A Military Dictionary and Gazetteer / Comprising ancient and modern military technical terms, historical accounts of all North American Indians, as well as ancient warlike tribes; also notices of battles from the earliest period to the present time, with a concise explanation of terms used in heraldry and the offices thereof. The work also gives valuable geographical information. Compiled from the best authorities of all nations. With an appendix containing the Articles of war, etc.

McAllister, Fort. A formidable casemated earthwork, with bombproofs, mounting 9 guns, on Genesis Point, about 6 miles above the mouth of Great Ogeechee River, Georgia, which was erected by the Confederates during the civil war. On January 27, 1863, it was attacked by the ironclad “Montauk,” under the command of Capt. John L. Worden, three gunboats, and a mortar-schooner; but after a bombardment of many hours’ duration, they failed to reduce it. Another attack was made with like results on February 1, the “Montauk” again participating in it. A third attack was made on March 3, and after a bombardment of eight hours by a fleet of ironclad monitors and mortar-schooners, under the command of Capt. Drayton, they again failed to reduce it. After the naval attacks the fort received additions in armament and garrison, and in 1864 comprised three half-bastions and two curtains, mounted 21 guns, several of which were 8-inch and 10-inch pieces, and was garrisoned by 250 men. On December 13, 1864, it was taken by assault by a division of Gen. Sherman’s army under Gen. Hazen, and its entire garrison and stores captured. Communication by water being thus opened, the capture of Savannah followed on December 21.

Macadamized. A term applied to roads covered with broken stone,—from McAdam, a Scotch engineer, who first introduced this method of road-making.

Macana. The war-club of the South American Indians.

Macassar, or Mankasser. The chief settlement of the Dutch in the island of Celebes, and is defended by Fort Rotterdam. In 1810 it surrendered to the British, but was restored to the Dutch in 1814.

Maccabees. A family of patriotic Jews, who commenced their career during the persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes, 167 B.C., when Mattathias, a priest, resisted the tyranny of the governor. His son, Judas MaccabÆus, defeated the Syrians in three battles, 166 and 165 B.C., but fell in an ambush, 161 B.C. His brother Jonathan made a league with the Romans and LacedÆmonians, and after an able administration was treacherously killed at Ptolemais by Tryphon, 143 B.C. His brother and successor, Simon, was also murdered. The history of the Maccabees is contained in five books bearing that name.

Mace. A strong, short, wooden staff, with a spiked metal ball for a head. It was a favorite weapon with knights, with the cavalry immediately succeeding them, and at all times with fighting priests, whom a canon of the church forbade to wield the sword. No armor could resist the force of a well-delivered blow from the mace. The mace is now borne before magistrates as an ensign of authority.

Macedonia. Anciently the name of a country lying north of Thessaly, which was originally of small extent. The history of Macedonia is involved in much obscurity till about 490 B.C., when the Persians subdued it, so that the Macedonian king, Alexander I., was compelled to take part with Xerxes in his invasion of Greece. It again regained its independence upon the retreat of the Persians after the battle of PlatÆa in 479 B.C. After a period of civil wars Philip II. ascended the throne in 359 B.C., and his son Alexander III., surnamed Alexander the Great, brought half the then known world under his empire; but after his death the Macedonian empire was broken up, and, at the end of a period of twenty-two years of incessant wars, formed into four principal kingdoms under his greatest generals. Macedonia itself fell to the lot of Antipater, after whose death ensued another period of civil wars and contests for the throne. The Macedonians were defeated by the Romans in the great battle of CynocephalÆ, 197 B.C., and their country became subject to the Roman power. After the time of Constantine the country was ravaged by Slavic tribes, and by the 7th century the old semi-Greek Macedonians were extinct, and in the latter ages of the Byzantine empire their place was supplied by colonies from Asia, many of them of Turkish descent.

Macedonian Pike, or Sarissa. A spear or lance of great length used in warfare by the Greeks.

Macerata. A town of Central Italy, in a province (formerly a delegation) of the same name, situated on an eminence between the rivers Potenza and Chienti, 21 miles southwest of Ancona. The place was taken by assault and sacked by the French, in 1799.

Machete (Sp.). A large, heavy knife resembling a broadsword, often 2 or 3 feet in length, used by the inhabitants of Spanish America as a hatchet, to cut their way through thickets, and for various other purposes.

Machicolation. The act of hurling missiles or pouring various burning or melted substances upon assailants through machicolations.

Machicolations. The apertures between the corbels or brackets supporting a projecting parapet; the term is applied also to the parapets. The apertures are for the purpose of allowing projectiles to be hurled at an enemy when he approaches near the wall, as in scaling, undermining, etc. Such defenses are very common in castellated architecture, especially over gateways, towers, etc.

Machicoulis. The same as machicolation.

Machine Guns. See Battery Guns.

Machine, Infernal. This term has been applied to various deadly contrivances, for instance, to the battery gun with which the attempt to assassinate Louis Philippe was made, as well as to the devices used on similar historical occasions; also to the fire-ship used by the English at St. Malo. This was a three-decker charged with powder on the first deck; shells, carcasses, etc., on the second; and with barrels filled with combustibles on the third; the gun-deck was covered with old guns overloaded. It was intended to destroy ships, bridges, etc.

Machines, Artillery. See Implements.

Machines of War, Ancient. Under this head is comprehended every kind of machine or engine made use of before the invention of gunpowder, for overthrowing, destroying, and burning the defenses of an enemy. They were of three kinds,—the first for projecting arrows, darts, stones, javelins, and fire-arrows; the second for battering and breaching walls, etc.; and the third for covering the troops thus engaged. They are as follows:

Chat, or cat, a covered shed, occasionally fixed on wheels, for protecting soldiers employed in filling up the ditch, preparing the way for the helepole, or wooden tower, or for mining the wall.

Chat echine, prickly cat, beam bristling with oaken teeth, for the defense of a town, by being let down on the besiegers.

Corbeau, long pole armed with a strong iron harpoon or scythe at one end, suspended in a frame placed on a cart; by manoeuvring the other end they tore away the machines with which the besieged endeavored to seize the head of the battering-ram.

Corbeau À griffe, pole with strong nippers or pincers, with which any object was seized and lifted up, and afterwards broken, if possible.

Frondibale, long beam moving in a vertical plane between two uprights on an axle (not in the middle); the longer arm was provided with a bag or case containing stones, and sometimes a sling; the other was heavily loaded, the beam being placed horizontally, and suddenly disengaged; the weight on the shorter limb forced up the other, and projected the stones forward.

Hourdeis, hurdles employed by the besieged to protect their walls from the machines of the enemy.

Lyonnois, machine for defending a breach, with a head like a treble fleur-de-lis on wheels.

Mangona, machine similar to the ballista, generic term signifying all kinds of machines.

Maciejovice. Near Warsaw, Poland. Here the Poles were totally defeated, and their general, Kosciusko, taken prisoner, October 10, 1794, after a murderous action. Kosciusko strenuously endeavored to prevent the junction of the Russian and the Austrian armies.

Mackay Gun. This gun is made of wrought iron, and distinguished from the Whitworth and Lancaster guns by the following characteristics: The Whitworth has a hexagonal bore in a tube of homogeneous iron, strengthened with hoops forced on by hydraulic pressure; the Lancaster is without grooves, but the bore is oval; the Mackay has numerous grooves, but the projectile does not, as in other guns, fit into them, its rotation being imparted by the rush of gases through the spiral grooves around it. In every case the groove or oval takes one turn, or portion of a turn, within the gun.

Mackinaw, or Mackinac. Formerly called Michilimackinac, “the great turtle.” A town and fort on an island of the same name in Lake Huron, about 320 miles by water north-northwest of Detroit, Mich. It fell into the hands of the English on the conquest of Canada from the French; but the Indians in its neighborhood remained hostile to their new masters. The fort was captured by a ruse, and the inhabitants massacred by the Chippewas under Pontiac, June 4, 1763. It was again garrisoned by the British in the following year. The island came into possession of the United States in 1796, and was captured by the British and Indians July 17, 1812. The Americans attempted its recapture, August 14, 1814, but without success.

Macrones. A powerful and warlike Caucasian people on the northeastern shore of the Pontus Euxinus.

Madagascar. An island of the Indian Ocean, situated at some distance from the east coast of Africa, being separated from that continent by the channel of Mozambique. The French formed several settlements in different parts of the island in 1665, but they were repeatedly driven out by the natives. The English were also driven out of the island in 1836, and the old system of Fetichism was restored. Madagascar is at present governed by Ranavalona, a Christian.

