100. There are also Gen. Boileau’s rifle, and some others which our space will not admit of our noticing. The extraordinary efficacy of the breech-loading principles, especially in combination, have, however, only been very prominent during the wars of the last few years, and notably in the Prussian campaign of 1864 against Denmark, and of 1866 against Austria. The successes of the Prussian arms were attributed in no small degree to the rapidity with which their troops could fire as compared with the enemy. They had in greater or less numbers borne these same rifles since 1835, but these were the first opportunities of using them in warfare. To all other powers, whose men still carried muzzle-loading rifles, and who had debated, without practical result, for years past the question of armament with breech-loaders, soldiers thus armed appeared irresistible. From July, 1866, to the present moment, the hammer and the anvil have been busy throughout the civilized world in making the weapons of death yet more deadly. Scarcely two countries seem to have adopted the same plan: each nation has elaborated a system from among its own inventors. Those possessing no great reserve of rifles have prepared new arms, but the majority of governments have been content, in the first instance, to convert their existing stock into needle-firing breech-loaders of as good a construction as circumstances would permit. The advantage of breech-loading is obvious: to be able to insert the charge at the head of the barrel instead of at its mouth, is to save time and avoid exposure to hostile fire during the operation of loading and ramming home, which of necessity involves considerable outstretching of the limbs. The great condition of success is, that the bullet shall be propelled with equal force and with equal safety to the rifleman, as from the muzzle-loader. When a charge is ignited the constituents of the gunpowder, assuming a gaseous condition under the heat engendered, expand into a volume of light gas many times greater in bulk than the powder before occupied. On the amount of this expansion, and its sudden action on the projectile, the force of the shot depends. Any joint in the breech-piece through which a portion of this gas can escape, without having imparted its thrust to the ball, tends, therefore, to lessen the range and penetration; while the shock of the explosion falling more severely on this than on any other part of the barrel, tends yet more to dislocate the breech-piece and diminish the closeness of the joint’s fit. In weapons which do not call for a long range, as revolvers and pistols, a perceptible interval is left between the chamber and barrel, through which much gas escapes; but in rifles, which have range and penetration as principal objects, there is prima facie ground for preferring a muzzle-loader. The gas, however, is far from pure as generated in the barrel, for much water is produced and held in suspension, while there is also a solid residuum consisting of unburned materials of the powder. In the muzzle-loader, these clog (or, technically, foul) the barrel, filling the grooves and rendering the ramming home of succeeding charges more and more difficult. The effect is, that a solid mass of unburned matter is gradually forced by ramming into the head of the barrel, destroying the accuracy and usefulness of the weapon. In the breech-loader, this solid deposit must be provided against both ways. The backward throw on firing (for, of course, the charge explodes with equal power in every direction) tends to force it into the mechanism of the joints, preventing their proper fit, and continually augmenting the escape of gas. On the other hand, the deposit is prevented from accumulating in the barrel by the fact that succeeding charges are inserted behind it, and, by their explosion, force the solid matters out at the muzzle. Thus, in the matter of fouling, if the gases can be prevented from blocking up the breech-apparatus, the breech-loader has a great advantage over the muzzle-loader. This protection of the breech-apparatus is the problem which inventors have had to solve. The following are the most notable among breech-loading arms:

The American Springfield, model of 1873. The barrel is of “low steel,” caliber .45 inch, rifled with three concentric grooves of equal widths with the lands, and of the uniform depth of .005 of an inch, and uniform twist of one complete turn in 22 inches. The lock-plate is 0.175 inch thick, and let in flush. The exterior metal-work is browned. An open swivel is attached to the upper band, for stacking arms, instead of locking bayonets, us heretofore; also a “trowel bayonet” and “intrenching tool.” Length of rifle-barrel including receiver, 36 inches; carbine, 25.4 inches. Length of rifle-bayonet, 18 inches; crook of stock, 2¹/₂ inches, and distance from butt to trigger, 13¹/₂ inches. Total length of rifle, without bayonet, 51.9; of carbine, 41.3 inches; weight of rifle without bayonet, 8.38 pounds; of carbine, 6.87 pounds. Trigger adjusted to pull at 6 to 8 pounds.

Remington.—This is a magazine-gun, and belongs to that system in which a fixed chamber is closed by a bolt, by direct action, and in which the lock is concealed. The magazine is in the tip-stock, and carries 8 cartridges, which are brought into the chamber by the action of the trigger; the mechanism is so arranged that no more than one cartridge can enter the chamber at the same time. The magazine is loaded from below, and in any position of the bolt.

Sharps.—See Sharps Rifle.

Spencer.—A magazine-gun, holding 7 cartridges which are brought one by one into the chamber by a movement of the trigger-guard as a lever, which at the same time throws out the shell of the exploded cartridge. A new magazine can be inserted whenever the cartridges have been exhausted, or the magazine may be shut off and the rifle used as a single breech-loader.

Winchester.—Same pattern as the Spencer.

Snider Rifle.—So called from its inventor, the essential features of which are that the breech-block revolves around an axis on the right of and parallel to the axis of the bore, and the firing-pin passes obliquely from the nose of the hammer, through the breech-block, to the centre of the base of the cartridge. This was the first form of breech-loaders adopted by the British government, which in 1866 directed that the old Enfield muzzle-loaders should be altered to breech-loaders upon this system.

Martini-Henry.—Adopted by the British government, has a breech-loading apparatus on the Martini system united to a barrel rifled on the system of Henry, a gunmaker of Scotland. Martini, a Swiss, derived his system of breech-loading from the Peabody system of the United States by dispensing with the independent outside lock and substituting therefor a spiral-spring firing-bolt or striker, inclosed in the breech-block; the number of grooves is seven; in shape they are flat at the bottom; the lands are narrow, having the appearance of sharp ribs, which are designed to take a firm hold of the bullet. It is understood that these grooves are made somewhat deeper at the breech than at the muzzle. The twist is one turn in 22 inches. There is a brass collar around the head of the ramrod to prevent injury to the bore in wiping out. The weight of the rifle is 8¹/₂ pounds; of bayonet 14¹/₂ ounces. The weight of rifle with bayonet attached 9 pounds 11 ounces.

Mauser Rifle.—This rifle is used in Prussia, and is a modification of the ChassÉpot system, by which it is adapted to the use of the metallic gas-check cartridge. It was invented in 1871. The mechanism of this gun is much simpler than the needle-gun, and has a longer range.

ChassÉpot Rifle.—The ChassÉpot rifle is used in France, and was introduced shortly after the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. In its principal features it resembled the Prussian needle-gun, inasmuch as the breech was closed with a sliding-bolt, and it fired a self-primed paper-case cartridge, which was ignited by a needle impelled by a spiral spring. Unlike the needle-gun, however, it was provided with a gas-check, which was of the form of a thick india-rubber disk or packing, attached to the end of the breech-bolt, and it possessed the modern improvements of reduced caliber and rapid twist of the rifle-grooves for obtaining great range and accuracy of fire. The ChassÉpot was the principal arm used by the French army during the German war. Since that time efforts have been made to adapt it to fire the modern metallic-case cartridge. The plan of alteration to this end adopted by the French authorities is that submitted by Capt. Gras of the French artillery committee. The length of the bore, including the chamber, is 32.28 inches; the length of the complete arm, without sabre-bayonet, is 50.8 inches; and with the bayonet it is about 72.0 inches. The weight with the bayonet is 10.3 pounds; without the bayonet, 8.9 pounds. The grooves are four in number, and of a width equal to that of the lands; the depth of the grooves is 0.0118 inch; the twist is one turn in 21.6 inches, and is from right to left instead of from left to right, according to the usual practice. The pull on the trigger is thought to disturb the aim by carrying the muzzle of the arm slightly to the right; the object of grooving the barrel to the left is to correct this disturbance by the drift which follows the direction of the twist. The initial velocity is stated to be 420 metres (about 1377 feet), and the effective range extends to 1700 yards, about one mile. The rapidity of fire is 15 times per minute. The Russian army is armed with two patterns of Berdan breech-loaders. One lot of 30,000, in which the breech-block swings upward and forward, was manufactured by the Colt’s Patent Fire-Arms Company, Hartford, Conn., and a second lot of 30,000 on a sliding breech-bolt system made in Birmingham, England. The latter-named arm was adopted for the entire Russian army. The following are the principal dimensions: Diameter of bore (caliber), 0.42 inch; length of barrel, 30.43 inches; total length of arm without bayonet, 50.38 inches; length of arm with bayonet, 70.38 inches; number of grooves, 6; twist, one turn in 20 inches; weight of arm with bayonet, 9.75 pounds.

Vetterlin Rifle.—Is a repeating rifle used in the Swiss service, and is a Swiss invention, the peculiarity of which is the union of a cartridge magazine with a sliding-bolt-breech system. The following are the principal dimensions: Caliber, 0.41 inch; number of grooves, 4; depth of grooves, 0.0086 inch; width of grooves, 0.0177 inch; twist of grooves, 26 inches; length of barrel, 33.14 inches; length of arm without bayonet, 51.18 inches; length of arm with bayonet, 70.08 inches; weight of arm without bayonet, 10.14 pounds; with bayonet, 11.02; weight of rifle with magazine filled, 12.12 pounds; initial velocity, 1341 feet.

Werndl Rifle.—Adopted in the Austrian service in place of the alteration of Wanzl, is the invention of Joseph Werndl, a gun manufacturer of Styria, and is applied to muskets, carbines, and pistols. The breech-block in this system vibrates around an axis parallel to and below the axis of the bore prolonged to the rear of the chamber. The barrel of the musket is made of cast steel. Its length is 33.14 inches, including the chamber, which is 2.07 inches. Its weight is 3.83 pounds. The rifle-grooves are six in number, and their depth is 0.007 inch. The lands are 0.07 inch wide, and the grooves 0.15 inch. The twist is one turn in 28.5 inches. The total length of arm, including sabre-bayonet, 73.0 inches, while its weight, including the bayonet, is about 11.5 pounds; without the bayonet the length is 50.5 inches, and the weight 9.85 pounds. The barrel, bands, and sights are browned.

Werder Rifle.—Adopted in 1869 for the Bavarian army, is the invention of J. L. Werder of Nuremberg, and is known as the Werder system. It belongs to the class of falling breech-blocks, of which the Peabody may be considered the exponent in this country. It differs, however, from this and most other guns of this class, as the breech-block is opened and closed by the hammer instead of the lever-guard, giving, as claimed, greater safety and ease of manipulation, especially when the soldier loads lying on the ground. The rifle-grooves are four in number, their depth is 0.0075, and twist is one turn in 22 inches. The diameter of the bore is 0.435; the length of the barrel, including chamber, but exclusive of breech-frame, is 35.0; the weight of the arm without bayonet, 9.75 pounds. The breech-loaders with and without the needle-arrangement are too numerous to mention, but the most notable are given above. See Magazine Guns, and Lyman’s Multi-charge Gun.

Revolver.—In fire-arms, is a weapon which, by means of a revolving breech, or revolving barrels, can be made to fire more than once without reloading. The invention is very far from new, specimens, with even the present system of rotation, being still in existence, which were manufactured at the beginning of the 17th century. Probably the first revolver to suggest itself was one in which several barrels were mounted on an axis, and made to revolve by the action of the trigger, so that their powder-pans came successively under the action of the lock. This principle was never entirely abandoned, and in the reign of George IV. was produced a pistol called the “Mariette,” which had from 4 to 24 small barrels bored in a solid mass of metal, made to revolve as the trigger was drawn back. At close quarters, such a pistol would doubtless have been useful; but its great weight and cumbrous mechanism rendered aim extremely unsteady. Contemporaneously from the first with the revolving barrels, went the formation of a revolving chamber or breech, pierced with several cylindrical apertures to receive the charges. Being made to revolve, each motion brought a chamber into line with the one barrel, common to all, whereupon the weapon was ready for use. Numerous patents for this principle have been taken out, including one by the celebrated Marquis of Worcester in 1661. Various improvements were made, especially in the mode of causing revolution; an American patented such a weapon in the United States and England about 1818. In 1835, Col. Samuel Colt brought to a conclusion experiments of some years’ standing, and patented his world-renowned Colt’s revolver, which was a great advance on all previous attempts, and is substantially still in use. The fame attached to Colt’s revolvers renders them so well known as to require but little introduction necessary. This make is now extensively used in the United States, and indeed in almost every country of the world, and seems not to lose favor anywhere. The barrel is rifle-bored. The lever-ramrod renders wadding or patch unnecessary, and secures the charge against moisture, or becoming loose by rough handling or hard riding. The hammer, when at full cock, forms the sight by which to take aim, and is readily raised at full cock by the thumb, with one hand. The movements of the revolving chamber and hammer are ingeniously arranged and combined. The breech, containing six cylindrical cells for holding the powder and ball, moves one-sixth of a revolution at a time; it can only be fired when the chamber and the barrel are in a direct line. The base of the cylinder being cut externally into a circular ratchet of six teeth (the lever which moves the ratchet being attached to the hammer); as the hammer is raised in the act of cocking, the cylinder is made to revolve, and to revolve in one direction only; while the hammer is falling the chamber is firmly held in position by a lever fitted for the purpose; when the hammer is raised the lever is removed, and the chamber is released. So long as the hammer remains at half-cock, the chamber is free and can be loaded at pleasure. Col. Colt has improved on this patent. Revolvers made by Remington, Smith & Wesson, Daw, Adams & Dean, and others, are mostly on the same principle as the Colt.

Smart-money. In England, the money which was paid by the person who had taken the enlisting money, in order to get released from an engagement entered into previous to a regular enlistment. Also, money allowed to soldiers or sailors in the British service for wounds or injuries received.

Smite. To destroy the life of by beating, or by weapons of any kind; to slay by a blow; to kill; as, to smite one with the sword, or with an arrow or other weapon. Also, to beat or put to rout in battle; to destroy or overthrow by war.

Smoke-ball. Is a hollow sphere similar to a light-ball, and filled with a composition which emits a dense, nauseous smoke; it is employed to suffocate the enemy’s miners when at work, or to conceal one’s own operations; it burns from 25 to 30 minutes.

Smolensk. A fortified town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 250 miles west-southwest from Moscow. The French in a most sanguinary engagement here were three times repulsed, but ultimately succeeded in entering Smolensk, and found the city which had been bombarded burning and partly in ruins, August 16-17, 1812. Barclay de Tolly, the Russian commander-in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor Alexander because he retreated after the battle, and Kutusoff succeeded to the command.

Smooth-bore Projectile. See Projectile, Spherical Projectiles.

Smyrna. One of the most ancient and important cities of Asia Minor, and the only one of the Greek cities on the western coast which has retained its name and importance to the present day. At an early period it fell into the hands of the Ionians of Colophon; it became a member of the Panionic Confederacy. Its early history is obscure; but thus much is clear, however, that at some period the old city of Smyrna, which stood on the northeast side of the Hermaean Gulf (now the Gulf of Smyrna), was abandoned, and that it was succeeded by a new city, on the southeast side of the same gulf (the present site), which is said to have been built by Antigonus. It had a magnificent harbor, the largest ships could lie alongside the quays. In the civil wars it was taken and partly destroyed by Dolabella, but it soon recovered. In the successive wars under the Eastern empire it was frequently much injured, but always recovered. After various vicissitudes during the Middle Ages, the city fell finally into the hands of the Turks, in whose possession it has since remained.

Snaffle-bit. A kind of slender bit, having a joint in the part to be placed in the mouth.

Snaphance. An old musket of the 17th and first half of the 18th centuries, called also asnaphan. See Gun.

Snare-drum. The smaller, common military drum, as distinguished from the bass-drum;—so called because (in order to render it more resonant) there is stretched across its lower head a catgut string, or collection of strings.

Snick and Snee. A combat with knives such as the Dutch carry.

Snider Rifle. See Small-arms.

Soanes. A powerful people of the Caucasus, governed by a king who could bring 200,000 soldiers into the field. They are also called Suani and Suanocolchi.

Sobraon. A town of Northwest India, on the left bank of the Sutlej, 25 miles east-northeast of Ferozpur (or Ferozepoore), near which, on February 10, 1846, a most obstinate battle was fought between the British army under Sir Hugh Gough and a Sikh force numbering about 35,000. The Sikhs were strongly intrenched, and vigorously resisted the attacks of their opponents, but the courage and perseverance of the latter ultimately gave them the mastery; the various earthworks were captured in succession, and the Sikhs driven across the Sutlej, with a loss in killed, wounded, and drowned of 13,000. Gough immediately followed up his victory by crossing into the Punjab in pursuit of the fleeing enemy.

Social War. A celebrated contest between the Socii of Italy and the city of Rome, which lasted from 91 B.C. till 89, and was the most formidable war ever carried on in Italy during the dominion of the Romans. It arose from the desire of the Italians to be placed on a footing of equality with the Romans. Nearly 300,000 lives were sacrificed in the contest, and numerous towns destroyed. The senate of Rome were at length compelled to grant the franchise and all other privileges, which they at first absolutely refused to the Italians.