Made. A professional term for having obtained a commission, or being promoted.

Madras. Called by the natives Chennapatam, a maritime city and fortress of British India, and capital of the presidency of the same name. It was taken by the French in 1744; restored to the English at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1749, and was vainly besieged by the French under Lally, December, 1758-59. It is now considered one of the strongest fortresses in India.

Madrid. The capital of Spain, in New Castile, on the left bank of the river Manzanares. It is mentioned in history as Majerit, a Moorish castle. Madrid was sacked by the Moors in 1109; retaken and fortified by Henry III. about 1400; taken by Lord Galway in 1706; and by the French in March, 1808. The citizens of Madrid attempted to expel the French, and were defeated with much slaughter, May 2, 1808; the French were compelled to retire, but the place was retaken by them December 2, 1808, and retained until Wellington and his army entered it, August 12, 1812.

Madriers. Are long planks of broad wood, used for supporting the earth in mining, carrying on a sap, making coffers, caponiers, galleries, and for various other purposes at a siege; also to cover the mouth of petards after they are loaded, and are fixed with the petards to the gates or other places designed to be forced open. When the planks are not strong enough they are doubled with plates of iron.

Madura. An island of the Malay Archipelago, situated off the northeast coast of the island of Java, from which it is separated by a narrow channel. The Dutch invaded this island about the year 1747, and made slaves of a great number of the inhabitants.

Maestricht. A town of Holland, and capital of the province of Limburg, on the Maas, 110 miles southeast from Amsterdam. This town was taken by the French in 1794; and from 1795 till 1814 it was the capital of the French department of the Lower Meuse.

Magazine. A word derived from the Arabic, makhzan, “store-house,” means any place where stores are kept; but as a military expression, it always means a store-house for powder, although arms may at times be kept in it. In military structures the magazines must be bomb-proof, and therefore necessitate very thick walls; they must be quite free from damp, and should admit sufficient daylight to render the use of lanterns within generally unnecessary. The entrance is protected by shot-proof traverses, lest an opening should be forced by ricochet shots.

Magazine Guns. Are breech-loading small-arms having a magazine capable of holding several cartridges which may be fired in quick succession,—the empty shell being ejected and another cartridge conveyed into the breech from the magazine by working the mechanism of the piece. Among American magazine guns, the Spencer was one of the first that proved successful, and was extensively used during the war of the Rebellion, 1861-65. The magazine was a tube in the stock. The Spencer is no longer made. The Henry was a contemporary, and used a tube under the barrel,—this gun as now improved is known as the Winchester, and is sold in every part of the globe. The Ward-Burton and Hotchkiss have tubes, the first under the barrel, the second in the stock like the Spencer; they are both bolt guns as to breech mechanism. The Lee uses as a magazine a kind of pocket between the stock and barrel. This is readily detached. A gun carrying a great number of cartridges is the Evans, which has a spiral cartridge-carrier in the stock. Other guns, the Meigs and Cullen, have been made carrying a still greater number, as many as forty or fifty, but these systems have not met with any considerable success. See Small-arms.

Magdala. A strong mountain fortress in Abyssinia, which King Theodore held against the expedition sent out in 1867 by the British government for the rescue of their subjects. In April, 1867, this stronghold was taken by Gen. Napier, for which he was created Baron of Magdala. See Abyssinia.

Magdeburg. A fortified city of Prussia, in the province of Saxony, on the Elbe. It was founded by Otto the Great in the 10th century, and is considered one of the strongest fortresses in Germany. It suffered greatly during the Thirty Years’ War, when it was sacked, and its inhabitants massacred, under the direction of Tilly. In 1806 it was taken by the French, and annexed by them to the kingdom of Westphalia; but finally restored to Prussia in consequence of the downfall of Napoleon in 1814.

Magdolum (in the Old Testament Migdol). A city of Lower Egypt, near the northeastern frontier, about 12 miles southwest of Pelusium, where Pharaoh Necho defeated the Syrians, according to Herodotus.

Magenta. A town of Italy, in Lombardy, 15 miles west from Milan. A great battle was fought here in June, 1859, between the French and Austrians, in which the latter were defeated. The French were commanded by Gen. MacMahon, who received the title of Duke of Magenta.

Magetobria (now Moigte de Broie, on the SaÔne). A town on the western frontiers of the Sequani, near which the Gauls were defeated by the Germans shortly before CÆsar’s arrival in Gaul.

Magistral Line. The tracing or guiding line in fortification,—the first laid down on the work or on paper,—and from which the position of all the other works is determined. In field fortification the crest line of the parapet is the magistral; in permanent fortification the cordon or coping of the escarp wall is the guide.

Magna Charta. The great charter, so called, obtained by the English barons from King John in 1215, at Runny Meade. This name is also given to the charter which was granted to the people of England in the ninth year of Henry III., and confirmed by Edward I.

Magnate. A person of rank or dignity; a grandee or nobleman; one of influence or distinction in any sphere.

Magnesia (now Manissa). A town of Lydia, usually mentioned with the addition of ad Sypilum (“at or near Sypilus”) to distinguish it from Magnesia on the MÆander, in Ionia, situated on the northwestern slope of Mount Sypilus. It is chiefly celebrated in history for the victory gained under its walls in 190 B.C. by the two Scipios over Antiochus the Great, whereby that monarch was forever driven from Western Asia. The town after the victory of the Scipios surrendered to the Romans.

Magnetic. Pertaining to the magnet; possessing the properties of the magnet, or corresponding properties; as, a magnetic needle. Magnetic needle, a slender bar of steel magnetized and suspended at its centre on a sharp-pointed pivot, so that it may take freely the direction of the magnetic meridian. It constitutes the essential part of a mariner’s compass.

Maharajpoor. A small town in Hindostan, India. This place was the key of the position of the Mahratta army on December 29, 1843, when the battle took place between them and the British army under Sir Hugh Gough. The Mahrattas were totally defeated.

Mahe. A seaport in Hindostan, India; is a French settlement on the coast of Malabar, and was taken possession of by them in 1722; retaken by the British in 1761; restored at the peace of Paris in 1763, but was again taken in 1793. It was restored to the French in 1815.

Mahrattas. A people of Hindoo (Hindu) race, inhabiting Central India, south of the Ganges, from Gwalior to Goa, and supposed by many to be the descendants of a Persian or North Indian people. They are first mentioned in history about the middle of the 17th century. Under the leadership of Sevaji, a freebooter or adventurer, they overran and subdued a large portion of the emperor of Delhi’s territory. They subsequently were divided into tribes under powerful leaders, and endeavored to overcome the Mogul; but they sustained a frightful defeat in January, 1761, at the hands of Ahmed Shah Abdalli, the ruler of Afghanistan, on the field of Paniput, where they lost 50,000 men, and all their chiefs except Holkar. They still, however, continued to be the hired mercenaries of the Delhi emperor, till the growing influence of the British compelled them to look to their own safety. After many long and bloody contests with the British and their allies, in which sometimes the whole, but more frequently a portion of the Mahrattas joined, they were one by one, with the exception of Scindiah, reduced to a state of dependence. This last-mentioned chief having raised a powerful army, officered by Frenchmen and disciplined after the European method, continued the contest for a number of years, till his power was finally broken in 1843. The Mahratta chiefs still possess extensive dominions under British protection.

Maida. A town of Naples, in Calabria Ulta, 9 miles south from Nicastra. It is noted for the defeat of the French under Regnier by the British under Sir John Stuart, in an action that took place in the plains near the town in 1806.

Maiden. An instrument resembling the guillotine, formerly used in Scotland for beheading criminals. Also, a fortress which has never been taken.

Maidstone. A town of England, in Kent, 29 miles southeast from London, on the Medway. In 1648 this town was stormed by the Parliamentary troops.

Mail (Fr. maille, It. maglia; from the Lat. macula, a “spot, hole, or mesh of a net”). Signifies a metal net-work, and is ordinarily applied to such net-work when used as body defensive armor. Well-made mail formed an admirable defense against all weapons except fire-arms, and its pliability and comparative lightness gave it favor over the more cumbrous plate-armor.

Mail. To put a coat of mail or armor upon; to arm defensively.

Maillet (Fr.). A mallet. The French formerly made use of this instrument as an offensive weapon in their engagements. In 1351 the mallet was used at the famous battle “des Trente” (of thirty), which derived its name from the number of combatants that fought on each side. This extraordinary combat holds a distinguished place in the history of Brittany, and was entered into by the partisans of Charles of Blois and the king of France on one side, and by the Count Montfort and the king of England on the other. Under the reign of Charles VI. a Parisian mob forced the arsenal, and took out a large quantity of mallets, with which they armed themselves for the purpose of murdering the custom-house officers. The persons who assembled on this occasion were afterwards called Maillotins. In the days of Louis XII. the English archers carried mallets as offensive weapons.

Maillotin (Fr.). An old French term which signified an ancient weapon that was used to attack men who wore helmets and cuirasses. A faction in France was also distinguished by this appellation. See Maillet.

Mainade (Fr.). A body of marauders commanded by a chief.

Main Body. The line or corps of an army which marches between the advance- and rear-guard; in camp, the body which lies between the two wings.

Main Guard. See Guard, Main.

Main Work. In fortification, is the principal work as distinguished from the outworks.

Maine. The largest of the New England States, and the most easterly of the United States. The first settlement was made in it at Phippsburg, in 1607, but was subsequently abandoned. Settlements from New Hampshire gradually extended themselves into it, and it was afterwards annexed to Massachusetts, as far as the Kennebec River. In the latter part of the 17th century it suffered much from the incursions of the savages and the French, many of the towns being laid waste and the inhabitants slaughtered. This state of affairs was terminated by the treaty of Utrecht in 1712. During the Revolutionary war Portland was bombarded by the British in 1775, and much property destroyed. Maine was admitted into the Union as a State in 1820. Its northern boundary formed a subject of controversy with Great Britain, which threatened a war, but was settled by compromise in 1842. During the civil war, Maine was one of the most active of the Northern States in the cause of the Union.

Mainotes. The inhabitants of the mountainous district of Maina, a peninsula between the bays of the Kolokythia and Koron, forming part of the province of Laconia, in Greece. They number about 60,000, and are a wild and brave race, but addicted to robbery. While the Turks held possession of Greece, the Mainotes were almost completely independent, and when not engaged in a common struggle against the Turks their chiefs were at war with each other. The Mainotes, under their principal chief or bey, took a prominent part in the war for the liberation of Greece; but subsequently their independence was destroyed.

Maintain. When any body of men defend a place or post against the attacks of an adverse party, they are said to maintain it.

Maintenance, Cap of. Sometimes called Cap of Dignity, a cap of crimson velvet lined with ermine, with two points turned to the back, originally only worn by dukes, but afterwards assigned to various families of distinction. According to Sir John Fearne, “the wearing of the cap had a beginning from the duke or general of an army, who, having gotten victory, caused the chiefest of the subdued enemies whom he led to follow him in his triumph, bearing his hat or cap after him, in token of subjection and captivity.” Most of the reigning dukes of Germany, and various families belonging to the peerage both of England and Scotland, bear their crests on a cap of maintenance.

Maison-du-Roi (Fr.). The king’s household. Certain select bodies of troops were so called during the monarchy of France, and consisted of the gardes-du-corps, or body-guards, the gendarmes, chevaux-legÈrs, or light-horse, mousquetaires, or musketeers, la gendarmerie, grenadiers À cheval, or horse-grenadiers, the regiments belonging to the French and Swiss guards, and the cent Suisses, or hundred Swiss guards. The maison-du-roi, or king’s household, was not considered a separate establishment from the rest of the army until the reign of Louis IV. This establishment was successively formed by different kings out of militia companies, which they took into their body-guard.

Maitre d’Armes (Fr.). A term in general use among the French, signifying a fencing-master. Every regiment has a maitre d’armes attached to it.

Majesty. A title applied to sovereigns; as, Her Britannic Majesty.

Major. An officer next in rank above a captain and below a lieutenant-colonel; the lowest field-officer.

Major, Aid- (Fr.). See Aid-Major.

Major, Brigade-. See Brigade-Major.

Major, Drum-. See Drum-Major.

Major, Etat- (Fr.). See État-Major.

Major, Farrier-. See Farrier-Major.

Major, Fife-. See Fife-Major.

Major, Sergeant-. See Sergeant-Major.

Major, Town-. See Town-Major.

Major, Trumpet-. See Trumpet-Major.

Majorate. The office or rank of major.

Majorca. The principal of the Balearic Isles, in the Mediterranean, lying about 120 miles to the east of Spain. Majorca rebelled against Philip V. of Spain in 1714; but submitted July 14, 1715.

Major-General. See General, Major-, and General Officer.

Majority. High rank; specifically, the military rank of a major.

Make Good. A phrase used sometimes in the wording of sentences in proceedings of courts-martial in the case of deserters; as, he will make good the time lost by desertion.

Make Ready. See Ready.

Malabar. An extensive province of Hindostan, in the presidency of Madras. It is supposed that Malabar was, at a very early period, conquered by a king from above the Ghauts. It was invaded by Hyder Ali in 1760, and subdued by him in 1761. On the downfall of Tippoo Sahib, this country was annexed to the British dominions.

Malabar Guns. Heavy pieces of ordnance, which were made in the Malabar country, and were formed by means of iron bars joined together with hoops. They were very long, and extremely unwieldy.

Malacca. A British settlement situated on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, about 100 miles northwest from the settlement of Singapore. This district was annexed to the Portuguese dominions about 1511, taken by the Dutch in 1640, and given by the Dutch to the English in 1825.

Malacca. The capital of the above country, is situated on the coast, upon the strait which bears its name. In 1507 this town was visited by the Portuguese, and afterwards stormed by them. It was subsequently taken by the Dutch, who retained possession of it till 1795, when it was occupied by a British force.

Malaga. A city of Spain, in Granada, on the coast of the Mediterranean, 66 miles northeast from Gibraltar. It fell into the hands of the Moors in 714, and was not wrested from them until 1487, when it was taken by Ferdinand the Catholic. In 1810 it was occupied by the French, and remained in their possession till 1812.

Malakoff. A hill near Sebastopol, on which was situated an old tower strongly fortified by the Russians during the siege of 1854-55. The allied French and English attacked it on June 17-18, 1855, and after a conflict of forty-eight hours were repulsed with severe loss. On September 8, the French again attacked the Malakoff; at 8 o’clock the first mine was sprung, and at noon the French flag floated over the conquered redoubt. In the Malakoff and Redan were found 3000 pieces of cannon of every caliber, and 120,000 pounds of gunpowder.

Malandrins, or Tard-venus (Fr.). Companies of banditti, who chose their own chief, and overran France and Italy in the 14th century.

Malatesta. A noble Italian family, which acquired the lordship of Rimini in the 13th century, and furnished several leaders of the Guelph party. Malatesta II. and Galeotto Malatesta, sons of Pandolfo I., began to reign over Rimini in 1355. They had a great military reputation, and next to the Visconti were perhaps the most powerful princes of Italy. The former died in 1364, and Galeotto in 1385, leaving two sons, Carlo and Pandolfo III. These two became able generals, and commanded the army of Visconti, duke of Milan, from 1393 to 1408. Carlo, who was lord of Rimini, died without issue in 1429. The descendants of Pandolfo III. possessed Rimini until 1528, when it was added to the papal dominions.

Malavilly. A town of Hindostan, in the province of Mysore, where the English troops under Gen. Harris defeated Tippoo Sahib’s army in 1799.

Maldon. A town of England, in the county of Essex, which was built in 28 B.C. It is supposed to have been the first Roman colony in Britain; was burnt by Queen Boadicea, and rebuilt by the Romans. It was burnt by the Danes in 991, and rebuilt by the Saxons.

Malignant. In English history, one of the adherents of the house of Stuart; a cavalier; so called by the opposite party.

Malinger. To feign illness, or to protract disease in order to avoid duty.

Malingerer. A soldier who feigns himself sick. Any soldier convicted of malingering, feigning or producing disease, or of intentionally protracting his cure or aggravating his disease, is liable to be tried by a court-martial for “conduct prejudicial to good order and military discipline,” and to suffer the punishment attached to that offense.

Malingery. A feigning of illness, or protracting of disease in order to escape duty.

Malkin. A sponge with a jointed staff for cannon.

Malleable Iron. Iron which can be worked under the hammer. The term is specifically applied to cast iron which has had a part of its carbon extracted by cementation with an oxide.

Mallet. A wooden hammer, to drive into the ground the pegs by which a tent is fastened; it is likewise used on various other occasions, especially in fortification and artillery.

Malmesbury. A town of England, in Wiltshire. This town was taken from the royalists by Sir William Walter in 1643, but it was soon recovered, and again taken a short time after.