Socket. Generally means any hollow pipe that receives something inserted.

Socket of a Bayonet. The round hollow near the bent or heel of a bayonet, into which the muzzle of a fire-arm is received when the bayonet is fixed.

Sogdiana. The northeastern province of the ancient Persian empire, separated on the south from Bactriana and Margiana by the upper course of the Oxus; on the east and north from Scythia by the Sogdii Comedarum and Oxii Mountains, and by the upper course of the Iaxartes, and bounded on the northwest by the great deserts east of the Sea of Aral. It was conquered by Cyrus, and afterwards by Alexander. After the Macedonian conquest it was subject to the kings, first of Syria and then of Bactria, till it was overrun by the barbarians. The natives of the country were a wild, warlike people of the great Arian race, resembling the Bactrians in their character and customs.

Soissons (anc. Noviodunum, subsequently Augusta Suessonum). A town of France, in the department of Aisne, on the banks of the river Aisne, about 65 miles northeast of Paris. It was subdued by Julius CÆsar, 57 B.C.; held by Syagrius, after his father Ægidius, till his defeat by Clovis, 486.

Solaks. Were bowmen or archers belonging to the personal guard of the grand seignor. They were always selected from the most expert bowmen that were among the Janissaries. Their only arms were the sabre, bow, and arrows.

Soldan. The title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, which they bore in their provinces and armies. These officers afterwards made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of King Noureddin of Damascus, was the first that took upon him this title in Egypt, 1165, after having killed the caliph Caym.

Soldier. Is one who enters into an obligation to some chieftain or government to devote for a specified period his whole energies, and even if necessary his life itself, to the furtherance of the policy of that chief or government. The consideration may be immediate pay, or prospective reward; or the contract may be merely an act of loyal devotion. The acknowledgment of the service by the employer constitutes the man a recognized soldier, and empowers him to take life in open warfare, without being liable to the penalties of an assassin and a robber. The fact of being mercenary—that is, of receiving wages for killing and being killed—does not render a soldier’s trade less honorable. He bears arms that others may be able to do without them; he is precluded by the exigencies of military training from maintaining himself by peaceful occupation; and it is therefore but fair that those whom he protects should support him, and give him, over and above actual maintenance, reasonable wages for the continual risk of his life. If a man willingly enlist himself as a soldier in what he believes to be an unrighteous cause, it is an act of moral turpitude; but when once enlisted, the soldier ceases to be morally responsible for the justice or iniquity of the war he wages; that rests with his employer. Obedience, implicit and entire, is his sole virtue. The maxim is, “The military force never deliberates, but always obeys.” Brother soldier is a term of affection which is commonly used by one who serves under the same banners, and fights for the same cause, with another. In a more extensive signification, it means any military man with respect to another.

Soldier of Fortune. During the frequent wars which occurred in Italy, before the military profession became so generally prevalent in Europe, it was usual for men of enterprise and reputation to offer their services to the different states that were engaged. They were originally called condottieri, or leaders of reputation. They afterwards extended their sphere of action, and under the title of soldiers of fortune, sought for employment in every country or state that would pay them.

Soldiering. The estate of being a soldier; the occupation of a soldier.

Soldierly. Like, or becoming, a real soldier; brave; martial; heroic; honorable.

Soldiers’ Friend. A term in the military service which is generally applied to such officers as pay the strictest attention to their men; granting them reasonable indulgences without injuring the service; seeing their wants relieved; and, above all things, enforcing just dealings and the most prompt settlements. There is much confidence in the multitude when they are justly dealt by, and every soldier fights well under the guidance of a soldiers’ friend.

Soldiers’ Homes. In the United States, are homes of a permanent character established by the general government for the benefit of old soldiers, or men who were disabled in the military service of their country. The “Soldiers’ Home,” which is situated about 3¹/₂ miles from the Capitol of Washington, was founded in compliance with provisions of act of Congress dated March 3, 1851. It contains about 470 acres, some of which is cultivated for garden produce, flowers, etc., and the remainder forms a magnificent park. In 1848, Gen. Scott forwarded to the Secretary of War the sum of $118,791.19, levied on Mexico during the war with that country, for the benefit of the soldiers of the U.S. army, and he requested that this amount might be set aside for the construction of an army asylum. The following funds are also set apart for the maintenance of the “Soldiers’ Home”: All stoppages or fines adjudged against soldiers by sentence of courts-martial, over and above any amount that may be due for the reimbursement of government or individuals; all forfeitures on account of desertion; and all moneys belonging to the estate of deceased soldiers, which are now or may hereafter be unclaimed for the period of three years subsequent to the death of said soldier or soldiers, to be repaid by the commissioners of the institution, upon the demand of the heirs or legal representatives of the deceased; also the sum of 12¹/₂ cents per month is stopped from every non-commissioned officer, musician, artificer, and private of the U.S. army. The following persons, members of the “Soldiers’ Home,” are entitled to the rights and benefits of the institution, viz.: Every soldier of the army of the United States who has served, or may serve, honestly and faithfully, twenty years in the same, and every discharged soldier, who has suffered by reason of disease or wounds incurred in the service and in the line of his duty, rendering him incapable of further military service, if such disability has not been occasioned by his own misconduct. No deserter, mutineer, or habitual drunkard is received into the institution without such evidence of subsequent service, good conduct, and reformation of character as the commissioners may deem sufficient to authorize his admission. There are three commissioners designated to administer the affairs of the asylum, namely, the commissary-general of subsistence, the surgeon-general, and the adjutant-general, whose duty it is to examine and audit the accounts of the treasurer quarter-yearly, and to visit and inspect the “Home” at least once in every month. The officers of the institution consist of a governor, a deputy governor, and a secretary and treasurer, who, with a medical officer, are detailed from the active or retired list of the army. Inmates of this institution receive a small allowance of pocket-money per month, and they are also paid for any labor they can perform. About $8 per month is allowed to old soldiers, who, having families, are permitted to live elsewhere than at the “Home.” There was also incorporated by the act of Congress dated March 3, 1865, “the National Asylum for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers,” which consists of the central asylum, at Dayton, Ohio, the eastern branch at Augusta, Me., and the northwestern branch at Milwaukee, Wis. This asylum is kept up by annual appropriations of Congress. There are similar institutions for old and disabled soldiers in Europe. See Asylum, Royal Military, and HÔtel des Invalides.

Soldiers’ Thigh. When tight breeches were worn in the British army, the term had its peculiar military application, from the notorious poverty of army men. Soldiers’ thigh figuratively meant an empty purse; or speaking familiarly, a pair of breeches that sit close and look smooth, because the pockets have nothing in them.

Soldiership. A term which is rarely used; it means military qualities; military character or state; martial skill; behavior becoming a soldier.

Soldiery. A body of soldiers collectively considered; the military. “A camp of faithful soldiery.”

Solduriers (Fr.). A term anciently used among the French, to signify those persons who attached themselves to some particular general or military knight, whose fortunes they followed, in consequence of being paid and supported by him.

Sole. The bottom or lower surface of an embrasure.

Solferino. A village of Northern Italy, province of Brescia, 20 miles northeast from Mantua. Here, in 1796, the French conquered the Austrians, and on June 24, 1859, it was again the scene of an overwhelming victory obtained by the French and Italians over the Austrians.

Soli. An ancient town of Asia Minor, on the coast of Cilicia. In the war between Mithridates and the Romans, Soli was destroyed by Tigranes, but subsequently rebuilt by Pompey, who settled there many of the pirates whom he had captured, and called the town after himself, Pompeiapolis.

Solicinium. A town in Roman Germany, on the mountain Pirus, where Valentinian gained a victory over the Alemanni in 369, probably in the neighborhood of the modern Heidelberg.

Solid Shot. See Projectile.

Solid Square. A square body of troops; a body in which the ranks and files are equal.

Sollerets (Fr.). Armor for the feet.

Somma. A town of Italy, Lombardy, not far from the Tecino, near the foot of Lake Maggiore, 27 miles northwest of Milan. It was near Somma that Hannibal gained his first victory on Italian ground, completely defeating the Romans under Scipio, 218 B.C.

Somnauth, or Somnath-Putten. A town of Guzerat, in Hindostan, is situated on the southwest coast of the peninsula of Kattywar. In 1024, Mahmud of Ghizni, the zealous idol-destroyer, appeared before Somnauth, drove its defenders to take refuge in the temple, where they defended themselves with such valor that Mahmud’s army was forced to retreat; but the subsequent rout of two Hindu armies which had advanced to the aid of the sacred city so dispirited the defenders, that Somnauth was immediately surrendered, the idol destroyed, and the enormous wealth of the temple carried off, along with the gates of the temple.

Songhay. A former kingdom of Africa. In 1468-1469 the ruler of Songhay marched upon Timbuctoo, and conquered the town and surrounding state. Under HÁj Mohammed Askia, who came into power at the end of the 15th century, and who was perhaps the greatest sovereign that ever ruled over Negroland, the Songhay empire extended from Hausa almost to the shores of the Atlantic, and from lat. 12° N. to the confines of Morocco. After many years of revolution and civil war, this great empire became a province of Morocco in 1607.

Sonthals. A tribe of Northern India, brought to Bengal about 1830, where they prospered, till, partly from the instigation of a fanatic, and partly from the exactions of money-lenders, they broke out into rebellion in July, 1855, and committed fearful outrages. They were quite subdued early in 1856, and many were removed to the newly-conquered province of Pegu.

Sooloo, or Suluk Islands. A group of the East Indian Archipelago. The sultan of Sooloo and his subordinate chiefs were formerly notorious for their piracy, and kept up a large fleet for that purpose; but their power was entirely broken by the Spaniards in 1851.

Sora. A town of Naples, in the province of Terra di Lavoro, 15 miles east-northeast from Frosinone. Sora was originally a Volscian city; was seized by the Romans in 345 B.C., and subsequently made a colony; but in 315 the inhabitants rose against the Romans, and joined their enemies, the Samnites. It was not finally secured as a Roman colony till the end of the second Samnite war in 303.

Sorn. Formerly a servile tenure in Scotland, by which a chieftain might, with his followers, live upon his tenants at free quarters.

Sorties (Fr. sortir). In a siege, parties who sally out of a town secretly to annoy the besiegers, and retard their operations.

Sottiates, or Sotiates. A powerful and warlike people in Gallia Aquitanica, on the frontiers of Gallia Narbonensis, were subdued by P. Crassus, CÆsar’s legate, after a hard-fought battle. The modern Sos probably represents the ancient town of this people.

Sound. The velocity of sound in the air, at the temperature of 32° Fahr., is about 1090 feet in a second. It is increased or diminished 1.07 feet for each degree of temperature above or below 32°. The distance of an object can be ascertained by the report of fire-arms, by observing the number of seconds that elapse between the flash and the report of a gun, and multiplying the number by the velocity of sound in air.

Sound, To. To betoken or direct by a sound; as, to sound the retreat; sound the assembly, etc.

Sourabaya, Soerabaya, Soorabaya, or Surabaya. A large seaport town of Java, on the northeast coast. When the French had possession of Java, the French government resolved to make Sourabaya a port of consequence. Gen. Daendels expended large sums in the construction of works for the defense of the harbor, and was proceeding in his plans when the island was taken by the British.

South Carolina. An Atlantic State of the American Union, of a triangular form, with North Carolina and Georgia on its inland sides. It is said to have been discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1498, or by De Leon in 1512, and to be permanently settled by the English about 1660. The province was divided into North and South in 1729. The Carolinas were slave States. Great excitement prevailed in them in November, 1860, on account of Mr. Abraham Lincoln’s election to the presidency of the United States, he being strongly opposed to slavery. South Carolina began the secession from the United States December 20, 1861. The State was restored to the Union in June, 1868. This State took an active part in the civil war (1861-65), on the Confederate side. See Charleston, Columbia, Morris Island, Moultrie, Fort Sumter, etc.

Southern Confederacy. See Confederate States of America.

Sow. A kind of covered shed, formerly used by besiegers in filling up and passing the ditch of a besieged place, sapping or mining the wall, and the like. It had its name from its being used for rooting up the earth like swine, or because the soldiers therein were like pigs under a sow.

Sowar. A trooper in an Indian cavalry regiment.

Space. A quantity or portion of extension; the interval between any two or more objects; as, the space between ranks.

Spadroon. A sword much lighter than a broadsword, and made both to cut and thrust.

Spahis. Were the cavaliers furnished by the holders of military fiefs to the Turkish army, and formed the Élite of its cavalry. The Spahis along with the Janissaries owe their organization primarily to Orchan, the second of the Ottoman sultans, finally to Sultan Amurath I., and when levied en masse could number 140,000, but such a levy was very seldom called for. In the field they were divided into two classes, distinguished by the color (red and yellow) of their standards. One class had pistols and carbines, the other bows and arrows, and both carried a sabre, lance, and jerid, or javelin. They were excellent irregular troops; but when European organization was introduced into the Turkish army, they were replaced (1826) by regular horse. At the present time the French have numerous regiments of Spahis, raised from among the native tribes of Algeria and from France in about equal proportions; the dress, especially of the indigenous soldiers, partakes very much of the Arab character. The natives are allowed to rise to any grade below that of captain; but all the superior officers are of French descent.

Spain. A kingdom of Europe, occupying the larger portion of the great peninsula which forms the southwestern corner of the European continent, reaching farther south than any other European country, and farther west than any except Portugal. Spain, the Spania, Hispania, and Iberia of the Greeks, and known to the Romans by the same names, was inhabited at the period at which it first receives historical mention, by a people deriving their origin from different races. It is supposed to have been originally inhabited by a distinct race called Iberians; upon whom, however, a host of Celts are supposed to have descended from the Pyrenees. In the earliest times of which we have any record, these two races had already coalesced and formed the mixed nation of the Celtiberians. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians successively planted colonies on the coasts of Spain about 360 B.C.; and the Romans conquered the whole country, 206 B.C., which they erected into a Roman province, consisting of two political divisions,—Hispania Citerior (Hither Spain) and Hispania Ulterior (Farther Spain). From the time of the complete supremacy of the Romans till the death of Constantine, the condition of Spain was eminently prosperous. In 409, hordes of barbarians, Alans, Vandals, and Suevi, crossed the Pyrenees, and swept over and desolated the peninsula; about 412, the Visigoths invaded the country, and their king, Athaulf, who acknowledged a nominal dependence on the Roman emperor, established the Gothic monarchy in Catalonia. The battle of Xerxes in 711 gave the Moors almost undisputed mastery of nearly the whole of Spain, as well as of the outlying Gothic province of Septimania (Languedoc) in Franco. The Moors held Spain, for the first few years of their rule, as a dependency of the province of North Africa; but, after the downfall of Muza and his son Abd-el-aziz, who had been the deputy-governor of Spain, the country was governed (1717) by emirs appointed by the caliph of Damascus. The favorite scheme pursued by the Spanish emirs was the extension of their conquests into Gaul, to the neglect of the rising power of the Goths in Asturias; they also took the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Corsica, and part of Apulia and Calabria; but their northward progress was signally checked on the plain of Tours by Charles Martel. Anarchy and bloodshed were prominent features of the first forty years of Mohammedan rule in Spain. Within this period of forty years, no fewer than twenty emirs had been called to the direction of affairs; but a revolution at Damascus, which unseated the Ommiades, and placed the Abbasides in possession of the caliphate, put an end to this state of misrule in Spain. The Moors at length suffered a great defeat at Tarifa, by Alfonso XI. of Castile in 1340, and nearly the whole Christian dominions of Spain were united in one monarchy in 1479; but the power of the Moors was not finally extirpated until 1492, when Spain was consolidated into one empire from the Pyrenees to the Strait of Gibraltar. But the expulsion of the Moors and Jews was productive of the direst results, and the decline of the splendid Spanish empire may be said to have had its origin in the event which raised the country to the height of its magnificence. In the reign of Charles I., Mexico and Peru were added to the possessions of Spain. Philip II., by his enormous war expenditure and maladministration, laid a sure foundation for the decline of the country; and the reigns of Philip III. and Philip IV. witnessed a fearful acceleration in the decline of Spain by the contests with the Dutch, and with the German Protestants in the Thirty Years’ War, the intermeddling in the affairs of Northern Italy, the rebellion of the Catalans, the wars with France, and the rebellion of Portugal (1640), which had been united to Spain by Philip II. That of Charles II. was still more unfortunate, and the death of the latter was the occasion of the War of the Spanish Succession. (See Succession Wars.) During the inglorious reign of Charles IV. (1788-1808), a war broke out with Britain, which was productive of nothing but disaster to the Spaniards, and by the pressure of the French another arose in 1804, and was attended with similar ill success. Charles abdicated in favor of his eldest son, the prince of the Asturias, who ascended the throne as Ferdinand VII. Forced by Napoleon to resign all claims to the Spanish throne, Ferdinand became a prisoner of the French in the year of his accession, and in the same year Joseph, the brother of the French emperor, was declared king of Spain. But an armed resistance was organized throughout the whole country, and the supreme junta, that of Seville, declared war against Napoleon and France on June 6, 1808. In July, England, on solicitation, made peace with Spain, recognized Ferdinand VII. as king, and sent an army to aid the Spanish insurrection. This war lasted until the beginning of 1814, when the allied armies of England, Spain, and Portugal were thoroughly victorious. For important events which took place during this war, see appropriate headings in this work. Ferdinand VII. treated the subjects who had shown him devoted loyalty with infamous ingratitude, and subsequently obtained the aid of France to establish despotism. The reign of his daughter Isabella II. was disturbed by the Carlist rebellion in 1834-39, in which the British aided the queen with an army under Sir De Lacy Evans. The next events of importance were the contest between Espartero, the regent, and Queen-dowager Christina, for the supreme power during the minority of the queen; Espartero’s flight before O’Donnell and Narvaez (1843); his restoration in 1847; banishment of Queen Christina (1854); formation of the O’Donnell ministry (1858); war with Morocco and annexation of St. Domingo (1861); war with Peru and Chili (1864-65), and permanent truce in 1871; Prince Amadeus of Savoy declared king in December, 1870; abdication, February, 1873; insurrection of Don Carlos, 1873-76, when Prince Alfonso, son of Queen Isabella, became king. For more specific history of provinces and cities of Spain, see appropriate headings.