Malo, St. A seaport of France, in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, on the small island of Aron. This port sustained a tremendous bombardment by the English under Admiral Benbow in 1693, and under Lord Berkely in July, 1695. In 1758 the British landed in considerable force in Cancalle Bay, and went up to the harbor, where they burnt upwards of a hundred ships, and did great damage to the town, making a number of prisoners.

Maloi-Jaroslavitz. A town of Russia, in the government of Kaluga. It is noted for being the scene of a most sanguinary action between the French and Russians, in October, 1812, in which the former were defeated.

Malplaquet. A village of France, in the department of the North. It was the scene of a sanguinary battle in 1709, between the French under Marshal Villars, and the allies commanded by the Duke of Marlborough and the Prince EugÈne, in which the latter were victorious.

Malta. An island belonging to Great Britain, situated in the Mediterranean, 54 miles from the Sicilian coast, and about 200 from Cape Bon, on the African coast. It is strongly fortified around the capital, Valetta, which was built by the Knights of St. John. Malta was colonized by the Carthaginians about 500 B.C., and as early as the first Punic war it was plundered by the Romans, but did not come finally into their possession until 242 B.C. During the 5th century it fell successively under the sway of the Vandals and Goths. The Romans, however, regained it under Belisarius in 533 A.D., and kept possession of it till it was conquered by the Arabs in 870. In 1090, Count Roger of Sicily drove out the Arabs, and established a popular council for the government of the island. Charles of Anjou, after overrunning Sicily, made himself master of it; but after a time, the houses of Aragon and Castile successively held the island. Subsequently, the emperor Charles V. took possession of Malta, and in 1530 granted it to the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, from whom the Turks had recently captured their great stronghold at Rhodes. The knights raised by degrees the stupendous fortifications, and, moreover, spent their large income in beautifying the island in every way. Meanwhile they rendered incessant services to Christendom in the chastisement of the ferocious Barbary pirates. To revenge these acts, the Turks brought immense forces against Malta in 1557, and again in 1565. The siege in the latter year was carried on by the sultan Solyman himself, with the flower of the Ottoman army; but the grand master, La Valette, opposed a heroic resistance, and he was forced to re-embark, with the loss of more than 25,000 of his best troops. The defenders lost 260 knights and 7000 Maltese soldiers; and their gallantry was the theme of admiration throughout the world. After this siege the knights built Valetta. In 1571, they, with the Maltese, behaved most courageously at the battle of Lepanto, where the Turks lost 30,000 men. Though waging perpetual war with the Turks, the knights continued in possession of Malta until 1798, when it surrendered to Napoleon, and received a French garrison. In 1800 it was blockaded by a British squadron, and was forced to surrender to the English, in whose possession it has remained as a dependency.

Malta, Knights of. See St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of.

Maltese Cross. A cross of eight points, of the form worn as a decoration by the Hospitallers and other orders of knighthood.

Malvern Hill. Near the James River, in Virginia. Here, on the night of June 30, 1862, all the divisions of the Army of the Potomac, under Gen. McClellan, were united in a strong position, after five days of incessant marching and fighting. About 4 A.M. on July 1 the Confederate forces advanced to storm this position, but were mowed down by a destructive fire of grape from the land batteries, and were obliged to seek shelter in the woods. The gunboats, also, which were within range, opened a destructive fire of shells on the enemy. The attack was a complete failure, the loss of the Confederates being considerable, while that of the Federals was insignificant. After this repulse, the Confederates retired to Richmond, and McClellan pursued his way to the James, arriving at Harrison’s Landing on July 3.

Mameliere (Fr.). Armor for the breast, from which depended two chains, one attached to the pommel, and the other to the scabbard of the sword.

Mamelukes (Arabic, mamluk, a “slave”). The name given to the slaves of the beys, brought from the Caucasus, and who formed their armed forces. When Genghis Khan desolated a great part of Asia in the 13th century, and carried away a multitude of the inhabitants for slaves, the sultan of Egypt bought 12,000 of them, partly Mingrelians and Tartars, but mostly Turks, and formed them into a body of troops. But they soon found their own power so great that, in 1254, they made one of their own number sultan of Egypt, founding the dynasty of the Baharites, which gave place to another Mameluke dynasty in 1382. The Caucasian element predominated in the first dynasty, the Tartar element in the second. Selim I., who overthrew the Mameluke kingdom in 1517, was compelled to permit the continuance of the 24 Mameluke beys as governors of the provinces; but in the middle of the 18th century they regained such a preponderance of power in Egypt that the pasha named by the Porte was reduced to a nominal ruler. The number of them scattered throughout all Egypt was between 10,000 and 12,000 men. Their number was kept up chiefly by slaves brought from the Caucasus, from among whom the beys and other officers of state were exclusively chosen. Their last brilliant achievements were on the occasion of the French invasion of Egypt, and during the time immediately following the retirement of the French. At this time Murad Bey stood at their head. But in 1811 they were foully massacred by Mehemet Ali.

Mamertini. Sons of Mamers, or Mars, were Campanian soldiers of Agathocles. They seized Messina, in Sicily, in 281 B.C., and when closely besieged by the Carthaginians and Hiero of Syracuse in 264, they implored the help of the Romans, which led to the first Punic war.

Mammoth Powder. See Gunpowder.

Man. To supply with men; to furnish with a sufficient force or complement of men, as for management, service, defense, or the like. Also, to supply with strength for action; to prepare for efficiency; to fortify.

Man, Isle of. An island of Great Britain, in the Irish Sea, nearly equidistant from the coasts of England, Scotland, and Ireland. It was subdued by the king of Northumberland, 621; by Magnus of Norway, 1092; ceded to the Scots, 1266, and taken from them in 1314 by Montacute, afterwards earl of Salisbury; it subsequently fell to the Earl of Derby. The brave Countess of Derby held this island against the troops of the Parliament in 1651, after her husband had been beheaded at Bolton, England, in the same year for his devotion to the royal cause.

Manassas. A town in Prince William Co., Va., which was an important military position during the civil war, and where the Alexandria and Manassas Gap Railways meet, near a creek called Bull Run; it was held by the Confederates in 1861, when they were attacked by the Federal general Irvin McDowell. He began his march from Washington on July 16, and gained some advantage on the 18th at Centreville. On the 21st was fought the first battle of Bull Run. The Federals, who began the fight, had the advantage till about 3 o’clock P.M., when the Confederate general Johnston brought up reinforcements, which at first the Federals took for their own troops. After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with sudden panic, and in spite of the utmost efforts of their officers, fled in disgraceful rout, abandoning a large quantity of arms, ammunition, and baggage. The Confederate generals, Johnston and Beauregard, did not think it prudent to pursue the fugitives, who did not halt till they reached Washington. The Federal army is said to have had 481 killed, 1011 wounded, and 1216 missing. The loss of the Confederates was stated to be about 1500. In March, 1862, when the Army of the Potomac under Gen. McClellan marched into Virginia, they found that the Confederates had quietly retreated from the camp at Manassas. On August 30, 1862, this place was the site of another great battle between the Northern and Southern armies. In August, Gen. “Stonewall” Jackson, after compelling the Federal general Pope to retreat, defeated him at Cedar Mountain on the 9th, turned his flank on the 22d, and arriving at Manassas repulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th, Gen. R. E. Lee (who had defeated Gen. McClellan and the invading Northern army before Richmond, June 26 to July 1) joined Jackson with his army, and Pope received reinforcements from Washington. A desperate conflict ensued, which ended in the Confederates gaining a decisive victory, compelling the Federals to a hasty retreat to Centreville, where they were once more routed, September 1. The remains of their army took refuge behind the lines of Washington on September 2. Pope was at once superseded, and McClellan resumed the command to march against the Confederates, who had crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland.

Manch, or Maunch. A charge frequently used in heraldry to represent a sleeve with long pendent ends, of the form worn by ladies in the reign of Henry I.

Manchester. A city of England, in Lancashire, on the Irwell. In the time of the Druids, it was one of their principal stations. It was one of the seats of the Brigantes, who had a castle or stronghold called Mancenion; and was, about 79, selected by the Romans as a station, and called Mancunium. Called by the Saxons Manceastre. Taken from the Britons, 488; captured by Edwin of Northumbria, 620; taken by the Danes, 877; retaken, 923.

Mandans. A tribe of Indians of the Dakota family, who are located with the Arickarees and Gros Ventres on a reservation near Fort Berthold, Dakota. They were hostile to the Sioux, and more friendly to the whites than the neighboring tribes. They number about 250.