Spancelled. In heraldry, a term applied to a horse, two of whose legs are fettered by a log of wood.

Spandau. A fortified town of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg, 7 miles west from Berlin. It was taken by the Swedes in 1631, and by the French in 1806.

Spanish Fury, The. A name given, in history, to the attack upon Antwerp by the Spaniards, November 4, 1576, which resulted in the pillage and burning of the place, and a monstrous massacre of the inhabitants.

Spanish War of Succession. See Succession Wars.

Spare-pole. See Ordnance.

Spare-pole Key. See Ordnance.

Spare-pole Ring. See Ordnance.

Spare-wheel Axle. See Ordnance.

Sparta. Also called LacedÆmon, the capital of Laconia and the chief city of Peloponnesus, was situated on the right bank of the Eurotas (now Iri), about 20 miles from the sea. Sparta was never surrounded by walls, since the bravery of its citizens and the difficulty of access to it were supposed to render such defense needless. In the mythical period, Argos was the chief city in Peloponnesus, and Sparta is represented as subject to it. The Dorian conquest of Peloponnesus, which, according to tradition, took place eighty years after the Trojan war, made Sparta the capital of the country. The oldest inhabitants of the country maintained themselves at AmyclÆ, which was not conquered for a long time. From various causes the Spartans became distracted by intestine quarrels, till at length Lycurgus gave a new constitution to the state. This constitution laid the foundation of Sparta’s greatness. She soon became aggressive, and gradually extended her sway over the greater part of Peloponnesus. In 743 B.C. the Spartans attacked Messenia, and after a war of twenty years subdued this country. In 685 the Messenians again took up arms, but at the end of seventeen years were again completely subdued, and their country from this time forward became an integral part of Laconia. After the close of the second Messenian war, the Spartans continued their conquests in Peloponnesus. They defeated the Tegeans, and wrested the district of ThyreÆ from the Argives. At the time of the Persian invasion they were confessedly the first people in Greece; and to them was granted by unanimous consent the chief command in war. But after the final defeat of the Persians, the haughtiness of Pausanias, king of Sparta, disgusted most of the Greek states, and led them to transfer the supremacy to Athens (477). From this time the power of Athens steadily increased, and Sparta possessed little influence outside of the Peloponnesus. The Spartans made several attempts to check the rising greatness of Athens, and their jealousy of the latter led at length to the Peloponnesian war (431). This war ended in the overthrow of Athens, and the restoration of the supremacy of Sparta over the rest of Greece (404). But the Spartans did not retain this supremacy more than thirty years. Their decisive defeat by the Thebans, under Epaminondas, at the battle of Leuctra (371), gave the Spartan power a shock from which it never recovered; and the restoration of the Messenians to their country two years afterward completed the humiliation of Sparta. Thrice was the Spartan territory invaded by the Thebans, and the Spartan women saw for the first time the watch-fires of an enemy’s camp. The Spartans now finally lost their supremacy over Greece; and about thirty years afterward the greater part of Greece was obliged to yield to Philip of Macedon. The Spartans, however, kept haughtily aloof from the Macedonian conqueror, and refused to take part in the Asiatic expedition of his son, Alexander the Great. The power of Sparta continued to decline until the beginning of the reign of Cleomenes III. (236), whose reforms for a time infused new blood into the state, and for a short time he carried on war with success against the AchÆans. But Aratus, the general of the AchÆans, called in the assistance of Antigonus Doson, king of Macedonia, who defeated Cleomenes at the decisive battle of Sellasia (221), and followed up his success by the capture of Sparta. Sparta now sank into insignificance, and was ruled by a succession of native tyrants, till at length it was compelled to abolish its peculiar institutions, and to join the AchÆan League. Shortly afterward it fell, with the rest of Greece, under the Roman power. The Spartans were a race of stern, cruel, resolute, rude, and narrow-minded warriors, capable of a momentary self-sacrificing patriotism, but utterly destitute of the capacity for adopting or appreciating a permanently noble and wise policy.

Spartans. See Sparta.

Sparthe. An Anglo-Saxon term for a halbert or battle-axe.

Sparum. A kind of dart, which was used by the ancients in war, and was shot out of a cross-bow. The wound it occasioned was extremely dangerous, as its point was triangular. Several of these darts were discharged in a volley.

Spatterdashes. Were a kind of covering for the legs of soldiers, made of cloth, or coarse linen waxed over, and buttoned tight, by which the wet was kept off.

Spatts. Were a kind of spatterdashes, that reached only a little above the ankle.

Spayade. In heraldry, a stag in his third year; a spay.

Spear. A lance or long weapon with a sharp point, formerly used as a manual or missile weapon. Pliny ascribes the invention of the spear to the Etolians. The spear of the Greeks was generally of ash, with a leaf-shaped head of metal, and furnished with a pointed ferrule at the butt, with which it was stuck in the ground; a method used, according to Homer, when the troops rested on their arms, or slept upon their shields. The cross spear-heads of the Britons were all pyramidal, narrowing at the base. The heads of the Anglo-Saxon spears were exceedingly long, and sometimes dreadfully barbed.

Spear-hand. The hand in which a horseman holds a spear; the right hand.

Spear-head. The pointed end of a spear.

Spearman. One who is armed with a spear.

Special Duty. Soldiers may be employed on duties not strictly military, when the exigencies of the service require it, for the reason that they are incident to the operations of an army; as, mechanics, laborers, cooks, and attendants in hospitals, clerks, scouts, etc. Soldiers when detailed on these duties are generally reported on special or extra duty, but are required to attend the regular inspections and musters, and if not proficient in drill, should be required to attend drills until they know their duties as soldiers. Officers when placed on duty which temporarily relieves them from duty with their companies, as acting commissaries and quartermasters, or on court-martial duty, etc., are reported on special duty.

Special Orders. See Orders, Special.

Specific Gravity. See Gravity.

Specification. The designation of particulars; particular mention; as, the specification of a charge against a military officer. A written statement containing a minute description or enumeration of particulars, as of charges against officers or soldiers.

Speen. A parish of England, in Berkshire, 2 miles from Newbury, in which the second battle of Newbury was fought, October 27, 1646.

Spencer Rifle. See Small-arms, and Magazine Guns.

Spend. This term is sometimes used in military matters to express the consumption of anything; as, to spend all your ammunition.

Spent Ball. A ball shot from a fire-arm, which reaches an object without having sufficient force to penetrate it.

Speyer, also Speier. The capital of Rhenish Bavaria (the former Palatinate), and one of the oldest towns in Germany, stands at the influx of the Speyerbach in the Rhine 23 miles north of Carlsruhe. During the Orleans Succession war—well called by the Germans the Mordbrenner Krieg—the whole Palatinate was savagely wasted, Speyer was taken by the French, its inhabitants driven out, and the city blown up with gunpowder and burned to the ground. Only the cathedral resisted the barbarous efforts to mine it. In 1794, it was wasted by the French under Custine, and has never recovered from these calamities.

Spherical Bullets. See Projectile.

Spherical Case-Shot. A spherical case-shot consists of a thin shell of cast iron, containing a number of musket-balls, and a charge of powder sufficient to burst it; a fuze is fixed to it as in an ordinary shell, by which the charge is ignited and the shell burst at any particular instant. A spherical case-shot, when loaded ready for use, has about the same specific gravity as a solid shot, and therefore, when fixed with the service charge of powder, its range, and its velocity at any point in its range, is about equal to that of a solid shot of the same caliber. The spherical case mostly used for field service is the 12-pounder, and contains, when loaded, 90 bullets. Its bursting charge is 1 ounce of powder, and it weighs 11.75 pounds. Its rupture may be made to take place at any point in its flight, and it is therefore superior to grape or canister. The attrition of the balls with which it is loaded, formerly endangered the firing of the bursting charge. This is now obviated, in making one mass of the balls, by pouring in melted sulphur. It is also prevented by Capt. Boxer’s improved spherical case-shot, of which there are two forms. In one form the bursting charge of powder is contained in a cylindrical tin box, attached to a brass socket which receives the fuze, and which is screwed into the shell. In the other, the part of the shell containing the bursting charge is separated from that containing the bullets by a diaphragm of sheet-iron, cast into the shell (i.e., the shell is cast on to the diaphragm which is inserted into the core). The bullets are introduced into the shell by a second orifice, and are kept in their places by a composition afterwards poured in. The present 12-pounder spherical case-shot, fixed with a charge of 2¹/₂ pounds of powder, is effective at 1500 yards. The proper position of the point of rupture varies from 50 to 130 yards in front of, and from 15 to 20 feet above, the object. The mean number of destructive pieces from a 12-pounder spherical case-shot, which may strike a target 9 feet high and 54 feet long, at a distance of 800 yards, is 30. The spherical case-shot from rifle-cannon is said to be effective at over 2000 yards. Spherical case should not be used at a less distance than 500 yards.

Spicheren, or Speicheren. See Saarbruck.

Spike Cannon, To. Is to drive into the vent a jagged and hardened steel spike with a soft point, or a nail without a head; break it off flush with the outer surface and clinch the point inside by means of a rammer. A gun may be unspiked if the spike is not screwed in or clinched, and the bore is not impeded, by putting in a charge of powder one-third of the weight of the shot, and ramming junk-wads over it; laying on the bottom of the bore a slip of wood, with a groove on the under side containing a strand of quick-match, by which fire is communicated to the charge. In a brass gun, take out some of the metal at the upper orifice of the vent, and pour sulphuric acid into the groove, and let it stand some hours before firing. If this method, several times repeated, is not successful, unscrew the vent-piece if it be a brass gun; and if an iron one, drill out the spike, or drill a new vent.

Artillery can be rendered unserviceable by other methods besides spiking, as follows: (1) Wedge a shot in the bottom of the bore by wrapping it with felt, or by means of iron wedges, using the rammer or a bar of iron to drive them in. (2) Cause shells to burst in the bore of bronze guns. (3) Fire broken shot from them with large charges. (4) Fill the piece with sand over the charge, to burst it. (5) Fire a piece against another, muzzle to muzzle, or the muzzle of one to the chase of the other. (6) Light a fire under the chase of a bronze gun, and strike on it with a sledge, to bend it. (7) Break off the trunnions of iron guns; or burst them by firing them at a high elevation, with heavy charges and full of shot.

To drive out a shot wedged in the bore: unscrew the vent-piece if there be one, and drive in wedges so as to start the shot forward; then ram it back again in order to seize the wedge with a hook; or pour in powder, and fire it after replacing the vent-piece. In the last resort, bore a hole in the bottom of the breech, drive out the shot, and stop the hole with a screw. When a shot is jammed in a gun and cannot be rammed home to the cartridge, destroy the charge by pouring water down the vent and muzzle until the ingredients are dissolved, and cleared out of the bore; then introduce a small quantity of powder through the vent and blow out the shot.

Spin Hay, To. Is to twist it up in ropes, very hard, for an expedition; by which means it is less bulky, and less troublesome for the cavalry to carry behind them. An expert horseman can spin five days’ forage into a very narrow compass.

Spingard. A kind of small cannon.

Splay. The divergence outwards from the line of fire of the lines which mark the bottom of the sides of an embrasure.

Splinter-bar. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Splinter-proof. Strong enough to resist the splinters of bursting shells.

Spoils. Whatever is taken from the enemy in time of war. Among the ancient Greeks, the spoils were divided among the whole army, only the share given to the general was the largest; but among the Romans the spoils belonged to the republic.

Spoleto (anc. Spoletium). A city of Central Italy, province of Umbria, is situated on a rocky hill, 61 miles north-northwest of Rome. During the second Punic war, Hannibal is said to have been repulsed by the colonists in an assault which he made on the town (217 B.C.), after the battle of Thrasymene. In 1860 it was taken by the Italians from a body of Irish mercenaries in the service of the pope, and now forms part of the kingdom of Italy.

Sponge. See Implements.

Sponge and Rammer-stop. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Sponge-bucket. See Implements.

Sponge-chain. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Sponge-hook. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Spontoon. A weapon bearing resemblance to a halberd, which, prior to 1787, was borne instead of a half-pike by officers of British infantry. It was a medium for signaling orders to the regiment. The spontoon planted in the ground commanded a halt; pointed backwards or forwards, advance or retreat; and so on.

Sporting Powder. Gunpowder used in sporting arms,—usually finer grained than that for military arms.

Sporting Rifle. A rifle made especially for hunting. There is no invariable feature distinguishing it from other rifles. Ordinarily the rear sight is not elevating.

Spottsylvania Court-house. A village in Spottsylvania Co., Va., situated on the river Po, 65 miles north from Richmond. A series of desperate battles took place in the neighborhood of this village between the Federals and Confederates, from May 8 to 21, 1864, in which the former compelled the latter, after much carnage, to retreat to the North Anna River, which ultimately resulted in the battle of Cold Harbor (which see).

Spread-eagle. In heraldry, an eagle, or the figure of an eagle, with its wings elevated and its legs extended;—often met as a device in heraldry, upon military ornaments, and the like.

Springfield. A post-town, capital of Greene Co., Mo., 130 miles southwest of Jefferson City. Near here was fought the desperate battle of Wilson’s Creek, in which the Federals had the advantage over the Confederates, but lost their brave general, Nathaniel Lyon, August 10, 1861.

Springfield. A city of Massachusetts, on the east bank of the Connecticut River, 98 miles west by south of Boston. The national armory is located here, which repaired and altered in 1869 upwards of 25,000 rifles and muskets. The present U.S. breech-loader, model of 1873, is made here.

Springfield Rifle. See Small-arms.

Sprue. See Ordnance, Construction of, Molding.

Spur. An apparatus fastened to the heel of a horseman, for goading the horse. It is much less used than formerly. All cavalry soldiers wear spurs; but their use, except in the heat of an actual charge, is discouraged as much as possible. In the days of chivalry, the use of the spur was limited to knights, and it was among the emblems of knighthood. To win his spurs, was for a young man to earn knighthood by gallant conduct. The degradation of a knight involved the hacking off of his spurs; and the serving before a knight of a pair of spurs on a dish, was a strong hint by his host that he had outstayed his welcome.

Spurs, Battle of the. See Courtrai.

Spy. In war, is a useful but not highly honored auxiliary, employed to ascertain the state of an enemy’s affairs, and of his intended operations. Spies have been used in all wars from the time when Moses sent Joshua on such a purpose to the present time. Their employment is quite recognized by the law of nations as interpreted by Grotius, Vattel, and Martens; nor is it held to be any dishonor to a general to avail himself of their services. On the other hand, the spy himself is looked upon as an outlaw, and one devoid of honor. If taken by the enemy, he is put to death ignominiously and without mercy. As, however, the calling is so dangerous, and so little redounds to honor, it is never permissible for a general to compel by threats any person, whether of his own or the hostile party, to act as a spy; but he is at liberty to accept all such services when proffered. A spy is well paid, lest he betray his employer. In the British army, spies are usually controlled by the quartermaster-general. Martial law, though distinct enough in ordering the death of a spy, is not clear in defining what constitutes a spy. A man—not of the enemy—within the enemy’s lines, and in the enemy’s uniform, would presumably be a spy. If in civil dress, and unable to give a good account of himself, his chance of hanging would be considerable; but if found in one camp in the uniform of the opposite side, he may not be treated otherwise than as a prisoner of war, or at least as a deserter from the enemy. Both as regards honor and penalties, it would seem that spies ought in fairness to be divided into two classes,—first, those who betray their own country to an enemy; secondly, those who, being enemies, contrive surreptitiously to obtain information by penetrating into the opposing army. The first class are traitors of a deep dye, for whom no ignominious death is too bad; but the second class are often brave men, who dare much in the service of their country. It is unfair to accord them the same treatment as the traitors.

Squad. A small portion of a company, troop, or battery, placed in the especial charge of an officer or non-commissioned officer for purposes of inspection and supervision. In the infantry it corresponds with a section. It also signifies a small number of men drilled together. The term awkward squad is applied to those soldiers who, on account of clumsiness or want of attention, are sent back to the lowest squad to be re-drilled.

Squad Book. In the British service, is the roll of a squad, containing, besides the names, the trades and other particulars of the men.

Squad-bags. In the British service, are black canvas bags, which are issued at the rate of one to every 25 men, and are intended to contain those articles of a man’s kit which are not comprised in the “service kit.” They are only used when a regiment is in the field or on the line of march. In India, where knapsacks are never carried, a small squad-bag is issued to each soldier.

Squadron. In military language, denotes two troops of cavalry. It is the unit by which the force of cavalry with an army is always computed. Three or four squadrons constitute a regiment. The actual strength of a squadron ranges from 120 to 200 sabres.

Squall. A sudden and violent gust of wind, often attended with rain or snow. Black squall, a squall attended with dark, heavy clouds. Thick squall, a black squall accompanied by rain, hail, sleet, etc. White squall, a squall which comes unexpectedly, without being marked in its approach by the clouds.

Square. In military evolutions, is the forming of a body of men into a rectangular figure, with several ranks or rows of men facing on each side. With men of ordinary firmness, a square should resist the charges of the heaviest horse. The formation is not new, for a Grecian Syntagma was a solid square of 16 men in every direction; but in modern warfare, the solid square having been found cumbrous, has been abandoned for the hollow square, with officers, horses, colors, etc., in the centre. The front rank kneels, and the two next stoop, which enables five ranks of men to maintain a rolling fire upon an advancing enemy, or to pour in a murderous volley at close quarters.

Square-pierced. In heraldry, a term used to designate a charge perforated with a square opening, so as to show the field. A cross square-pierced is often improperly confounded with a cross quarter-pierced, where the intersecting part of the cross is not merely perforated, but entirely removed.

Squire. An attendant on a warrior was formerly so called.

Stab. To pierce with a pointed weapon; as, to be stabbed by a bayonet, dagger, etc.

StabiÆ (now Castella Mare di Stabia). An ancient town in Campania, between Pompeii and Surrentum; was destroyed by Sulla in the Social war.

Stable Guard. In each squadron, the stable guard generally consists of a corporal and one man for every 20 horses. It is their duty to feed the horses, watch over their safety during the night, and attend to the general police of the stables, being assisted by an additional detail at the hours of stable call.

Stable Horse. A name formerly applied to that part of the Tippoo Sahib’s cavalry which was best armed, accoutred, and most regularly disciplined.

Stack Arms. To set up muskets or rifles together, with the bayonets crossing one another, and forming a sort of conical pile.

Stack of Arms. A number of muskets or rifles set up together, with the bayonets crossing one another, forming a sort of conical pile.

Stacket. A stockade.

Stadia. A very simple aid in estimating distances, consists of a small stick, held vertically in the hand at arm’s length, and bringing the top of a man’s head in line with the top of the stick, noting where a line in the eye of the observer to the feet of the man cuts the stick or stadia, as it is called. To graduate the stadia, a man of the ordinary height of a foot-soldier, say 5 feet 8 inches, is placed at a known distance, say 50 yards, and the distance on the stick covered by him when it is held at arm’s length is marked and divided into eight equal parts. If the distance is now increased until the man covers only one of these divisions, we know he is at a distance equal to 50 × 8 = 400 yards. This instrument is not very accurate, except for short distances. A much more accurate stadia is constructed by making use of a metal plate having a slit in it in the form of an isosceles triangle, the base of which, held at a certain distance from the edge, subtends a man (5 feet 8 inches), say at the distance of 100 yards. A slider moves along the triangle, being always parallel to the base, and the length of it comprised between the two sides of the triangle represents the height of men at different distances, which are marked in yards on the side of the triangle, above or below, according as the object looked at is a foot-soldier or horseman. In order to keep the stadia always at the same distance from the eye, a string is attached to the slider, the opposite end having a knot tied in it, which is held between the teeth while using the instrument, which is held in the right hand, the slider being moved with the left-hand finger. The string should always be kept stretched when the instrument is used, and the line in a vertical position. It must be graduated experimentally by noting the positions in which the slider represents the height of the object. The instrument used is not, however, reliable. Its uncertainty increases in an equal ratio with the distance of the object observed. At the extreme ranges it is quite useless. At the school for firing, at Vincennes, therefore, they rely entirely on the eye alone for the judgment of distances, and great pains by careful practice and instruction is taken to perfect that judgment. A simple instrument by which distances can be determined is, therefore, still a great desideratum.

Staff. The staff of an army consists of a body of skilled officers whose duty it is to combine and give vitality to the movements and mechanical action of the several regiments and drilled bodies composing the force. The distinction between an officer on the staff of an army and a regimental officer is that the latter is concerned with his own regiment alone, while the former deals with his army (of course under the orders of his commanding officer), or section of an army, and regulates the combined action of the several arms and bodies of men. A good staff is all-important to the success of a military enterprise. In the British service the general staff of an army comprises the general in actual command, with the subordinate generals commanding the several divisions and brigades; as assistants to these the officers of the adjutant-general’s department,—i.e., the adjutant-general, his deputy, assistants, and deputy-assistants, if the army be large enough to require them all. Similarly, the officers of the quartermaster-general’s department; the brigade-major; the provost-marshal, and the judge-advocate.

In the U.S. service the general staff consists of the officers of the several military bureaux, such as of the adjutant-general’s department, the quartermaster’s department, etc. For the officers comprising these corps, see appropriate headings throughout this work.

The general staff of the British army consists at present of a field-marshal commanding-in-chief, whose headquarters are at London; under him, of a lieutenant-general commanding-in-chief in Ireland. This command includes, of course, the general officer commanding in each military district of the United Kingdom and in each colony; each of these generals having the usual subordinate staff subject to his orders. India forms a nearly independent command, under a commander-in-chief, whose headquarters are at Bengal. There are subordinate commanders-in-chief in Bombay and Madras; and in each presidency there are several military divisions.

The personal staff consists of the aides-de-camp and military secretaries to the respective general officers. These officers, who are treated of separately in this work, are appointed within certain limits by the generals whom they serve, and their appointments expire on those generals ceasing to command.

The garrison staff consists of the officers governing in fortresses and garrisons; as commandants, fort-majors, town-majors, fort-adjutants, and garrison-adjutants.

The civil or department staff includes those non-combatant officers who have to provide for the daily requirements of the troops. These are the commissaries, barracks, medical, chaplains, purveyors, store, and veterinary departments.

The recruiting staff consists of inspecting field-officers, district paymasters, district adjutants, and superintending officers.

The pensioner staff includes only the staff-officers of the enrolled force.

Regimental Staff.—(See Officers, Staff-.) Staff-officers should carry in their heads all general information regarding the army with which they are serving; the composition and distribution of corps, divisions, brigades, etc.; they should remember as accurately as possible the strength of each battalion in their immediate division, and the names of the respective commanding officers. Officers of the headquarters staff should know the position of every division or detachment each night; their composition and strength, and the names of their commanders, etc.

In communicating orders to others, staff-officers must speak and write in the name of their generals. They must remember that they have no power of themselves to confer favors, and that all patronage rests with the general. In theory they are merely his agents, and, although, in practice, officers of importance have much in their power, they should be careful to prevent its being generally known. Their commander must never be ignored, even when they know him to be a fool. It is not that you injure an individual by slighting him, but that by doing so you deprive of that general confidence which for the public good it is essential he should possess.

In delivering verbal orders, and in their dealings with superior officers, the staff should be most respectful. A staff-officer should feel bound by his position, if not by his breeding, to treat every one with the courtesy due from one gentleman to another. The motto for the staff should be “affability and reticence.”

Staff, Cylinder. See Inspection of Cannon.

Stafford. A town of England, in Staffordshire, 123 miles northwest by west from London. In the civil war of the 17th century, it was occupied by the king’s forces, after the capture of Lichfield by their adversaries. An indecisive battle was fought at Hopton Heath, in the vicinity, in 1643, and at a later period the town was taken by the Roundheads, under Sir William Brereton. The castle was also taken shortly after, and at the close of the war was entirely demolished.

Stakes, Pointing-. See Pointing-stakes.

Stalwart. Brave; bold; strong; redoubted; daring.

Stamford. An ancient town of England, in Lincolnshire, 12 miles northwest from Peterborough. The Britons and Saxons here defeated the Picts and Scots in 449. Many of the Jews of Stamford were slain, and the whole community plundered in 1190 by those who had enlisted for the Crusade.

Stand. The act of opposing. Thus, troops that do not yield or give way, are said to make a stand.

Stand, To. To stand one’s ground, to keep the ground or station one has taken; to maintain one’s position; as, raw troops are not able to stand their ground against veteran soldiers. To stand fire, to receive the fire of arms from an enemy without giving way. To make a stand, to halt for the purpose of offering resistance to a pursuing enemy.

Stand at Ease. In the British service, is to be allowed, when in the ranks, a certain indulgence with regard to bodily position, with or without arms.

Stand Fast. Is the term used as a caution to some particular part of a line or column, to remain quiescent while the rest are moving.

Stand of Arms. See Arms, Stand of.

Stand of Ammunition. See Ammunition, Stand of.

Stand of Colors. A single color, or flag.

Stand to the Guns. Is to prepare for action, by taking one’s station at the guns.

Stand to your Arms. Is a cautionary command, when soldiers are put upon the alert.

Standard. A measure by which men enlisted into the army have the regulated height ascertained.

Standard. In its widest sense, a standard is a flag or ensign under which men are united together for some common purpose. The use of the standard as a rallying-point in battle takes us back to remote ages. The Jewish army was marshaled with the aid of standards belonging to the four tribes of Judah, Reuben, Ephraim, and Dan; and the Egyptians had ensigns with representations of their favorite animals. The flag of Persia was white, and, according to Xenophon, bore in his time a golden eagle with expanded wings; it was fixed on a chariot, and thus conveyed to the field of battle. Æschylus, in enumerating the six chiefs who, headed by Polynices, set themselves in battle array against Thebes, describes the device on the standard of each. In the earliest era of Roman history, a bundle of hay or fern is said to have been used as a military standard, which was succeeded by bronze or silver figures of animals attached to a staff, of which Pliny enumerates five,—the eagle, the wolf, the minotaur, the horse, and the boar. In the second consulship of Marius, 104 B.C., the other animals were laid aside, and only the eagle retained, and down to the time of the later emperors, the eagle, often with a representation of the emperor’s head beneath it, continued to be carried with the legion. On the top of the staff was often a figure of Victory or Mars. Each cohort had also an ensign of its own, consisting of a serpent or dragon woven on a square piece of cloth, and elevated on a gilt staff with a cross-bar. Under the Christian emperors, the Labarum was substituted for the imperial standard. Standards or ensigns among the Greeks were of different kinds; some had the representations of different animals, bearing some relation to the cities they belonged to. Among the earlier Greeks the standard was a piece of armor at the end of a spear; though Agamemnon, in Homer, uses a purple vail to rally his men, etc. Afterwards the Athenians bore the olive and owl; the Thebans, a sphinx; the other nations, the effigies of their tutelary gods, or their particular symbols, at the end of a spear. The Corinthians carried a pegasus, the Messenians their initial ?, and the LacedÆmonians ?. But the most frequent ensign among the Greeks was a purple coat upon the top of a spear. The flag or standard elevated was a signal to begin the battle, and the standard depressed was a signal to desist. The Anglo-Saxon ensign was splendid. It had on it the white horse, the Danish being distinguished by the raven. Various standards of great celebrity occur in mediÆval history, among which may be enumerated the Flag of the Prophet (which see); the standard taken from the Danes by Alfred of England; and the Oriflamme, originally belonging to the Abbey of St. Denis, and borne by the counts of Vexin, which eventually became the standard of the French kingdom. In the Middle Ages the ensigns of the army were the banderols, banners, guidons, pencels, and pennons, for which see appropriate headings. In strict language, the term standard is applied exclusively to a particular kind of flag, long in proportion to its depth, tapering towards the fly, and, except when belonging to princes of the blood royal, slit at the end. Each baron, knight, or other commander in feudal times, had a recognized standard, which was distributed among his followers. The length of the standard varied according to the rank of the bearer. A king’s standard was from 8 to 9 yards in length; a duke’s, 7 yards; a marquis’s, 6¹/₂ yards; an earl’s, 6 yards; a viscount’s, 5¹/₂ yards; a baron’s, 5 yards; a banneret’s, 4¹/₂ yards; and a knight’s, 4 yards. There was never a complete coat of arms on the standard; it generally exhibited the crest or supporter with a device or badge of the owner, and every English standard of the Tudor era had the cross of St. George at the head. Standards were registered by the heralds, and the charges on them selected and authorized by an officer-of-arms.

Standard, Battle of the. See Northallerton.

Standard Hill. A hill in England, so called because William the Conqueror upon it set his standard, before he gave battle to Harold.

Standard-bearer. An officer of an army, company, or troop, who bears a standard; an ensign of infantry or a cornet of horse.

Standard-rule. See Inspection of Cannon.

Standing. Settled, established, not temporary. Standing army, is an army which is kept up by a country, and is liable to every species of duty, without any limitations being fixed to its service.

Standing. Rank; condition. It likewise signifies length of time; as, such an officer is of very old standing in the army.

Stanford Bridge. In Yorkshire, England. In 1066, Tostig, brother of Harold II., rebelled against his brother, and joined the invading army of Harold Hardrada, king of Norway. They defeated the northern earls and took York, but were defeated at Stanford Bridge by Harold, September 25, and both were slain.

Stang-ball. A projectile consisting of two half-balls united by a bar; a bar-shot.

Stanislaus, Saint. A Polish order of knighthood, founded by Stanislaus, king of Poland, in 1765; renewed by the emperor Alexander in 1815.

Star. In heraldry, the star is of frequent occurrence; it sometimes represents the heavenly body so called, and sometimes the rowel of a spur. In the latter case it is blazoned a Mullet. Stars of more than five points should have the number of points designated, and the points may be wavy. The star, or estoile, with wavy points, is often designated a blazing star; and when the points are more than six in number, it is usual to represent only every second point as waved. The star is a well-known ensign of knightly rank. A star of some specified form constitutes part of the insignia of every order of knighthood.

Star Fort. An inclosed field-work, in shape like the heraldic representation of a star.

Star, Order of the. An order of knighthood formerly existing in France, founded by John II in 1350, in imitation of the then recently instituted order of the Garter in England. The ceremony of installation was originally performed on the festival of the Epiphany, and the name of the order is supposed to have been allusive to the Star of the Magi.

Star of India, The Order of the. An order of knighthood instituted by Queen Victoria in June, 1861, with the view of affording the princes, chiefs, and people of the Indian empire a testimony of her majesty’s regard, commemorating her majesty’s resolution to take on herself the government of India and rendering honor to merit and loyalty. The order consists of the sovereign, a grand master, who is to be the governor-general of India for the time being, and 25 knights, together with such extra and honorary knights as the crown may appoint. The members of the order are to be military, naval, and civil officers who have rendered important service to the Indian empire, and such native princes and chiefs of India as have entitled themselves to her majesty’s favor. The insignia consists of a collar, badge, and star. The collar of the order is composed of the heraldic rose of England, two palm branches in saltire tied with a ribbon, and a lotus-flower alternating with each other, all of gold enameled, and connected by a double golden chain. From an imperial crown, intervening between two lotus-leaves, depends the badge, consisting of a brilliant star of five points, and hanging from it an oval medallion, with an onyx cameo profile bust of Queen Victoria, encircled by the motto, “Heaven’s light our Guide,” in gold letters, on an enriched border of light-blue enamel. The investment badge is similar to the collar-badge, but with the star, the setting of the cameo, and the motto all of diamonds; it is worn pendent from a ribbon of pale blue with white borders. The star of the order is a five-pointed star or mullet of diamonds on an irradiated field of gold. Around it, on an azure fillet bordered with gold, is the same motto in diamonds, the whole encircled by wavy rays of gold.

Star-gauge. See Inspection of Cannon.

Statant. In heraldry, a term applied to an animal standing still, with all the feet touching the ground. If the face be turned to the spectator it is said to be statant gardant, or in the case of a stag, at gaze.

State. In the British service, is a statement of the number of officers and men of any body of troops, distinguishing those present, those employed, absent, or sick, and the different ranks under separate headings.

States of the Church. See Papal States.

Station. To place; to set; or to appoint to the occupation of a post, place, or office; as, to station troops on the right or left of an army; to station a sentinel on a rampart.

Station, Military. A place calculated for the rendezvous of troops, or for the distribution of them; also, a spot well calculated for offensive or defensive measures. The name of stationes, or stations, was given by the Romans to the guard which was kept in the daytime at the gates of the camp, and at the intrenchments. The statio agraria was an advanced post to prevent surprise, insure the safety of prisoners, etc. The chief use was to keep the military sway secure from hostile incursions, whence we find them at the concurrence of roads. The word is also extensively applied to the old military stations of the Romans, when encampments of towns existed. The statira castra were encampments for a short time; the Æstiva castra were the same, but might be occupied only for one night. The hyberna castra, or winter camps, were elaborately fortified, even with stone walls, houses within, etc., so that many towns grew out of them.