Mandarin. A general term applied to Chinese officers of every grade by foreigners. It is derived from the Portuguese mandar, “to command”; the Chinese equivalent is kwan. There are nine ranks, each distinguished by a different-colored ball or button placed on the apex of the cap, by a peculiar emblazonry on the breast, and a different clasp of the girdle. The military mandarins are selected by the emperor of China to superintend and command the militia of the country.

Mandilion. A soldier’s loose coat; an outer garment without sleeves.

Mandrel. In forging, is a rod used to preserve the interior form of hollow-work. Also, the spindle upon which an article is placed in shaping it in a lathe.

Manduria (now Casal Nova). A town in Calabria, on the road from Tarentum to Hydruntum, and near a small lake. Here Archidamus III., king of Sparta, was defeated and slain in battle by the Messapians and Lucanians, 338 B.C.

ManÈge. The art of horsemanship or of training horses. Also, a school for teaching horsemanship, and for training horses; a riding-school.

Mangalore. A seaport town and fortress of Hindostan, on the eastern shore of the Indian Ocean, in the province of Canara. The Portuguese had a factory here, which was destroyed by the Arabians. In 1793 the town was taken by Hyder Ali, then the Mysore general; in 1768 it was captured by a detachment from Bombay; but was shortly afterwards retaken by Hyder. In 1783 Mangalore again surrendered to a force from Bombay; and after the destruction of Gen. Matthews’s army, sustained a long siege from Tippoo Sahib, and was gallantly defended by Col. Campbell. Upon the conclusion of peace in 1784, it was restored, and the fortifications were dismantled. In 1799, on the overthrow of Tippoo, it was finally taken possession of by the British.

Mangan (Fr.). This word is sometimes written mangon, a warlike machine formerly used. The term itself was generally adopted to signify any species of warlike machine. But it more particularly meant the largest and most powerful machine that could be used for warlike purposes; whether it was practiced to throw enormous stones against besieged places, or to cast javelins, etc. It was likewise called ballista, from the Greek, tormentum, from the Latin, torquendo, and sometimes petraria, because stones weighing upwards of 360 pounds were thrown from it. This machine answered the double purpose of defending or attacking fortified places, and it was sometimes used at sea.

Mangonel (Fr. mangonel, mangoneau). A very strong and powerful cross-bow, from 15 to 20 feet long, for throwing arrows, darts, or stones. The trebuchet, ribaudequin, etc., were only a variety of the above.

Manheim, or Mannheim. A town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden, at the confluence of the Neckar and the Rhine. It surrendered to the French, under command of Pichegru, September 20, 1795. On October 31, the Austrians under Wurmser defeated the French near the city. Several battles were fought with various success in the neighborhood during the late wars.

Manifesto, or Manifest. A public declaration, usually of a prince or sovereign, showing his intentions, or proclaiming his opinions and motives in reference to some act done or contemplated by him; as, a manifesto declaring the purpose of a prince to begin war, and explaining his motives.

Maniglions. The two handles on the back of a piece of ordnance.

Manilla, or Manila. A town of the island of Luzon, and the capital of the Spanish settlements in the Philippine Islands. It was taken by the English in 1757; and again in October, 1762, by storm.

Manipularis (Fr. manipulaire). The chief officer in a part of the Roman infantry called manipulus, was so called. This officer was likewise ordinary (Fr. ordinaire).

Manipulus. So called from its standard or flag, which was made of cloth, and hung suspended on a staff with a hand. The manipulus was distinguished in this manner from the chief standard of each legion, which was an eagle of massive metal.

Manipulus (Fr. manipule). A small body of infantry originally, so called among the Romans during the reign of Romulus. Their ensign was a hand on the end of a staff. The manipulus consisted of 100 men, and in the days of the consuls and first CÆsars, of 200. Three manipuli constituted a Roman cohort. Each manipulus was commanded by two officers called centurions, one of whom acted as lieutenant to the other. Every manipulus made two centuries, or ordines. This, however, cannot be said to have been the uniform establishment or formation of the manipulus; for according to Varro and Vegetius, it was the smallest body of men employed in the Roman armies, and composed the tenth part of a century. Spartian says, “it consisted of only ten soldiers.” Some authorities assert that it takes its name from manipulus, “a handful of straw,” the latter having been fixed to a long pole to serve as a rallying signal, before the eagles were adopted. This circumstance has given rise to the modern expression, a handful of men, une poignÉe de gens. Vegetius, on the other hand, says it comes from manus, which signified a small body or handful of men collected together, and following the same standard; and Modestus as well as Varro state it to have been so called because, when they went into action, they took each other by the hand, or fought all together. A French writer conceives that the manipulus may be considered as one of those parts of a modern battalion which are distributed in different rooms, etc., and which is called une chambree, or a company that messes together.

Manly. Having qualities becoming a man; firm; brave; undaunted; noble, etc.

Mannite, Nitro-. A high explosive resembling nitro-glycerine in its properties, and made in an analogous manner by the action of nitric and sulphuric acids upon mannite, a form of sugar.

Manoeuvre, or Maneuver. Management; dexterous movement; specifically, an evolution, movement, or change of position among military or naval bodies. To perform a movement in military or naval tactics; to make an evolution. Also, to change the positions of, as troops or ships.

Manoeuvring-wheels. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Sea-coast Carriages.

Manresa. A town of Spain, in Catalonia, 30 miles northwest from Barcelona. It suffered much in the war of independence; and in March, 1811, it was almost completely burnt to the ground by Marshal Macdonald.

Mans, Le. A city of France, formerly capital of the province of Maine, now of the department of Sarthe. The final struggle between the Vendean troops and the French republicans took place here in 1793, in which the latter were victorious; and in 1871, another battle took place between the Germans and French, in which the former were victorious.

Mansoura, or Mansourah. A town of Lower Egypt, 34 miles southwest from Dalmietta. Here Louis IX. was defeated by the Saracens and taken prisoner, April 5, 1250. Some French troops which occupied the garrison were massacred here in 1798.

Manteau (Fr.). This word, which literally signifies a cloak, is frequently used among the French to express the covering that hussars or light infantry troops carry for the double purpose of shielding their bodies from the inclemencies of the weather in outposts, etc., and for spreading over their heads, by means of poles, when they occasionally halt, and take a position.

Mantelet (Fr.). A large osier buckler which was used in ancient times; it was held upright, under cover of which archers shot their arrows. Also a circular frame upon wheels covered with osier or horse-hair, used for the same purpose.

Mantes. A town of France, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, 30 miles west-northwest of Paris. It was taken and reduced to ashes by William the Conqueror in 1087.

Mantillis. A kind of shield, anciently fixed upon the tops of ships as a cover for archers.

Mantinea, or Mantinoea. Anciently a city of the Morea, 9 miles north from Tripolitza. It is now the modern Greek village of Palespoli. It was famous as being the scene of several battles, of which the most important was that fought between the Spartans and the Thebans under Epaminondas (362 B.C.), in which the former were defeated.

Mantle. A long flowing robe, worn in the Middle Ages over the armor, and fastened by a fibula in front, or at the right shoulder. The mantle is an important part of the official insignia of the various orders of knighthood.

Mantlet. A sort of temporary fortification intended to protect the men working guns in embrasures, casemates, or port-holes from the bullets of sharpshooters. The mantlet is usually made to be hoisted up while the gunner takes aim, and then lowered to cover the whole opening except a circular aperture for the muzzle of the cannon. With every increase in the range and precision of small-arms, mantlets become more essential for the safety of gunners. Mantlets are made of thick fir, of solid oak planks, or of iron plates, the last being preferable, as the lightest. At Sebastopol, the Russians effectively blocked their embrasures by thick mantlets of plaited rope suspended freely. A mantlet of planks or iron plates, about 5 feet high, and occasionally mounted on small wheels, is also used to protect sappers working at the end of a sap, although a rolling gabion is preferred for this purpose by many engineers.

Mantling, or Lambrequin. A heraldic ornament depicted as hanging down from the helmet, and behind the escutcheon. It is considered to represent either the cointise (an ornamental scarf which passed round the body and over the shoulder) or the military mantle or robe of estate. When intended for the cointise, it is cut into irregular strips and curls of the most capricious forms, whose contortions are supposed to indicate that it has been torn into that ragged condition in the field of battle. When the mantling is treated as a robe of estate, the bearings of the shield are sometimes embroidered on it. A mantling adjusted so as to form a background for the shield and its accessories constitutes an Achievement of Arms. In British heraldry, the mantling of the sovereign is of gold lined with ermine; that of peers, of crimson velvet lined with ermine. Knights and gentlemen have generally crimson velvet lined with white satin; but sometimes the livery colors are adopted instead, as is generally the practice in continental heraldry.