Status in Quo, or Status Quo (Lat.). A treaty between belligerents, which leaves each party in statu quo ante bellum,—that is, in the state in which it was before the war.

Stays. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Steam-gun. A machine or contrivance by which balls or other projectiles may be driven by the force of steam.

Steed. A horse either for state or war.

Steel. See Ordnance, Metals for.

Steel Punches. See Inspection of Projectiles.

Steenkerke, or Steenkerque. A village of Belgium, province of Hainaut, 15 miles north-northeast of Mons. The allies, commanded by William III. of England, were here defeated by the French, July 24, 1692.

Step. Progression by one removal of the foot. It likewise signifies pace. To step, to move forward or backward by a single change of the place of the foot. To step out, is to lengthen the step, without altering the cadence. To step short, is to diminish or slacken the pace, according to the tactics. These phrases are frequently used in military movements when it is found necessary to gain ground in front, or to give the rear of a column, etc., time to acquire its proper distance. To step off, is to take a prescribed step from a halted position, in common or quick time, in conformity to some given word of command or signal. Balance-step, is so called from the body being balanced upon one leg, in order to render it firm and steady in military movements, etc. Step is likewise figuratively used to signify promotion; as, the next step from a lieutenancy is a captaincy, from a captaincy a majority, etc.

Stettin. A fortified town of Prussia, capital of the province of Pomerania, on the left bank of the Oder, 78 miles northeast from Berlin. In 1121, Boleslas, duke of Poland, gained possession of it. The peace of Westphalia gave it to the Swedes. From them it passed to the Prussians, with whom, though not without some interruptions, it has since remained. In 1171 it was besieged by the Danes; in 1677 by the elector of Brandenburg; in 1713 by the Prussians; and from 1806 to 1813 it was occupied by the French.

Steward, Hospital. See Hospital Steward.

Stick, Gold. See Gold Stick.

Stick, Silver. See Silver Stick.

Stickler. A sidesman to fencers, or second to a duelist.

Sticklestadt (Norway). Here Olaf II., aided by the Swedes, was defeated and slain in his endeavors to recover his kingdom from Canute, king of Denmark, July 29, 1030.

Stiletto. A small dagger with a round pointed blade.

Stillwater. A township of the United States, on the Hudson River and on Saratoga Lake. The township includes the incorporated village of Mechanicsville and the post-village of Bemis’s Heights, notable for the two battles of September 19 and October 7, 1777 (sometimes called the battles of Stillwater), which led to the surrender of Burgoyne.

Stink-pot. Is a shell, often of earthenware, charged with combustibles, which, on bursting, emit a foul smell and a suffocating smoke. It is useful in sieges for driving the garrison from their defenses; also in boarding a ship, for effecting a diversion while the assailants gain the deck. The stink-pot is a favorite weapon of the Chinese. Under the more elegant title of asphyxiated shell, the French and other modern nations have experimented considerably on this mode of harassing an enemy.

Stipendium. The amount of pay for soldiers, a term in general use among the Romans.

Stirling. An ancient town of Scotland, the chief town of Stirlingshire, 31 miles northwest from Edinburgh. During the Danish invasion in 1009, it was the headquarters of the Scottish army. In the vicinity was fought the battle of Stirling in 1297. The town was taken by Edward I., after a siege of three months, in 1304. It was held by the English for ten years, until it was retaken by Robert Bruce after the battle of Bannockburn. In 1651, after the battle of Dunbar, the castle was taken by Gen. Monk; and it withstood a siege by the Highlanders in 1745.

Stirrup. A kind of ring, or bent piece of metal, leather, etc., horizontal in one part for receiving the foot of the rider, and attached to a strap which is fastened to the saddle,—used to assist persons in mounting a horse, and to enable them to sit steadily in riding, as well as to relieve them by supporting a part of the weight of the body.

Stirrup-cover (Sp. tapadÉra). A hood made of leather attached to a stirrup to protect the foot of a mounted soldier.

Stoccade. To fortify with sharpened posts. See Stockade.

Stoccado. A push or thrust with a rapier.

Stock. The whole of the wooden part of a musket or pistol. Also, the neck-gear of a soldier, generally of black leather, answering the double purpose of keeping the cold out and the soldier’s head up.

Stock. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Caisson.

Stockach. A town of Germany, in the southeast of Baden, 15 miles northwest of Constance. Near here the Austrians under the Archduke Charles defeated the French, March 25, 1799.

Stockade. A work in which a palisade; of strong and closely-planted timbers constitutes the principal defense. The stockades or picket-works usually employed against Indians are composed of rough trunks of young trees cut into lengths of 12 or 14 feet, and averaging 10 or 12 inches in diameter. They should be firmly planted close together. A banquette or step will generally be required, and the loop-holes so arranged that they cannot be used from the outside. If necessary, such a work can be strengthened by ditch and abatis, and flanked by block-houses.

Stockholm. The capital of Sweden, situated at the junction of the Lake Malar with an inlet of the Baltic, 320 miles northeast from Copenhagen. Stockholm sustained several sieges. One of the most memorable of these took place in 1501 and 1502, when it was held for nearly six months by Queen Christina of Denmark against the Swedish insurgents, but was at last surrendered after the garrison had been reduced from about 1000 to 80 in number. A still more noble defense of the city was made in 1520, by Christina Gyllenstierna against Christian II. of Denmark. It was surrendered after a siege of four months; but the terms of the surrender were violated soon after by the conqueror ordering the execution of all the most distinguished Swedes in the town. This and similar acts of treachery and cruelty led to the final expulsion of the Danes by Gustavus Vasa. A peace was concluded here, between the king of Great Britain and the queen of Sweden, by which the former acquired the duchies of Bremen and Verden as elector of Brunswick, November 20, 1719. A treaty took place here, between Sweden and Russia, in favor of the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, March 24, 1724; another between England and Sweden on March 3, 1813; and between England, France, and Sweden, November 21, 1855.

Stockport. A town of England, in Cheshire, on the borders of Lancashire, at the confluence of the Mersey and the Tame, 5 miles southeast of Manchester. The castle, which has now entirely disappeared, was held in 1173, by Geoffrey de Constantin against Henry II. During the civil war of the 17th century, Stockport was the scene of some fighting; it was taken from the Parliamentarians by Rupert in 1644, but retaken by Lesley in the following year. In 1745, the town was occupied by Prince Charles Edward. At this place the Manchester Blanketeers (which see) were dispersed, March 11, 1817.

Stock-purse. In the British service, is a certain saving which is made in a corps for regimental purposes.

Stockton-on-Tees. A town of England, in Durham, on the left bank of the Tees, 11 miles east-northeast of Darlington. It was plundered by the Scotch in 1325; taken for the Parliament in 1644, and totally destroyed by the Roundheads in 1652.

Stoeni. A Ligurian people in the Maritime Alps, conquered by Q. Marcius Rex, 118 B.C., before he founded the colony of Narbo Martius.

Stoke, East. A parish of England, county of Notts, 4 miles southwest of Newark. Near here, on June 16, 1487, the adherents of Lambert Simnel, who personated Edward, earl of Warwick, and claimed the crown, were defeated by Henry VII. John de la Pole, the earl of Lincoln, and most of the leaders were slain; and Simnel, whose life was spared, was afterwards employed in the king’s household.

Stone Arabia. See Palatine.

Stone Fougass. See Fougass, Stone.

Stone River, Battle of. See Murfreesboro’.

Stone-bow. A cross-bow formerly used or designed for throwing stones.

Stone-mortar. Was a mortar which was used to throw stones a short distance, from 150 to 250 yards; and also 6-pounder shells from 50 to 150 yards. The stones which were used in this mortar were put into a basket fitted to the bore, and placed on a wooden bottom which covers the mouth of the chamber.

Stony Point. A village in Orange Co., N. Y., on the west bank of the Hudson River, at the head of Haverstraw Bay, 42 miles north of New York. The capture of the fort at this place by Gen. Wayne, on July 16, 1779, is justly considered one of the most brilliant exploits performed during the Revolutionary war. The fortifications were destroyed and abandoned on July 18.

Stoppage of Pay. Where pay is stopped on account of arrears to the United States, the party whose pay is stopped may demand a suit, and the agent of the treasury is required to institute a suit within sixty days thereafter.

Stoppages. In the British service, are the deductions from a soldier’s pay, the better to provide him with necessaries, etc.; also stoppage for the subsistence of the sick.

Store-keeper, Military. An officer specially appointed for the care of military stores. The law discontinues this grade in the U.S. service by casualties.

Stores, Military. The arms, ammunition, clothing, provisions, etc., pertaining to an army, is so called. In the United States all public stores taken in the enemy’s camp, towns, forts, or magazines, shall be secured for the service of the United States; for the neglect of which the commanding officer is to be answerable.

Storm. A violent assault on a fortified place; a furious attempt of troops to enter and take a fortified place by scaling the walls, forcing the gates, and the like. Also, to assault; to attack and attempt to take by scaling the walls, forcing gates or breaches, and the like; as, to storm a fortified town.

Storming-party. A party assigned to the duty of first entering the breach in storming a fortress.

Stourton, or Stour Head. A village of England, in Wiltshire, about 23 miles west from Salisbury. The Britons were defeated here in 658 by the Saxons, and in 1010 and 1025 the Danes also encountered the Saxons near this place.

Stragglers. Are individuals who wander from the line of march; and it is the duty of the rear-guard to pick up all such stragglers.

Strains. See Ordnance, Strains Upon.

Stralsund. A fortified town and seaport of Prussia, province of Pomerania, on a narrow strait called Strela Sunda, which divides the mainland from the island of RÜgen. It was founded in 1209 by Prince Jaromar of RÜgen, became a member of the Hanse, and rapidly rose into importance. During the Thirty Years’ War, it was unsuccessfully besieged (1628) by Wallenstein; and after being, with some alternations of fortune, in the possession of Sweden for about 200 years, it finally passed to Prussia in 1815.

Strappado. A punishment formerly inflicted upon foreign soldiers by hoisting them up with their arms tied behind them, and then suddenly letting them down within a certain distance of the earth.

Strapped Ammunition. See Ordnance, Ammunition for.

Straps. Are decorations made of worsted, silk, gold, or silver, and worn upon the shoulders, without epaulette.

Strasbourg, or Strassburg. Formerly a fortified town of France, and capital of the department of Bas-Rhin, but in 1871 ceded to Germany, and capital of the province of Alsace, not far from the left bank of the Rhine, 312 miles east from Paris by railway. During the Middle Ages it was subject to the German emperors, and was the capital of Alsace, but along with that province it was ceded to Louis XIV. in 1681. Subsequently its defenses were greatly improved under the direction of Vauban. Strasbourg was invested by the Germans, principally from Baden, during the Franco-Prussian war, August 10, 1870. Gen. von Werder assumed the command of the besiegers, and the bombardment began August 14, and a vigorous sally was repulsed August 16. Gen. Uhrich, the commander, declared that he would not surrender except upon a heap of ashes. After a heroic resistance, and when a breach had been made and an assault was impending, notice was given September 27, and the place surrendered at 2 A.M., September 28; at 8 A.M. 17,150 men and 400 officers laid down their arms. The German loss was said to be 906 men, of whom 43 were officers. The Germans entered Strasbourg, September 30, the anniversary of its surrender to the French in 1681 by a surprise. Uhrich received the grand cross of the Legion of Honor, October, 1870. About 400 houses and the invaluable library were destroyed, the cathedral injured, and 8000 persons rendered homeless.

Stratagem. In war, is any scheme or plan for the deceiving and surprising an army, or any body of men.

Stratarithmetry. The art of drawing up an army, or any given number of men, in any geometrical figure, or of estimating or expressing the number of men in such a figure.

Strategetics. The science of military movements; generalship.

Strategic, or Strategical. Pertaining to strategy; effected by artifice.

Strategic Point. Any point or region in the theatre of warlike operations which affords to its possessor an advantage over his opponent.

Strategical Fronts. The portion of the theatre of war in front of any position occupied by an army as it advances, is termed the front of operations. That part which is directly in front of an army, or which can be reached in two or three days, forms simply a front. When the whole extent lying between the two hostile armies is considered, the term strategical front is applied.

Strategical Lines. See Lines, Strategical.

Strategical Points. Every point of the theatre of war, the possession of which is of great importance to an army in its military operations, is a strategical point. These are points which an army acting on the offensive strives to gain and the army on the defensive strives to retain.

Strategist. One skilled in strategy, or the science of directing great military movements.

Strategos (invented by Lieut. C. A. L. Totten, 4th U.S. Artillery). The American “game of war,” which takes its name from the Greek word strategos, the title of an Athenian general officer, derived in turn from stratos, “an army,” and ago, “I lead;” the secondary meaning of this term being a board or council of ten Athenians chosen annually to conduct the war department at home. The game of strategos is divided into six separate ones, or studies, of gradually increasing importance, and is far more comprehensive than the foreign war games, which have little in common with the subaltern and the student, and are so complicated as to excite interest only among the most profound and advanced scholars of military science. The six parts of strategos are: (1) The “minor tactical game,” which embraces all the details of the tactics of each of the three arms. (2) “Grand tactics,” embracing the topographical and strategical game, for the general elucidation of the grand principles of this branch of military science. (3) The “historical game,” for the study of historical battles and campaigns. (4) “Text-book illustration.” (5) A “battle game,” based upon military principles and precepts, which is calculated to instruct as well as interest without fatiguing that large class of students whose patience would not stand the close application required in a more advanced game. (6) The “advanced game,” which affords to the professional military student every opportunity for pursuing studies commenced in more elementary fields to their legitimate termination. It is only in the “advanced game” that strategos solves the same problem attempted by the Germans in kriegspiel, and other military nations in various alterations and improvements upon the great original. War games are by no means of such modern invention as may at first appear; chess is a very ancient “battle game,” and checkers one in which decisive concentration plays a most important part. During the last century two games, the jeu de la guerre and the jeu de la fortification, appeared in France and were played with cards. These games differ, however, entirely from the modern ones. Kriegspiel, the father of modern war games, was the invention of a civilian, Herr von Reitwitz, the details of which his son, a Prussian artillery officer, carefully improved. It rapidly grew into military favor, and since 1824, when it was first mentioned by officers of note, has undergone many modifications except as to its underlying principles. Von Moltke himself some twenty years ago was the president of a society whose special object was to play this game, and the great skill of Prussian officers and their success in their late wars is in no small degree to be attributed to this game, familiarity with which has become a sort of necessary step in advancement in the Prussian army. The American game possesses all the valuable features of kriegspiel, and some noticeable improvements thereon as to method, men, tables, etc., while it possesses the peculiar advantages of having elementary games of special interest to all classes of military men. The cost of this game is about $50.

Strategus (Strategos). Any Athenian general officer was so called.

Strategy. Is defined by military writers to be the science of manoeuvring an army out of fire of the enemy, as tactics is the art of managing it in battle or under fire. Strategy is the greater science, as including all those vast combinations which lead to the subsequent available displays of tactics.

A movement of the army is said to be strategical when by its means there are concentrated at a given point troops superior in numbers to those of the enemy; or, at this point, there is gained a position by which the enemy’s communications with his base are cut or threatened while those of the army are secure; or, a position is gained by which the forces of the enemy are separated, or are prevented from acting in concert. Strategical operations are directed to attain one or more of these objects; and the line followed by an army in an operation of this kind is called a strategical line. The area of country or territory in any part of which the hostile forces can come into collision is termed the theatre of war.

There may be employed in a given theatre of war several armies or only one. If there are several armies, but each acting independently of the others, or if there is only one, the particular portion of the territory in which each act is termed the theatre of operations for that army.

A theatre of operations of an army may be defined to be all the territory it may desire to invade, and all that it may have to defend. Where several armies are employed, acting in concert, the theatre of operations of each army depends upon the movements of the other armies, and the theatres of operations of each army in this case are usually designated as zones of operations; although this term is also applied to those three divisions of a theatre of operations lying directly in advance of the centre and flanks of a front of operations. Whatever is true for a theatre of operations of an army acting alone is equally true for the theatre of operations of several armies acting separately, and is also applicable to the whole theatre of war.

To make the above statements definite, suppose a single army acting in an independent theatre of operations. A general with such an army under his command proposing an advance towards the enemy will have three things to consider, viz.: (1) The place from which the army is to start; (2) The point to which the army is to go; (3) The roads or routes by which the army is to move in order to reach this point. The first, or place of starting, is termed the base of operations. The second, the point to be reached, is called the objective-point, or simply the objective. The third, the roads or routes used by the army in reaching the objective-point, is termed the line of operations. The portion of the theatre of operations occupied by the army as it advances is known as the front of operations.

Stratton-Hill, Battle of. In Cornwall, England, May 16, 1643, between the royal army under Sir Ralph Hopton, and the forces of the Parliament under the Earl of Stamford. The victory was gained over the Parliamentarians, who lost heavily in killed and wounded.

Strelitz, or properly Streltzi (“arquebuzziers”). The ancient Russian militia-guard, first raised by Ivan Vatsilevitch the Terrible, in the second half of the 16th century. At that time and for long afterwards, they were the only standing army in Russia, and at times amounted to between 40,000 and 50,000 men. They were located at Moscow in time of peace, in a quarter of the Capitol which was set apart for them, and being the bravest and most trustworthy troops in the army, were made objects of special favor and distinctions. But like all such petted corps, the Roman PrÆtorians, the Turkish Janissaries, and the Egyptian Mamelukes, their general turbulence, frequent revolts against the government (notably during the Demetrian insurrections), and incessant conspiracies, rendered them more formidable to the Russian government than to external enemies. The Strelitz having, at the instigation of the Grand Duchess Sophia and the chiefs of the Old Muscovite party, revolted against Peter the Great, that iron-handed ruler caused them to be decimated (1698) in the great square of Moscow, and the remainder to be banished to Astrakhan. The feeble remnant still manifesting their characteristic turbulence and disloyalty, Peter exterminated them almost completely in 1705. Few Russian families at present can claim kindred with the old Strelitz, but to this the family of Orloff forms a prominent exception, being descended from a Strelitz who was pardoned by Peter the Great while the axe was being raised over him.

Strength. This word may be variously understood in military matters. It means fortification; strongholds, etc. It likewise signifies armament; power; force. In all returns which are made of corps, strength implies the number of men that are borne upon the establishment, in contradistinction to effective force, which means the number fit for service.

Stretcher. A litter or frame for carrying sick, wounded, or dead persons.

Strict. Exact, severe, rigorous; the contrary to mild, indulgent. Hence, a strict officer. It is sometimes used in a bad sense, to signify a petulant, troublesome commander.

Striegau. A town of Prussia in Silesia, 29 miles southwest from Breslau. The Austrians were defeated by the Prussians under Frederick the Great near this town in 1745.

Strife. Contention in battle;, contest; struggle for victory; quarrel of war.

Strike. This word is variously used in military phraseology; as, to strike a tent, is to loosen the cords of a tent which has been regularly pitched, and to have it ready, in a few minutes, to throw upon a baggage-wagon. To strike terror into an enemy, is to cause alarm and apprehension in him; to make him dread the effects of superior skill and valor. To strike a blow, to make some decisive effort.

Stripes. The chevrons on the coats of non-commissioned officers are sometimes so called.

Strong. Well fortified; able to sustain attacks; not easily subdued or taken; as, a strong fortress or town. Having great military or naval force; powerful; as, a strong army or fleet; a nation strong at sea.

Stronghold. A fastness; a fort or fortress; a fortified place; a place of security.

Struggle, To. To make extraordinary exertion in direct contest with an enemy, or against superior forces.

Stuhlweissenburg. A town of Austria, in Hungary, 37 miles southwest from Buda-Pesth. It was besieged and taken from the Turks by the Austrians under the Duke of Mercoeur, in September, 1601; was besieged and captured by the Turks in August, 1602; and was besieged and taken by assault by the Austrians on September 6, 1688.

Stuhm. A town of West Prussia, 13 miles north-northeast of Marienwerder. Here a battle was fought between the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus and the Poles under Gen. Koniecpolski, June 17, 1629.

Stuttgart, or Stutgard. The capital of WÜrtemberg, Germany, 38 miles east-southeast from Carlsruhe. During the wars of Louis XIV., Stuttgart was thrice taken; and again in 1796, 1800, and 1801.

Stylet. A small poniard or dagger; a stiletto.

Styra (now Stura). A town in Euboea, on the southwest coast, nearly opposite Marathon in Attica. The inhabitants took an active part in the Persian war, and fought at Artemisium, Salamis, and PlatÆÆ. They afterwards became subject to the Athenians. The town was destroyed in the Lamian war by the Athenian general PhÆdrus, and its territory was annexed to Eretia.

Suabia, Swabia, or Suevia (Ger. Schwaben). An ancient duchy in the southwest of Germany, so named from a horde of Suevi, who spread over it in the 5th century; was a great duchy of the Frank empire till the 8th century. In 918, it was acknowledged a ducal fief of the empire; and after changing hands several times, it was bestowed upon Count Frederick of Hohenstaufen, the founder of the illustrious house of that name, also known as the house of Suabia. Under the rule of this prince, Suabia became the most rich, civilized, and powerful country of Germany; but the wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, and the quarrel with the French respecting Naples, put an end to the dynasty in 1268. The ducal vassals of Suabia rendered themselves almost independent, and professed to acknowledge no lord but the emperor. During these dissensions arose the lordships of WÜrtemberg and Baden, with numerous lesser states, holding direct of the crown, and opposed to them the cities, which strove also for an equal independence, and obtained, in 1347, great additional privileges. A number of them united to make common cause against the neighboring feudal lords in 1376 (known as the “First Suabian League”); an opposite league was formed between WÜrtemberg, Baden, and seventeen towns in 1405, called the “League of Marbach”; and both took part in the war of Swiss independence, the former in support of the Swiss, the latter of the Austrians. At last the towns, which had been increasing in power, decided at Ulm, in 1449, to form a standing army, and a permanent military commission, for the forcible preservation, if necessary, of peace and order; and the Count of WÜrtemberg, the most powerful of the opposite party, having joined them, was appointed military chief of the league, which ultimately grew up into the “Great Suabian League,” which effectively repressed feudal quarrels. In 1512, Suabia became one of the ten circles into which Germany was now divided, received its complete organization in 1563, and retained it almost without change till the dissolution of the empire in 1806. But during this period, the wars of the towns with WÜrtemberg, the Peasants’ war, of which Suabia was one of the foci, the Thirty Years’ War, and those between France and the empire, destroyed the democratic constitution of the towns, and with it their energy, and then their prosperity disappeared, leaving now no relic which could suggest their former great importance.

Subadar. A native officer in a native East Indian infantry regiment holding a rank corresponding to that of captain.

Subadar-Major. In the East Indies, is the native commandant of a native infantry regiment.

Subaltern. A commissioned officer below the rank of captain. But strictly speaking every officer is a subaltern to the grades above him, as the captain is subaltern to the major, and so upward.

Sub-Brigadier. An officer in the Horse Guards who ranks as cornet.

Subdivision. The parts of a regiment on parade distinguished by a second division. Thus, a company divided forms two subdivisions.

Subdue. To bring under; to conquer by force or the exertion of superior power, and bring into permanent subjection; to reduce under dominion. To overpower so as to disable from further resistance; to crush.

Subdur. In the East Indies signifies a chief.

Subjugate. To subdue and bring under the yoke of power or dominion; to conquer by force, and compel to submit to the government or absolute control of another.

Sub-Lieutenant. In the British service, is the lowest commissioned rank in infantry and cavalry.

Subordinary, or Subordinate Ordinary. In heraldry, a name given to a certain class of charges mostly formed of straight or curved lines. Heralds vary a little in their enumeration, but the following are generally held to come within this category: the Bordure, the Orle, the Tressure, the Flanche, the Pile, the Pall, the Quarter, the Canton, the Gyron, the Fret, the Inescutcheon, the Lozenge, the Fusil, and the Mascle. Some heraldic writers account the Pile an ordinary, and the diminutives of the ordinaries are sometimes ranked as subordinaries.

Subordination. A perfect submission to the orders of superiors; a perfect dependence, regulated by the rights and duties of every military man, from the soldier to the general. Subordination should show the spirit of the chief in all the members; and this single idea, which is manifest to the dullest apprehension, suffices to show its importance. Without subordination it is impossible that a corps can support itself; that its motions can be directed, order established, or the service carried on. In effect, it is subordination that gives a soul and harmony to the service; it adds strength to authority, and merit to obedience; and while it secures the efficacy of command, reflects honor upon its execution. It is subordination which prevents every disorder, and procures every advantage to an army.

Subsidy. A stipulated sum of money, paid by one prince to another in pursuance of a treaty of alliance for offensive or defensive war. Subsidiary troops, are the troops of a nation assisting those of another, for a given sum or subsidy.

Subsist. To support with provisions; to feed; to maintain.

Subsistence. This word may be divided into two sorts, namely, that species of subsistence which is found in an adjacent country, such as forage, and frequently corn; and that which is provided at a distance, and regularly supplied by means of a well-conducted commissary. The latter consists chiefly of meat, bread, etc. To these may be added wood or coals, and straw; which are always wanted in an army.

Subsistence Department. A department which provides subsistence stores for the army, either by contract or purchase. The U.S. subsistence department consists of 1 brigadier-general, 2 colonels, 3 lieutenant-colonels, 8 majors, and 12 captains. See Commissariat.

Substitute, Military. In nations where conscription is resorted to for the supply of soldiers for the army, the lot often falls on those unwilling to serve in person. In such a case, the state agrees to accept the services of a substitute,—that is, of a person of equally good physique. Unless the levy be very extensive, or the term of military service very long, substitutes are readily found among military men who have already served their prescribed period. Of course, the substitute must be paid for the risk he runs. His price depends, like all other salable articles, on the demand and supply.

Succeedant. In heraldry, succeeding one another, following.

Success of Arms. The good luck, or fortune, which attends military operations, and upon which the fate of a nation frequently depends. Success is indispensable to the reputation of a general. It often hallows rash and unauthorized measures.

Succession of Rank. Relative gradation according to the dates of commission.

Succession Wars. These wars were of frequent occurrence in Europe, between the middle of the 17th and the middle of the 18th centuries, on the occasion of the failure of a sovereign house. The most important of these was that of the Orleans succession to the Palatinate (1686-97), closed by the peace of Ryswick; of the Spanish succession (1700-13), which was distinguished by the achievements of the Duke of Marlborough and the Earl of Peterborough, and their unprofitable results, arose on the question whether an Austrian prince or a French prince should succeed to the throne of Spain; of the Polish succession (1733-38), closed by the peace of Vienna; of the Austrian succession (1740-48); and of the Bavarian succession (1777-79), called, in ridicule, the Potato war. Of these, the second and fourth were by far the most important.

Successive Pontons. See Pontons.

Sudbury. A town in Middlesex Co., Mass., 20 miles west by north from Boston. A battle was fought here on April 18, 1776, in which Capt. S. Wadsworth and two-thirds of his men were killed by the Indians, in King Philip’s war.

Suessiones, or Suessones. A powerful people in Gallia Belgica, who were reckoned the bravest of all the Belgic Gauls after the Bellovaci, and who could bring 50,000 men into the field in CÆsar’s time. Their king Divitiacus, shortly before CÆsar’s arrival in the country, was reckoned the most powerful chief in all Gaul, and had extended his sovereignty even over Britain. The Suessiones dwelt in an extensive and fertile country east of the Bellovaci, south of the Veromandui, and west of the Remi. They possessed twelve towns, of which the capital was Noviodunum, subsequently Augusta Suessonum, or Suessones.

Suevi. One of the greatest and most powerful races of Germany, or, more properly speaking, the collective name of a great number of German tribes, who were grouped together on account of their migratory mode of life, and spoken of in opposition to the more settled tribes, who went under the general name of IngÆvones. The Suevi are described by all the ancient writers as occupying the greater half of all Germany; but the accounts vary respecting the part of the country which they inhabited. At a later time the collective name of the Suevi gradually disappeared. In the second half of the 2d century, however, we again find a people called Suevi, dwelling between the mouth of the Main and the Black Forest, whose name is still preserved in the modern Suabia; but this people was only a body of bold adventurers from various German tribes, who assumed the celebrated name of the Suevi in consequence of their not possessing any distinguishing appellation.

Suisses (Fr.). The Swiss soldiers who were in the pay of France previous to August 10, 1792, were generally so called. It was also a general term to signify stipendiary troops.

Suliots. A people in and around the valley of Acheron, the southern corner of the pashalic of Janina (Epirus), in Turkey in Europe, are a mixed race, being partly of Hellenic and partly of Albanian origin. They are the descendants of a number of families who fled from the Turkish oppressors to the mountains of Suli (whence they derive their name) during the 17th century. In this obscure corner of the Turkish empire they prospered, and towards the close of the 18th century numbered 560 families. For about fifteen years they heroically resisted the encroachments of Ali Pasha of Janina upon their independence, the very women taking part in the strife. Vanquished in 1803, they retreated to Parga, and afterwards to the Ionian Islands, where they remained till 1820, when their old oppressor, Ali Pasha, finding himself hard pressed by the Turks, invoked their aid. Eager to return to their cherished home, they accepted his terms, and under Marcos Bozzaris maintained a long and desperate conflict with the Turks, but were ultimately forced again to flee from their country, and take refuge to the number of 3000 in Cephalonia, though a large remnant preferred to skulk in the neighboring mountains. Though, after this, they took an active and glorious part in the war of Greek independence, their country was not included by the treaty of 1829 within the Greek boundary-line, but many of them, as Bozzaris (son of Marcos) and Tzavellas, have since been raised to important political offices in the new kingdom of Greece.

Sulphur. A simple mineral substance, of a yellow color, brittle, insoluble in water, easily fusible and inflammable;—called also brimstone,—that is, burn-stone, from its great combustibility. It burns with a blue flame and a peculiar suffocating odor. It is an ingredient of gunpowder (which see).

Sultan, or Sultaun. An Arabic word signifying the “mighty man,” and evidently closely connected with the Hebrew word shalal, “to rule,” is in the East an ordinary title of Mohammedan princes. It is given, par excellence, to the supreme head of the Ottoman empire. It is applied in Egypt to the ruler of that country, and is also retained by the heir of the former reigning line of the Crim-Tartars. Sultana is the title of the wife of a sultan.

Sumatra. The most westerly of the Sunda Islands, lies southwest of the Malay peninsula, from which it is separated by the Strait of Malacca. When the Portuguese landed here, in 1509, they found that the ancient Malay kingdom of Menangcabau had been dissolved; but there was a powerful monarch ruling over Acheen, who endeavored to exclude the strangers from his country. In 1575, the Portuguese shipping in the harbor of Acheen was destroyed by the natives, and in 1582, an attempt which they made to gain possession of the town proved quite unsuccessful. In 1600, the Dutch established a factory at Pulo Chinko, on the west coast. The kingdom of Acheen had by this time begun to decline in power, being distracted by internal wars and discords: The Dutch rapidly increased the number of their factories and settlements, founding one at Padang in 1649, at Palembang in 1664. The English followed the Dutch in this island, and founded a colony at Bencoolen in 1685. In 1811, the Dutch settlements in the East Indies fell into the hands of the British, but were restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1816. A singular war which took place in Sumatra led to a material extension of the Dutch possession. It was occasioned by a religious sect called Padries. About 1815 a society of this sect was formed for the purpose of spreading their doctrines and practices by force; and this speedily roused resistance and opposition. The Malays and Battas made common cause against the Padries, and for a long time a fierce struggle was carried on, which devastated Menangcabau and the neighboring regions. At length, with the assistance of the Dutch, the sect was entirely put down. The indirect results of this war were the annexation of Menangcabau to the Dutch possessions in 1835, and the opening up to them of the Batta country, from which foreigners had previously been excluded. In 1865, an expedition was sent to force the king of Asahan, one of the small states on the northeast coast, to submit to the Dutch authority. In 1871 these settlements were sold to Great Britain.

Summon. To call upon to surrender; as, to summon a fort.

Summons. A call or invitation to surrender.

Sumpit. An arrow blown from the sumpitan in Borneo. The sumpitan is about 7 feet long; the arrow has been driven with some force at 130 yards. Some suppose it to be poison.

Sumter, Fort. See Fort Sumter.

Suncion, Treaty of. Between Gen. Urquiza, director of the Argentine Confederation, and C. A. Lopez, president of the republic of Paraguay, recognizing the independence of Paraguay, July 15, 1852.

Superannuated. Incapacitated for service, either from age or infirmity, and placed on a pension.

Supercharge. In heraldry, a bearing or figure placed upon another.

Superintendent. One who has the oversight and charge of something, with the power of direction; as the superintendent of recruiting service; superintendent of national cemeteries, etc.

Superior Officer. Any officer of higher rank, or who has priority in the same rank, by the date of his commission, etc.

Superior Slope. The upper surface of a parapet.

Supernumerary. Officers or men in excess of the establishment, but borne on the rolls of the corps till absorbed. Supernumeraries, or supernumerary rank, also signifies the officers and non-commissioned officers in the infantry, cavalry, etc., who are not included among rank and file, and stand in the third rank on parade, when the troops are drawn up in double ranks.

Supersede. Is to deprive an officer of rank and pay for any offense or neglect, or to place one officer over the head of another, who may or may not be more deserving.

Supply. Relief of want; making up deficiencies. A fresh supply of troops, ammunition, etc. To supply, to make up deficiencies. To aid; to assist; to relieve with something wanted. To fill any room made vacant. Thus, covering sergeants supply the places of officers when they step out of the ranks, or are killed in action.

Support. To aid, to assist; it likewise signifies to preserve untarnished; as, to support the ancient character of a corps. Well supported, is well aided or assisted. It likewise signifies well kept up; as, a well supported fire from the batteries; a well supported fire of musketry.