Mantonet (Fr.). A small piece of wood or iron, which is notched, for the purpose of hanging anything upon it. The pegs in soldiers’ rooms are sometimes so called.

Mantua. A fortified city of Northern Italy, 22 miles southwest from Verona. Mantua is both by nature and art one of the strongest places in Europe. It can boast of an antiquity almost equal to that of Rome, and experienced all the vicissitudes of the Middle Ages, and, like other Italian cities, emerged from them into liberty and independence. It surrendered to the French, February 2, 1797, after a siege of eight months; was retaken by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30, 1799, after a short siege. In 1800, after the battle of Marengo, the French again obtained possession of it. It was included in the kingdom of Italy till 1814, when it was restored to the Austrians, who surrendered it to the Italians, October 11, 1866, after the peace.

Manual. Book of reference; as, ordnance manual, etc.

Manual. A prescribed exercise by means of which soldiers are taught to handle and use their weapons. The manual of arms is the exercise with the musket; the manual of the piece, the exercise with the field-gun. There are also manuals for the sabre, pistol, etc.

Manuballiste (Fr.). A cross-bow. There were two kinds in the reign of Henry VII., viz., the latch which was used for quarrels, and the prodd for bullets.

Manufacture of Ordnance. See Ordnance, Manufacture of.

Manufacture of Powder. See Gunpowder.

Manx. Pertaining to the Isle of Man.

Maoris. A New Zealand word signifying native, is the name given to themselves by the inhabitants of New Zealand, and that by which they are now usually designated. In 1861 war broke out between them and the British, terminating in favor of the latter in 1862; but in 1863 the Maoris recommenced hostilities, and a formidable conspiracy was formed to expel the British troops. In 1868 they massacred many settlers and offered a desperate resistance, and were not subdued until the following year. They numbered at that time about 40,000. They are now comparatively peaceable.

Map. In a military and geographical sense, is a plane figure, representing the surface of the earth, or a part thereof, according to the law of the particular kind of projection used; distinguishing the situation of cities, mountains, rivers, roads, etc.

Marathon. A village on the east shore of Attica, 20 miles northeast from Athens. Here on September 28 and 29, 490 B.C., the Greeks, only 10,000 strong, defeated the Persian army amounting to 200,000, who had 6400 killed. The Greek loss was 192 Athenians killed, besides some PlatÆans and slaves. The Greeks were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistocles. Among the slain was Hippias, the instigator of the war. The Persian army was forced to retreat to Asia.

Marathus. An important city on the coast of Phoenicia, opposite to Aradus. It was destroyed by the people of Aradus in the time of the Syrian king, Alexander Balas, a little before 150 B.C.

Maraud. To rove in quest of plunder; to make an excursion for booty; to plunder.

Marauder. A rover in quest of booty or plunder; a plunderer.

Marauding. Is irregular plunder or violence offered to the inhabitants of a country by the individuals of an army. In all armies where discipline is maintained, marauding is, at least professedly, punished by death; the provost-marshal having power to inflict that penalty summarily on all offenders taken in the act. Marauding is also applied to plundering at sea; as, the Barbary corsairs are systematic marauders.

Marburg. A town of Germany, in Hesse-Cassel, situated on the Lahn. It suffered much during the Seven Years’ War, 1753-60.

March. The movement of a body of men from one place to another. In marching it cannot be too strongly inculcated that every just movement and manoeuvre depends upon the correct equality of march established and practiced by all the troops of the same army, and that when this is not attended to confusion must follow on the junction of several battalions. Also, the distance marched over; as, a march of 20 miles.

March. To cause to move in military array; to push forward, as troops; to cause to advance in a steady, regular, or stately manner.

March. The military signal for soldiers to move; a piece of music, designed or fitted to accompany and guide the movement of troops; or a piece of music composed after the measure of a march. Also, the command for soldiers to move.

March. The length of a day’s march for troops of any arm depends, to a great extent, upon the condition of the roads, the supply of water, forage, etc.; also upon the advantages to be gained over an enemy.

Infantry marches at the rate in common time of 90 steps = 70 yards in one minute, or 2 miles 680 yards in an hour; in quick time, 110 steps = 86 yards in one minute, or 2 miles 1613 yards in an hour; in double time, 165 steps = 151¹/₄ yards in one minute, or 5 miles 275 yards in an hour. Under ordinary circumstances infantry should march from 15 to 20 miles a day, halting about ten minutes every hour.

Cavalry should march about 20 miles a day, and be kept at a walk, halting several times during the day, when the men should dismount and permit the horses to refresh themselves by giving them a few mouthfuls of grass and water. On a forced march the horses should not be halted, but they should be relieved fifteen minutes every hour by dismounting the men and requiring them to march. For selection of cavalry horses, rate of speed at a trot, gallop, etc., see Horse.

The march of artillery should be governed by the movements of the arms of the service to which it is assigned for duty. The care of men and horses is a combination of what has been laid down for cavalry and infantry. For the rates of march of, and loads carried by, artillery horses, see Pack and Draught Horses.

Marchands (Fr.). Slop-sellers, petty sutlers. Men of this description always flock round and follow an army on its march. As they generally deal in articles which are required by the officers and soldiers, it is the business of every general to see them properly treated, to insure their safety, and to permit them, under certain regulations, to have access to the camp.

Marcher. One who marches. In ancient times the lord or officer who defended the marches or borders of a territory.

Marches. A frontier, a border. In English history, the boundary between England and Wales, also between England and Scotland.

Marches, Combined. When the movements of the divisions or corps are made independent of each other, but having the same object in common, they are known as combined marches. They are arranged with the intention of having the several columns arrive at a given position but coming from different directions.—Prof. J. B. Wheeler.

Marches, Flank. Are marches made parallel or obliquely to the enemy’s position. They are used when it is desired to turn the enemy’s position or attack him on the flank.—Prof. J. B. Wheeler.

Marches, Manoeuvre. Marches are sometimes made by which an army gains a position, the possession of which compels the enemy to leave the position he is occupying. If these marches are under the observation of the enemy, they are termed “manoeuvres”; but if made out of his sight, they are called manoeuvre marches.—Prof. J. B. Wheeler.

Marches of Concentration. The marches which are made by several bodies of troops, starting from points separated from each other, for the purpose of bringing these troops together at some stated place, are termed marches of concentration. Forced marches are much used in concentrating troops, especially before a battle. Many examples are given in military history.

Friant’s division of Davoust’s corps marched over 80 miles in forty-eight hours in 1805, to join Napoleon in the battle of Austerlitz. Craufurd’s brigade marched, so Napier says, 62 miles in twenty-six hours, to join Wellington at Talavera, in 1809. Napoleon marched an army to the relief of Dresden, in 1813, by forced marches of over 30 miles a day for three consecutive days. The marches of the different corps of the Army of the Potomac on the 30th of June and the 1st of July, 1863, by means of which the army was concentrated at Gettysburg, are good examples of marches of concentration. The 6th Corps under Gen. Sedgwick made on this occasion a march over 30 miles.—Prof. J. B. Wheeler.

Marches, Route. Route marches are used by troops both during war and in peace. They are used in peace to conduct a body of troops from one station or post to another. They are used in war for the purpose of assembling the fractions of an army on its base of operations; of conducting troops through a district or country where there is no enemy, etc.

There are three kinds of route marches, according to the manner in which they are made, viz.: ordinary, forced, and marches by rail.

Ordinary route marches are those made along ordinary roads and where the length of the march in any one day is not greater than 20 miles. Twenty miles is a long march, especially if the body of troops is large, and this distance is taken as the limit for an ordinary march. If the distance marched in any one day is greater than 20 miles, the march is forced.

Forced marches are extremely exhausting upon the troops and should not exceed 30 miles per day, although greater distances have been overcome by good troops. The number of forced marches made in succession must be few, only two or three, even for the best of troops. They are used but rarely in time of peace, and then only under pressing circumstances. They are much used in war, when a rapid concentration of troops is to be made; when a strategical combination is to be effected, etc.

Route marches by rail are employed both in peace and war. This kind of march includes all those in which the troops do not actually march, but are transported bodily to their destination. Railroads have become in recent years the great factor in rapid and cheap means of moving troops, and the term “rail” is therefore applied to this method of conducting troops from one place to another.