Support Arms. Is to hold the musket vertically on the left shoulder, supported by having the hammer rest on the left forearm, which is passed across the breast.

Supporters. In heraldry, figures placed on each side of an armorial shield, as it were to support it. They seem to have been, in their origin, a purely decorative invention of mediÆval seal-engravers, often, however, bearing allusion to the arms or descent of the bearer; but in the course of time their use came to be regulated by authority, and they were considered indicative that the bearer was the head of a family of eminence or distinction. The most usual supporters are animals, real or fabulous; but men in armor are also frequent, and savages, or naked men, often represented with clubs, and wreathed about the head and middle. There are occasional instances of inanimate supporters. On early seals, a single supporter is not unfrequent, and instances are particularly common of the escutcheon being placed on the breast of an eagle displayed. The common rule, however, has been to have a supporter on each side of the shield. The dexter supporter is very often repeated on the sinister side; but the two supporters are in many cases different; when the bearer represents two different families, it is not unusual for a supporter to be adopted from the achievement of each.

Suppress. To overpower and crush; to subdue; to put down; to quell; to destroy; as, the troops suppressed the rebellion.

Surat. A large but declining city of British India, 150 miles north of the city of Bombay, on the south shore of the Tapti, and 8 miles from its mouth in the Gulf of Cambay. Surat was sacked in 1512 by the Portuguese soon after their arrival in India. In 1612 an English force arrived here in two vessels, under the command of Capt. Best, who defeated the Portuguese, and obtained a firman from the Mogul emperor, authorizing the residence of a British minister, and established a factory. An attack of the Mahratta chief Sivajee on the British factory was defeated by Sir George Oxenden, 1664. The English were again attacked in 1670 and 1702, and often subsequently. The East India Company, in 1759, fitted out an armament which dispossessed the admiral of the castle (the Great Mogul had here an officer who was styled his admiral); and, soon after, the possession of this castle was confirmed to them by the court of Delhi. Surat was vested in the British by treaty in 1800 and 1803.

Surcingle. A belt, band, or girth, which passes over a saddle, or over anything laid on a horse’s back, to bind it fast.

Surcoat. A short coat worn over the other garments; especially the long and flowing drapery of knights, anterior to the introduction of plate-armor, and which was frequently emblazoned with the arms of a family.

Surface. In fortification, that part of the side which is terminated by the flank prolonged, and the angle of the nearest bastion; the double of this line with the curtain is equal to the exterior side.

Surgeon. A staff-officer of the medical department. He has the rank of major, but “shall not in virtue of such rank be entitled to command in the line or other staff departments of the army.”

Surgeon-General. The chief of the medical department, with the rank of brigadier-general, but subject to the same restriction of command as other officers of the medical department.

Surgeons, Acting Assistant- (Contract). In the U.S. army, are physicians employed from civil life, at a certain compensation, to perform the duties required of commissioned medical officers, when the number of the latter is insufficient. While they have no rank they still have the allowances of an assistant-surgeon (first lieutenant). A physician so employed cannot displace a commissioned officer by choice of quarters; but to obviate being displaced by a commissioned officer, the commanding officer of a post may assign him an allowance of first lieutenant’s quarters near the hospital, under the provisions authorizing the commanding officer to assign quarters to officers convenient to their troops. Acting assistant-surgeons are entitled to the same protection and respectful conduct from enlisted men as commissioned officers are, so far as relates to their duties as surgeons. A contract physician in the army is regarded as a “quasi-officer.”

Surgery, Military. Restricted to its rigorous signification, military surgery is the surgical practice in armies; but in its broad and ordinary acceptation embraces many other branches of art comprehending the practice of medicine, sanitary precautions, hospital administration, ambulances, etc. The military surgeon must not only be a skillful physician and surgeon, but he must have a constitution sufficiently strong to resist the fatigues of war, and all inclemencies of weather; a solid judgment and a generous activity in giving prompt assistance to the wounded without distinction of rank or grade, and without even excluding enemies. He must have the courage to face dangers without the power, in all cases, of combating them; he must have great coolness in order to act and operate in the most difficult positions, whether amidst the movement of troops, the shock of arms, the cries of the wounded when crowded together, in a charge, in a retreat, in intrenchments, under the ramparts of a besieged place, or at a breach. He must have inventive ingenuity which will supply the wants of the wounded in extreme cases, and a compassionate heart, with strength of will which will inspire confidence in those with whom he is brought so closely in contact. The military surgeon, with his flying ambulance, throws himself into the field of battle, through the mÊlÉe, under the fire of the enemy, runs the risk of being taken prisoner, being wounded, or being killed, and is worthy of all the honors that should be bestowed on bravery and skill in the performance of his high functions. Additional grades, as hospital-surgeons, surgeons of divisions, surgeons-in-chief, and inspector-generals of hospitals, etc., are required for every army in the field.

Surinam, or Dutch Guiana. A Dutch colony in South America, situated between English and French Guiana. The factories established here by the English in 1640, were occupied by the Portuguese in 1643; by the Dutch, 1654; captured by the English in 1804; and restored to the Dutch in 1814.

Surmounted. In heraldry, a term used to indicate that one charge is to be placed over another of different color or metal, which may respectively be blazoned: sable, a pile argent surmounted by a chevron gules; and, argent, a cross gules surmounted by another or.

Surprise. In war, to fall on an enemy unexpectedly, in marching through narrow and difficult passes, when one part of an army has passed, and is not able to come at once to the succor of the other; as in the passage of woods, rivers, inclosures, etc. A place is surprised by drains, casements, or the issues of rivers or canals; by encumbering the bridge or gate, or by wagons meeting and stopping each other; or by sending soldiers into the place, under pretense of being deserters, who, on entering, surprise the guard, being sustained by troops at hand in ambush, to whom they give entrance, and thereby seize the place. Military history abounds with instances of successful surprises.

Surrender. To lay down your arms, and give yourself up as a prisoner of war. Also, the act of giving up, as the surrender of a town or garrison.

Surrey. One of the smallest of the English counties, has the Thames for its northern boundary, Berkshire and Hampshire on the west, Sussex on the south, and Kent on the east. Before the Roman era, Surrey formed a portion of the dominions of a Celtic tribe, named by Ptolemy the Regni, and after the Roman conquest was merged into the province of Britannica Prima, though, for many years, it retained its native princes, or subreguli. Eventually it was swallowed up in the territory of the South Saxons, and reduced by Kenulf, king of Wessex, about 760, into that progressive kingdom which Alfred brought into constitutional harmony and national completeness. From the period of the Norman conquest, Surrey can claim no separate annals. At Kingston, Surrey, in 1642, took place the first military movement of the great civil war; a body of royalists unsuccessfully attempting to seize upon its magazine of arms. And there, on July 7, 1648, Lord Francis Villiers (Dryden’s “Zimri”), met his death in the skirmish which closed the famous struggle.

Surround. In sieges, to invest; in tactics, to outflank and cut off the means of retreating.

Surrounded. Inclosed; invested. A town is said to be surrounded when its principal outlets are blocked up; and an army, when its flanks are turned, and its retreat cut off.

Surtout (Fr.). In fortification, is the elevation of the parapet of a work at the angles to protect from enfilade fire.

Survey, Boards of. See Boards of Survey.

Susa (in the Old Testament Shushan; ruins at Shus). The winter residence of the Persian kings, stood in the district Cissia of the province of Susiana, on the eastern bank of the river Choaspes. It was conquered by Antigonus in 315 B.C. It was once more attacked by Molo in his rebellion against Antiochus the Great; and during the Arabian conquest of Persia it held out bravely for a long time, defended by Hormuzan.

Suspend. To delay, to protract; hence, to suspend hostilities. It is likewise used to express the act of temporarily depriving an officer of rank and pay, in consequence of some offense. See Appendix, Articles of War, 101.

Suspension of Arms. A short truce which contending parties agree upon, in order to bury their dead without danger or molestation, to wait for succors, or to receive instructions from a superior authority. Suspension of hostilities, to cease attacking one another.

Sussex. A maritime county in the south of England. Ælla and his sons were the first Saxons who landed on the Sussex coast, 477. They assaulted and captured Wittering, near Chichester, spreading afterwards through the vast Andredsleas with fire and sword, and finally establishing the South-Sexe, or Sussex kingdom. The sea-board of Sussex suffered terribly from the ravages of the Danish jarls. Within its limits was fought (October 14, 1066) the memorable battle which overthrew the Saxon dynasty, and eventually resulted in that union of Saxon solidity and Norman enterprise now recognized as distinctive of the English character. See Lewes for important battle in 1264. The French fleet, under D’Annebaut, made an attack on Brighton in 1545, and landed a body of troops, who were stoutly resisted by the natives, and compelled to retire. In 1643, the Parliamentarian forces, under Sir William Waller, besieged Chichester, which after ten days surrendered. The same leader, later in the year, beleaguered Arundel Castle for seventeen days, and reduced it to a heap of ruins. For naval combat off the Sussex coast, see Beachy Head.

Sustain. To sustain is to aid, succor, or support, any body of men in action or defense.

Sutherland. A county in the extreme north of Scotland. Sutherland received its name from the Northmen, who frequently descended upon and pillaged it prior to the 12th century, and called it the Southern Land, as being the limit on the south of their settlements.

Sutler. A camp-follower, who sells drink and provisions to the troops. See Canteen, and Post-trader.

Swad, or Swadkin. A newly-raised soldier.

Swaddie. A discharged soldier.

Swallow’s-tail. In fortification, an outwork, differing from a single tenaille, as its sides are not parallel, like those of a tenaille; but if prolonged, would meet and form an angle on the middle of the curtain; and its head, or front, composed of faces, forming a re-entering angle.

Sway. The swing or sweep of a weapon. “To strike with huge two-handed sway.”

Sweaborg, or Sveaborg. A great Russian fortress and seaport, in Finland, government of Viborg, sometimes called “the Gibraltar of the North.” In 1789 it was taken from Sweden by Russia. During the Crimean war it was bombarded by the Anglo-French fleet in the Baltic (on August 9-10, 1855). Twenty-one mortar-vessels were towed to within about 2 miles (3400 metres) of the centre of the Russian arsenal, while the gunboats of the squadron, keeping in constant motion, approached to a distance of 2000 or 3000 metres. The fire was maintained forty-five hours, during which 4150 projectiles (2828 of which were mortar-shells) were thrown into the place, killing and wounding 2000 men, and destroying magazines, supplies, and shipping.

Sweden. A kingdom in the north of Europe, and forming with Norway (with which it is now united under one monarchy), the whole of the peninsula known by the name of Scandinavia. The earliest traditions of Sweden, like those of most other countries, present only a mass of fables. The dawn of Swedish history (properly so called) now begins, and we find the Swedes constantly at war with their neighbors of Norway and Denmark, and busily engaged in piratical enterprises against the eastern shores of the Baltic. In 1155, Eric, surnamed the Saint, undertook a crusade against the pagan Finns, compelled them to submit, established Swedish settlements among them, and laid the foundation of the closer union of Finland with Sweden. Eric’s defeat and murder, in 1161, by the ambitious young Danish prince Magnus Henriksen, who had made an unprovoked attack upon the Swedish king, was the beginning of a long series of troubles, and during the following 200 years, one short and stormy reign was brought to a violent end by murder or civil war, only to be succeeded by another equally short and disturbed; until, at length, the throne was offered by the Swedish nobles to Margaret, queen of Denmark and Norway, who threw an army into Sweden, defeated the Swedish king, Albert of Mecklenburg, and by the union of Calmar, in 1397, brought Sweden under one joint sceptre with Denmark and Norway. Sweden emancipated itself from the union with Denmark in 1523. Gustavus I. (Gustaf Vasa) on his death, in 1560, left to his successor a hereditary and well-organized kingdom, a full exchequer, a standing army, and a well-appointed navy. John, brother of Eric XIV., ascended the throne in 1568, which he occupied for nearly a quarter of a century, dying in 1592, after a stormy reign, stained by the cruel murder of his unfortunate brother Eric, and distracted by the internal dissensions arising from his attempts to force Catholicism on the people, and the disastrous wars with the Danes, Poles, and Russians. John’s son and successor, Sigismund, after a stormy reign of eight years, was compelled to resign the throne. The deposition of Sigismund gave rise to the Swedo-Polish war of succession, which continued from 1604 to 1660; and on the death of Charles IX. in 1611, his son and successor, the great Gustavus Adolphus, found himself involved in hostilities with Russia, Poland, and Denmark. With Charles XII. the male line of the Vasas expired, and his sister and her husband, Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, were called to the throne by election, but were the mere puppets of the nobles, whose rivalries and party dissensions plunged the country into calamitous wars and almost equally disastrous treaties of peace. Gustavus IV. lacked the ability to cope with the difficulties of the times, and after suffering in turn for his alliance with France, England, and Russia, was forcibly deposed in 1809, and his successor, Charles XIII., saw himself compelled at once to conclude a humiliating peace with Russia by a cession of nearly a fourth part of the Swedish territories, with 1,500,000 inhabitants; Gen. Bernadotte was elected to the rank of crown-prince, and he assumed the reins of the government, and by his steady support of the allies against the French emperor, secured to Sweden, at the congress of Vienna, the possession of Norway, when that country was separated from Denmark. Under the able administration of Bernadotte, who, in 1818, succeeded to the throne as Charles XIV., the united kingdoms of Sweden and Norway made great advances in material prosperity and political and intellectual progress.

Sweep. To clear or brush away; as, the cannon swept everything before it.

Swell of the Muzzle. In gunnery, is the largest part of the gun in front of the neck. See Ordnance, Construction of, Molding.

Swiss Guards. See Gardes Suisses.

Switzerland. A federal republic in Central Europe; bounded on the north by Baden, northeast by WÜrtemberg and Bavaria, east by the principality of Liechtenstein and the Tyrol, south by Piedmont and Savoy, and west and northwest by France. Switzerland was in Roman times inhabited by two races,—the Helvetii on the northwest, and the RhÆtians on the southeast. When the invasions took place, the Burgundians settled in Western Switzerland, while the Alemanni took possession of the country east of the Aar. The Goths entered the country from Italy, and took possession of the country of the RhÆtians. Switzerland in the early part of the Middle Ages formed part of the German empire, and feudalism sprang up in the Swiss highlands even more vigorously than elsewhere. During the 11th and 12th centuries, the greater part of Switzerland was ruled on behalf of the emperors by the lords of Zahringen, who did much to check civil wars. They, however, became extinct in 1218, and then the country was distracted by wars, which broke out among the leading families. The great towns united in self-defense, and many of them obtained imperial charters. Rudolph of Habsburg, who became emperor in 1273, favored the independence of the towns; but his son Albert I. took another course. He attacked the great towns, and was defeated. The leading men of the Forest Cantons met on the RÜtli meadow, on November 7, 1307, and resolved to expel the Austrian bailiffs or landvÖgte. A war ensued which terminated in favor of the Swiss at Morgarten (which see) in 1315. Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden, with Lucerne, ZÜrich, Glarus, Zug, and Bern, eight cantons in all, in 1352, entered into a perpetual league, which was the foundation of the Swiss Confederation. Other wars with Austria followed, which terminated favorably for the confederates at Nafels (which see) and Sempach (which see). In 1415, the people of the cantons became the aggressors. They invaded Aargau and Thurgau, parts of the Austrian territory, and annexed them; three years later, they crossed the Alps, and annexed Ticino, and constituted all three subject states. The Swiss were next engaged in a struggle on the French frontier with Charles the Bold of Burgundy. They entered the field with 34,000 men, to oppose an army of 60,000, and yet they were successful, gaining the famous battles of Granson and Morat (see Morat) in 1476. In 1499, the emperor Maximilian I. made a final attempt to bring Switzerland once more within the bounds of the empire. He sought to draw men and supplies from the inhabitants for his Turkish war, but in vain. He was defeated in six desperate engagements. Basel and Schaffhausen (1501), and Appenzell (1513), were then received into the confederation, and its true independence began. New troubles sprang up with the Reformation. War broke out in 1531 between the Catholics and Protestants, and the former were successful at Cappel (which see), where Zwingli was slain. This victory to some extent settled the boundaries of the two creeds; in 1536, however, Bern wrested the Pays de Vaud from the dukes of Savoy. During the Thirty Years’ War, Bern and ZÜrich contrived to maintain with great skill the neutrality of Switzerland, and in the treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, it was acknowledged by the great powers as a separate and independent state. At this period, the Swiss, in immense numbers, were employed as soldiers in foreign service, and the record of their exploits gives ample evidence of their courage and hardihood. In 1798, Switzerland was seized by the French. At the peace of 1815, its independence was again acknowledged. In 1839, at ZÜrich, a mob of peasants, headed by the Protestant clergy, overturned the government. In Valais, where universal suffrage had put power into the hands of the reactionary party, a war took place in which the latter were victorious. In 1844, a proposal was made in the Diet to expel the Jesuits; but that body declined to act. The radical party then organized bodies of armed men, called the Free Corps, which invaded the Catholic cantons; but they were defeated. The Catholic cantons then formed a league, named the Sonderbund, for defense against the Free Corps. A majority in the Diet, in 1847, declared the illegality of the Sonderbund, and decreed the expulsion of the Jesuits. In the war which ensued between the federal army and the forces of the Sonderbund, the former were victorious at Freiburg and Lucerne. The leagued cantons were made liable in all the expenses of the war, the Jesuits were expelled, and the monasteries were suppressed. Since then, the most important event which has occurred was a rebellion against the king of Prussia, as prince of NeufchÂtel. The canton was declared a republic, with a constitution similar to that of the other Swiss states.

Swivel. A small piece of ordnance, turning on a point or swivel.

Sword. A well-known weapon of war, the introduction of which dates beyond the ken of history. It may be defined as a blade of steel, having one or two edges, set in a hilt, and used with a motion of the whole arm. Damascus and Toledo blades have been brought to such perfection, that the point can be made to touch the hilt and to fly back to its former position. In the last century every gentleman wore a sword; now the use of the weapon is almost confined to purposes of war. Among the forms of the sword are the rapier, cutlass, broadsword, scimiter, sabre, etc.

Sword Law. When a thing is enforced, without a due regard being paid to established rules and regulations, it is said to be carried by sword law, or by the will of the strongest.

Sword, Order of the. A Swedish military order of knighthood, instituted by Gustavus Vasa.

Sword-arm. The right arm.

Sword-bayonet. Short arms, as carbines, are sometimes furnished with a bayonet made in the form of a sword. The back of the handle has a groove, which fits upon a stud upon the barrel, and the cross-piece has a hole which fits the barrel. The bayonet is prevented from slipping off by a spring-catch. The sword-bayonet is ordinarily carried as a side-arm, for which purpose it is well adapted, having a curved cutting edge as well as sharp point.

Sword-bearer. In monarchical countries, is the title given to the public officer who bears the sword of state.

Sword-bearers, Knights. A community similar to, though much less distinguished than, the Teutonic Knights.

Sword-belt. A belt made of leather, that hung over the right shoulder of an officer, by which his sword was suspended on the left side. This belt is no longer used, as the sword is now suspended from the waist-belt.

Sword-blade. The blade or cutting part of a sword.

Sword-cane. A cane containing a sword.

Sword-cutler. One who makes swords.

Sworded. Girded with a sword.

Sword-fight. Fencing; a combat or trial of skill with swords.

Sword-knot. A ribbon tied to the hilt of a sword. In the United States, all general officers wear a gold cord with acorn ends, and all other officers, a gold lace strap, with gold bullion tassel; the enlisted men of cavalry wear a leathern strap with a bullion tassel of the same material.

Sword-player. A fencer; a gladiator; one who exhibits his skill in the use of the sword.

Swordsman. A soldier; a fighting man. One skilled in the use of the sword; a professor of the science of fencing.

Swordsmanship. The state of being a swordsman; skilled in the use of the sword.

Sybaris. A celebrated Greek town in Lucania, was situated between the rivers Sybaris and Crathis, and a short distance from the Tarentine Gulf, and near the confines of Bruttium. It was founded by AchÆans and Troezenians in 720 B.C., and soon attained an extraordinary degree of prosperity and wealth, exercising dominion over twenty-five towns, and, it is said, was able to bring 300,000 men into the field. But its prosperity was of short duration. The AchÆans having expelled the Troezenian part of the population, the latter took refuge at the neighboring city of Croton, the inhabitants of which espoused their cause. In the war which ensued between the two states, the Sybarites were completely conquered by the Crotoniats, who followed up their victory by the capture of Sybaris, which they destroyed by turning the waters of the river Crathis against the town, 510 B.C.

Syef (Ind.). A long sword.

Syef-ul Mulk (Ind.). The sword of the kingdom.

Sygambri, Sugambri, Sigambri, Sycambri, or Sicambri. One of the most powerful tribes of Germany at an early time, belonged to the IstÆvones, and dwelt originally north of the Ubii on the Rhine, whence they spread toward the north as far as the Lippe. The territory of the Sygambri was invaded by CÆsar. They were conquered by Tiberius in the reign of Augustus, and a large number of them were transplanted to Gaul, where they received settlements between the Maas and the Rhine as Roman subjects. At a later period we find them forming an important part of the confederacy known under the name of Franci.

Symbol. In a military sense, a badge. Every regiment in the British service has its badge.

Syracuse (It. Siracusa). Anciently the most famous and powerful city of Sicily, situated on the southeast coast of the island, 80 miles south-southwest from Messina; was founded by a body of Corinthian settlers under Archias, one of the BacchiadÆ, 734 B.C. In 486 a revolution took place and the oligarchic families—Geomori, or Gamori, “land-owners”—were expelled, and the sovereign power was transferred to the citizens at large. Before a year passed, however, Gelon, “despot” of Gela, had restored the exiles, and at the same time made himself master of Syracuse. Hieron, brother of Gelon, raised Syracuse to an unexampled degree of prosperity. Hieron died in 467, and was succeeded by his brother Thrasybulus; but the rapacity and cruelty of the latter soon provoked a revolt among his subjects, which led to his deposition and the establishment of a democratical form of government. The next most important event in the history of Syracuse was the siege of the city by the Athenians, which ended in the total destruction of the great Athenian armament in 413; and Syracuse’s renown at once spread over the whole Greek world. Dionysius restored the “tyranny” of Gelon, and his fierce and victorious war with Carthage (397 B.C.) raised the renown of Syracuse still higher. On the death of Hieron II., his grandson Hieronymus, who succeeded him, espoused the side of the Carthaginians. A Roman army under Marcellus was sent against Syracuse, and after a siege of two years, during which Archimedes assisted his fellow-citizens by the construction of various engines of war, the city was taken by Marcellus in 212. Under the Romans, Syracuse slowly but surely declined. Captured, pillaged, and burned by the Saracens (878) it sunk into complete decay, so that very few traces of its ancient grandeur are now to be seen. It was taken by Count Roger, the Norman, 1088; in the insurrection, Syracuse surrendered to the Neapolitan troops, April 8, 1849.

Syria. At present, forming together with Palestine, a division of Asiatic Turkey; extends between lat. 31° and 37° 20' N. along the Mediterranean from the Gulf of Iskanderoon to the Isthmus of Suez. The oldest inhabitants of Syria were all of Shemitic descent; the Canaanites, like the Jews themselves, and the Phoenicians (who inhabited the coast-regions) were Shemites. So were also the AramÆans, who occupied Damascus and extended eastward towards the Euphrates. This territory, Syria proper, became subject to the Hebrew monarchy in the time of David; but after Solomon’s death Rezin made himself independent in Damascus, and while the Jewish empire was divided into two kingdoms, the AramÆan kings of Damascus conquered and incorporated the whole northern and central part of the country. In 740 B.C. the Assyrian king, Tiglath-Pileser, conquered Damascus, and in 720 B.C. the kingdom of Israel. In 587 B.C. the kingdom of Judah was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, and Syria, with Palestine, was now successively handed over from the Assyrians to the Babylonians, from the Babylonians to the Medes, and from the Medes to the Persians. After the battle of the Issus (333 B.C.) Alexander the Great conquered the country, and with him came the Greeks. After his death they formed here a flourishing empire under the SeleucidÆ, who reigned from 312 to 64 B.C. After the victories over Antigonus at Ipsus in 301 B.C., and over Lysimachus at Cyropedion in 282 B.C., the empire of Seleucus I. actually comprised the whole empire of Alexander with the exception of Egypt. But his son, Antiochus I., Soter (281-260), lost Pergamum, and failed in his attempts against the Gauls who invaded Asia Minor, and Antiochus II., Theos (260-247), lost Parthia and Bactria. Antiochus the Great (223-187) conquered Palestine, which by the division of Alexander’s empire had fallen to the Ptolemies of Egypt; but under Antiochus Epiphanes (174-164) the Jews revolted, and after a contest of twenty-five years they made themselves independent. Under Antiochus XIII. (69-64) Pompey conquered the country and made it a Roman province, governed by a Roman proconsul. After the conquest of Jerusalem (70) Palestine was added to this province. By the division of the Roman empire Syria fell to the Eastern or Byzantine part. In 638 the country was conquered by the Saracens. In 654 Damascus was made the capital of Syria, and in 661 of the whole Mohammedan empire. When the Abbassides removed their residence to Bagdad, Syria sank into a mere province. In the 11th century the Seljuk Turks conquered the country. The establishment of the Latin kingdom by the Crusaders in 1099 was of short duration and of little advantage. They held Jerusalem till 1187, Acre till 1291, but they proved more rapacious and more cruel than the Turks. When in 1291 the Mameluke rulers of Egypt finally drove the Christian knights out of the country, its cities were in ruins, its fields devastated, and its population degraded. Still worse things were in waiting,—the invasion of Tamerlane and his successors, which actually transformed large regions into deserts and the inhabitants into savages. In 1517, Sultan Selim I. conquered the country, and since that time it has formed part of the Turkish empire, with the exception of the short period from 1832 to 1841, when Ibrahim Pasha (who defeated the army of the grand seignior at Konieh, December 21, 1832) governed it under the authority of his father, Mehemet Ali (who had captured Acre, and overrun the whole of Syria). The Druses are said to have destroyed 151 Christian villages and killed 1000 persons, May 29 to July 1, 1860. The Mahommedans massacred Christians at Damascus; about 3300 were slain, but many were saved by Abd-el-Kader, July, 1860; the French and English governments intervened; 4000 French soldiers under Gen. Hautpoul landed at Beyrout, August 22, 1860. The French and Turks advanced against Lebanon, and fourteen emirs surrendered, October, 1860. The pacification of the country was effected, November, 1860; and the French occupation ceased June 5, 1861. The insurrection of Joseph Karaman, a Maronite, in Lebanon, was suppressed, March, 1866; another was suppressed, and Karaman fled to Algeria, January 31, 1867.

System. In fortification, is a particular arrangement and mode of constructing the different works surrounding a fortified place. The principal systems now studied are those of Marshal Vauban, and the improved method invented by Cormontaigne, the celebrated French engineer.

System. A scheme which reduces many things to regular dependence or co-operation. This word is frequently applied to some particular mode of drilling and exercising men to fit them for manoeuvres and evolutions. Hence, the Prussian system, the Austrian system, etc.

System, Military. Specific rules and regulations for the government of an army in the field or in quarters, etc.

Systems of Artillery. The character and arrangement of the material of artillery, as adopted by a nation at any particular epoch. The American systems of field and siege artillery are chiefly derived from those of France. The principal qualities sought to be observed in establishing a system of artillery are, simplicity, mobility, and power. The first system adopted in France was about the middle of the 16th century, at which time the various guns of the French artillery were reduced to six. The weights of the balls corresponding to these calibers ranging from 33¹/₄ to ³/₄ pounds. This range of calibers was thought to be necessary, for the reason that it required guns of large caliber to destroy resisting objects, while guns of small caliber were necessary to keep up with the movement of troops. Each of the five principal calibers was mounted on a different carriage, and the ammunition, stores, and tools were carried on different store-carts. Three kinds of powder were used, viz.: large-grain, small-grain, and priming, which were carried in barrels of three sizes. The axle-trees, which were of wood, varied for the different wheels, as well as for the different guns. The gun-carriages were without limbers, and had only two wheels, the shafts being attached to the trails, which often dragged along the ground. No spare wheels were used, except for pieces of large caliber; and for facility of transportation these were put on an axle-tree, so as to form a carriage. With the exception of replacing injured wheels, all repairs were made on the spot, from the resources of the country, and no spare articles were carried with the train. There was no established charge of powder for the guns; although a weight equal to that of the shot was generally used. Such was the character of the artillery which accompanied the French armies up to the middle of the 17th century. In the reign of Louis XIV., the calibers of cannon were gradually changed by the introduction of several foreign pieces. There were 48-, 32-, 24-, 16-, 12-, 8-, and 4-pounders; and those of the same caliber varied in weight, length, and shape. Uniformity existed in general in each district commanded by a lieutenant-general of artillery, but the cannon of one district differed from another. Each district had (for the six kinds of cannon) six carriages, with different wheels, and three kinds of limbers, with different wheels, making nine patterns of wheels, without counting those for the platform-wagons used to transport heavy guns, the ammunition-carts, the trucks, and the wagons for small stores and tools. Spare carriages were carried into the field, but those of one district would not fit the guns of another. There was but one kind of powder, and this was carried in barrels. The charge was usually two-thirds the weight of the projectile, roughly measured. Besides this, the powder often varied in strength according to the district from which it came.

ValiÈre’s System.—In 1735, Gen. ValiÈre abolished the 32-pounder, as being heavy and useless, and gave uniformity to the five remaining calibers. Towards the end of the 18th century, mortars, or Dutch howitzers, were sometimes attached to the field-trains; for the latter, a small charge, and caliber of 8 inches, were adopted. There were also light 4-pounder guns attached to each regiment. Up to that time an army always carried with it heavy guns (24-pounders), and light guns (4-pounders), which were combined in the same park. ValiÈre established a system of uniformity for cannon throughout France; but such was not the case with the carriages and wagons used with them. Great exactness was not then sought for, and there existed as many plans for constructing gun-carriages as there were arsenals of construction. The axle-trees were of wood, the limbers were very low, and the horses were attached in single file.

Gribeauval’s System.—In 1765, Gen. Gribeauval founded a new system, by separating the field from the siege artillery. He diminished the charge of field-guns from a half to a third the weight of the shot, but as he diminished the windage of the projectile at the same time, he was enabled to shorten them and render them lighter, without sensibly diminishing their range. Field artillery then consisted of 12-, 8-, and 4-pounder guns, to which was added a 6-inch howitzer, still retaining a small charge, but larger in proportion to that before used. For draught, the horses were disposed in double files, which was much more favorable to rapid gaits. Iron axle-trees, higher limbers, and traveling trunnion-holes rendered the draught easier. The adoption of cartridges, elevating screws, and tangent scales, increased the rapidity and regularity of the fire. Stronger carriages were made for the lighter guns, and the different parts of all were made with more care, and strengthened with ironwork. Uniformity was established in all the new constructions, by compelling all the arsenals to make every part of the carriages, wagons, and limbers according to certain fixed dimensions. By this exact correspondence of all the parts of a carriage, spare parts could be carried into the field ready made, to refit. Thus an equipment was obtained which could be easily repaired, and could be moved with a facility hitherto unknown. In order to reduce the number of spare articles necessary for repairs, Gribeauval gave, as far as practicable, the same dimensions to those things which were of the same nature. The excellence of this system was tested in the wars of the French republic and empire, in which it played an important part. In 1827, the system of Gribeauval was changed by introducing the 24- and 32-pounder howitzers, lengthened to correspond with the 8- and 12-pounder guns, and abolishing the 4-pounder gun and 6-inch howitzer. Afterwards some important improvements were made in the carriages, chiefly copied from the English system; the number for all field-cannon was reduced to two, the wheels of the carriage and limber were made of the same size; the weight of the limber was reduced, and an ammunition-chest placed on it; the method of connecting the carriage and limber was simplified, and the operations of limbering and unlimbering greatly facilitated; and the two flasks which formed the trail were replaced by a single piece called the stock, which arrangement allowed the new pieces to turn in a smaller space than that required by the old ones.

Louis Napoleon’s System.—In 1850, Louis Napoleon, emperor of the French, caused a series of experiments to be made at the principal artillery schools of France to test the merits of a new system of field artillery proposed by himself. The principal idea involved in this system was, to substitute a single gun of medium weight and caliber, capable of firing shot and shells, for the 8- and 12-pounder guns, and 24- and 32-pounder howitzers, then in use. The caliber selected was the 12-pounder. The favorable results of all these experiments, and the simplicity of the system, led to the adoption of this, the Napoleon gun, as it is sometimes called, into the French service; and others of similar principle were introduced into various European services, and also into our own. As this piece unites the properties of gun and howitzer, it is called canon-obusier, or gun-howitzer.

At no time since the discovery of gunpowder have such important improvements been made in fire-arms as within the past few years. These improvements may be summed up as follows, viz.: (1) Improvement in the quality of cast iron, and the consequent increase in the caliber of sea-coast cannon. In 1820, the heaviest gun mounted in the United States on sea-coast batteries was the 24-pounder; at present the heaviest is a 20-inch gun, carrying a shell weighing 1080 pounds. (2) The use of wrought and chilled iron and steel as a material for fortress carriages, and for covering ships of war. (3) The extensive introduction of shells in sea-coast defenses and naval warfare; and spherical case-shot into the field service. (4) The introduction of rifling for both small-arms and cannon. (5) The successful application of the breech-loading principle to cannon and small-arms of every description, and the great improvement made of late in steel, as well as the power to manipulate masses sufficiently large for the construction of the immense cannon now employed in naval warfare and for sea-coast defense.

Szegedin. The second largest town in Hungary, situated on the right bank of the Theiss. Szegedin is fortified, and here, on August 3, 1849, the Austrians defeated the Hungarians.