This method is of especial service when the time given to the troops to reach their destination is short, and the distance is great. It is especially used in the case of assembling armies and forwarding the reserves and recruits to the theatre of war. The late war in the United States, the war in 1859 in Italy, the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, etc., all furnish examples.—Prof. J. B. Wheeler.

Marches, Strategical. Marches which made in the theatre of war, near an enemy whose position is not exactly known, having in general for their object the completion of some strategical combination, are designated strategical marches. They are used to conduct an army to a position from which an attack can be made on the enemy, or to a position in which the army can remain and receive an attack; in other words, to a position immediately in the presence of the enemy.

Strategical marches are either ordinary or forced marches, and are used principally to mass troops at some stated point on the theatre of operations before the enemy can make arrangements to prevent it or can prepare counter-movements to weaken or nullify the effect of the movement. Secrecy, celerity, and good order are therefore indispensable requisites for success in marches of this kind.—Prof. J. B. Wheeler.

Marches, Tactical. Marches made in the immediate vicinity of the enemy, and so near that they may be observed by him, are called tactical marches. Since these marches are made very near the enemy, greater precautions are required to guard against an attack than are necessary in strategical marches.

Tactical marches differ from route and strategical marches in one material particular, and that is in the number and sizes of the wagon-trains accompanying the troops on the march. Both in route and strategical marches the troops are cumbered with long and unwieldy wagon-trains carrying the baggage and supplies of the army, whereas in a tactical march there are none, or the trains are reduced to a minimum. Since the enemy may attack the moving columns at any minute, everything is sacrificed to the important one of being ready to fight at a minute’s notice, and the army carries with it only supplies enough for two or three days, and little or no baggage. Everything not essential for feeding the troops and not necessary for fighting is therefore left behind the army while it is making a tactical march.—Prof. J. B. Wheeler.

Marchfeld. In Austria, where Ottocar II. of Bohemia was defeated and slain by his rival, the emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, August 26, 1278.

Marching. One of the first necessities to distinguish a body of disciplined troops from a mere crowd of men is a regular cadenced step, taken by every individual at the same time, and with the same foot. When troops are to march a long distance the route step is employed, the men keeping the same distance and their places in the ranks as when marching on drills, parades, reviews, musters, etc., where the cadenced step in common, quick, or double time is employed. In the U.S. service the length of the step in common and quick time is 28 inches, and the cadence is at the rate of 90 steps per minute for common time and 110 for quick time; in double time the length of the step is 33 inches and the cadence at the rate of 165 steps per minute, but it may be increased to 180. In the feudal ages, when infantry fell into disrepute, cadenced marching was unattended to, and seems only to have been thoroughly revived by Marshal Saxe.

Marching Money. The additional pay which officers and soldiers receive for the purpose of covering the expense necessarily incurred when marching from one place to another.

Marching Order. In the British service a soldier is said to be in marching order when he is fully equipped with arms, ammunition, and a portion of his kit, which weighs from 30 to 35 pounds. In service marching order, by the addition of provisions and some campaigning necessaries, he carries nearly 50 pounds. But heavy marching order, which was yet heavier, is now happily abolished. See Heavy Marching Order, and Light Marching Order.

Marching Orders. The orders issued preparatory to troops marching; and in the British service signifies six days’ journey at least.

Marching Regiments. A term given in England to those who had not any permanent quarters, but were liable to be sent not only from one end of Great Britain to another, but to the most distant of her possessions abroad. Although the word marching is insensibly confounded with those of line and regulars, it was originally meant to convey something more than a mere liability to be ordered upon any service; for by marching the regular troops from one town to another, the inhabitants, who from time immemorial have been jealous of a standing army, lost their antipathy to real soldiers, by the occasional absence of regular troops. At present the English guards, infantry, etc., may be considered more or less as marching regiments. The marines and volunteers have stationary quarters.

Marcomanni. A powerful confederacy of ancient Germans, who were resident, as their name imports, on the borders. They are first mentioned in history by CÆsar, and seem at that time to have dwelt upon the banks of the Rhine. From Tacitus and several others we learn that they soon afterwards moved westward, under their king Maroboduus, drove the Boii out of Bohemia, and settled in that country. After organizing a government, Maroboduus formed a league with the neighboring tribes, for the purpose of defending Germany against the Romans. He was thus enabled to muster 70,000 disciplined soldiers, and to conclude an honorable treaty with the emperor Tiberius in 6 A.D. In 17 he was defeated by the Cherusci, and in two years afterwards he was expelled from his throne by the Goth Catualda, and forced to seek refuge in Italy. The same fate soon afterwards befell his dethroner and successor, and the Marcomanni once more came under the sway of native kings. After this they gradually extended their dominions, until they had reached the Danube, and had provoked the jealousy of the Romans in the time of Domitian. Then began hostilities between the Romans and the Marcomanni, which led to the protracted struggle of the Marcomannic war, during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, but was finally quelled by the peace of Commodus, in 180. Favored, however, by the feeble rule of Commodus, they continued their predatory inroads into the Roman provinces of Noricum and RhÆtia, and ventured sometimes as far as the defiles of the Alps. In 270, in the reign of Aurelian, they pushed forward into Italy, and penetrated even to Ancona, spreading consternation around them. After this period they disappear gradually, and are mentioned for the last time among the hordes of Attila.

Marcouf, St. Two small islands of France, in the department Manche, and which protect the roadstead off Cape La Hogue. They were taken by the British in 1795, but restored to France at the peace of Amiens.

MarÉchal (Fr.). Major-general.

MarÉchal de Bataille (Fr.). A military rank which once existed in France, but was suppressed before the revolution, or rather confined to the body-guards. An officer belonging to that corps received it as an honorary title. Its original functions, etc., with respect to general service, sunk in the appointments of marÉchal de camp and major-general. It was first created by Louis XIII. MarÉchal-gÉnÉral des logis de la cavalerie, this appointment took place under Charles IX. in 1594. He had the chief direction of everything which related to the French cavalry. MarÉchal des logis pour les vivres, a person belonging to the quartermaster-general’s department was so called in the old French service.

MarÉchal de Camp (Fr.). A military rank which existed during the French monarchy. The person invested with it was a general officer, and ranked next to a lieutenant-general. It was his duty to see the army properly disposed of in camp or quarters, to be present at all the movements that were made; to be the first to mount his charger, and the last to quit him. He commanded the left in all attacks. The appointment under this distinction was first created by Henry IV. in 1598.

MarÉchal-GÉnÉral des Camps et ArmÉes du Roi (Fr.). A post of high dignity and trust, which during the French monarchy was annexed to the rank of marÉchal de France. Military writers differ with respect to the privileges, etc., which belonged to this appointment; it is, however, generally acknowledged that the general officer who held it was intrusted with the whole management of a siege, being subordinate only to the constable, or to any other marÉchal de France, who was his senior in appointment.

MarÉchal-GÉnÉral des Logis de l’ArmÉe (Fr.). This appointment, which existed during the old French government, and has since been replaced by the chef de l’État-major, corresponds with that of quartermaster-general in the British service.

MarÉchaussÉes de France (Fr.). A species of military police which formerly existed in France. During the French monarchy there were 31 companies of marÉchaussÉes À cheval, or mounted policemen. These companies first formed for the purpose of preserving public tranquillity, and were distributed in the different provinces of the kingdom. This useful body of men was first formed under Philip I. in 1060; they were afterwards suppressed, and again re-established in 1720, as constituting a part of the gendarmerie of France. There were other companies of marÉchaussÉes, who were particularly distinguished from the 31 above mentioned; such, for instance, as that of the constables, called the gendarmerie.

Marengo. A village of Italy, in Piedmont, near the Bormida, 2 miles southeast from Alessandria. Here the French army, commanded by Bonaparte, attacked the Austrians, June 14, 1800; his army was retreating, when the arrival of Gen. Dessaix turned the fortunes of the day. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful. By this victory Bonaparte gained 12 strong fortresses, and became master of Italy.

Margarita. An island in the Caribbean Sea lies off the coast of Venezuela, of which republic it forms a province. This island was first visited by Columbus in 1498, and has in more recent times (1816) been the scene of a bloody warfare between the revolutionists and the Spanish troops under Gen. Murillo, in which the latter were defeated.

Margrave. A German nobleman corresponding in rank to the English marquis. Margravine is the wife of a margrave.

Margum, or Margus. A fortified place in Moesia Superior, west of Viminacium, situated on the river Margus (now Morava), at its confluence with the Danube. Here Diocletian gained a decisive victory over Carinus.

Maricopa Indians. A tribe of aborigines, numbering about 400, who are located with the Pimas on a reservation on the Gila River, Arizona, about 180 miles above its mouth. They are peaceable, and follow agricultural pursuits.

Marienbourg. A fortified town of Belgium, situated in the province of Namur. This place was occupied by the French from 1659 till 1815.

Marignano (now Malegnano). A village of Northern Italy, near Milan. Three battles have been fought near here: (1) Francis I. of France defeated the Duke of Milan and the Swiss, September 13-14, 1515; above 20,000 men were slain; this conflict has been called the “battle of the giants.” (2) Near here was fought the battle of Pavia. (See Pavia.) (3) After the battle of Magenta, June 4, 1859, the Austrians intrenched themselves at Malegnano. Marshal Baraguay d’Hilliers with 16,000 men was sent to dislodge them, which he did, on June 8, with a loss of about 850 killed and wounded. The Austrians suffered severely.

Marine. A soldier serving on ship-board; a sea-soldier; one of a body of troops trained to do duty on vessels of war.

Marine Fortification. This kind of fortification differs from land fortification in that the approaches of the enemy which are to be resisted take place on the level of the sea, so that he can come near without having to overcome the dangerous slope of the glacis. The combat is simply one between two powerful batteries, and the question to be decided is, whether the ship or the fort will first be placed hors de combat; the ship having ordinarily the largest number of guns, while the fort has more solid battlements, and its fewer guns of great caliber can be fired with a steadiness unattainable on so shifting a base as the ocean. Under these circumstances, the less relief a sea-fortress has the better, the less likely is it to be hit from shipping. Its walls are usually built perpendicular, or nearly so. The magazines and quarters for the men are bomb-proof, as also are the casemates, from which the guns are usually fired, although sometimes, as in the martello tower, the gun is worked on top of the structure. Sea fortifications may be of various importance, the simplest being the battery consisting of a mere parapet formed in a cliff or on a hill, and mounted with guns to command the sea; these are generally built in such concealed situations, that it is hoped the hostile ship will not perceive them until they actually open fire. These are numerous all around the British coast. Next greater in importance is the martello tower (which see). More powerful still are the breach-forts, such as those which on either shore defend the entrance to Portsmouth harbor, England. These are constructed of the most solid masonry, and armed with guns of the heaviest caliber, sweeping the very surface of the sea so as to strike an approaching ship between wind and water. The guns are usually in bomb-proof casemates, and the fort is often defended on the land side, if the coast be level; if, however, higher ground be behind, this would be useless, and then the sea-front alone is defensible. Most terrible of all sea-forts, however, are the completely isolated forts with perpendicular faces and two and three tiers of heavy guns. Such are the tremendous batteries which render Cronstadt almost unapproachable, and by which Spithead and Plymouth Sound, England, are now being fortified. These forts are generally large, with all the requisites for a garrison to maintain itself; against them wooden ships stand no chance, and in the American civil war, Fort Sumter, at Charleston, has shown itself no mean antagonist for ironsides. In the new forts, as Spithead, etc., iron is to be employed as the facing, in plates of such vast thickness and weight that it is supposed no ship can ever possess any comparable power; and as they are to be armed with guns the smallest of which will probably be 300-pounders, it is expected that they will be able to destroy any fleet that could be sent against them. At the present day, the value of sea fortifications is disputed, as iron-plated vessels may pass them with impunity, unless the artillery in the fort be so heavy as to destroy the armor of the ships. In the long run, however, it is apparent that the fort can command the greater power; for its armor may be of any thickness, while that of the ship must be limited by her floating powers, and on the other hand, the limit to the size of artillery must be sooner reached in a ship than in a solid and stationary fortress.

Marines, Corps of. In the U.S. service is a body of troops who serve at the different naval stations, and on board ships of war. The men are drilled in all respects as infantry, and therefore, when on shore, are ordinary land forces. On board ship, their ordinary functions are as sharpshooters in time of action, and at other times to furnish sentries for guarding the stores, gangways, etc.; and they are useful as exercising a good control over the less rigidly disciplined sailors. They are also instructed as guns’ crews, and when not on guard, are subject to the orders of the naval officers in the same manner as the seamen. The corps was first established in the United States in 1775, and was permanently organized by act of Congress in 1798. By this act, marines were made liable to do duty at the call of the President in any of the forts or posts of the United States, and were placed on the footing of infantry soldiers, as far as regards pay and allowances. When detached for duty with the army, marines are subject to the Articles of War; at all other times they are subject to the laws and regulations for the government of the navy. The corps numbers about 2000 men commanded by a colonel. The corps has undergone many changes in respect of numbers, equipment, drill, and methods of recruiting since its organization, and was never in a better state of discipline and efficiency than now. No man is enlisted who is unable to read and write, under 5 feet 6 inches high, or over thirty-five years of age. It is organized into battalions for duty on shore, and into “guards,” or companies, for service afloat, each having its proper complement of officers, non-commissioned officers, musicians, and privates, and is considered an indispensable auxiliary to the navy. Civilians between twenty and twenty-five years of age are eligible at present to appointment as lieutenants in line of promotion, and are stationed at the head-quarters of the corps in Washington for their preliminary instruction. In the British service, besides the infantry, there is a division of marine artillery. In rank, marine officers correspond with army officers of the same grade, according to seniority; they are usually appointed from civil life.

Maritime. Bordering on, or situated near, the ocean; connected with the sea by site, interest, or power.

Mark. That toward which a missile is directed; a thing aimed at; what one seeks to hit or reach.

Mark, St., Knights of. An order of knighthood which formerly existed in the republic of Venice, under the protection of St. Mark the Evangelist.

Mark Time. To mark time is to move each leg alternately in quick or ordinary time, without gaining ground. This is frequently practiced when a front file or column has opened too much, in order to afford the rear an opportunity of getting up; and sometimes to let the head of a column disengage itself, or a body of troops file by, etc.

Marker. The soldier who forms the pivot of a wheeling column, or marks the direction of an alignment. Also, the one who records the number of hits and misses made by soldiers at target practice.

Marks, Inspection. Are certain marks cut on cannon to show the number of the gun, the name of the founder, name of inspector, weight of the piece, etc. Condemned shot are also marked. See Inspection of Projectiles.

Marksman. One who is skillful to hit a mark; one who shoots well.

Marksmanship. The skill of a marksman.

Marlins. Are tarred white skeins or long wreaths or lines of untwisted hemp, dipped in pitch or tar, with which cables and other ropes are wrapped round, to prevent their fretting and rubbing in the blocks or pulleys through which they pass. The same serves in artillery upon ropes used for rigging gins, usually put up in small parcels called skeins.

Maron (Fr.). A piece of brass or copper, about the size of a crown, on which the hours for going the rounds were marked in the old French service. Several of these were put into a small bag, and deposited in the hands of the major of the regiment, out of which they were regularly drawn by the sergeants of companies, for the officers belonging to them. The hours and half hours were engraved on each maron. These pieces were numbered one, two, etc., to correspond with the several periods of the night; so that the officer, for instance, who was to go to the 10 o’clock rounds, had as many marons marked ten as there were posts or guard-houses which he was directed to visit. Thus on reaching the first, after having given the mot, or watch-word, to the corporal, he delivers into his hands the maron marked one. These marons being pierced in the middle are successively strung by the different corporals upon a piece of wire, from which they slide into a box called boite aux rondes, or box belonging to the rounds. This box is carried next morning to the major, who keeps the key; and who on opening it can easily ascertain whether the rounds have been regularly gone by counting the different marons, and seeing them successively strung.

Maroons. A name given to runaway negroes in Jamaica. When the island was conquered from the Spaniards a number of their negroes fled to the hills and became very troublesome to the colonists. A war of eight years’ duration ensued, when the Maroons capitulated on being permitted to retain their free settlements, about 1730. In 1795 they again took arms, but they were speedily suppressed.

Marquee, or Markee. An outer fly, or roof-cloth of a tent; also, a large field-tent.

Marquis, or Marquess. The degree of nobility which in the peerage of England ranks next to a duke. Marquises were originally commanders on the borders or frontiers of countries, or on the sea-coast, which they were bound to protect. In England, the title of marquis was used in this sense as early as the reign of Henry III., when there were marquises or lords-marchers of the borders of Scotland and Wales; and the foreign equivalent of markgraf was common on the continent.

Marrons. In pyrotechny, are small paper shells filled with grained powder and primed with short pieces of quick-match. They form part of the decorations of signal-rockets.

Marrucini. A brave and warlike people in Italy of the Sabellian race, occupying a narrow slip of country along the right bank of the river Atermus. Along with the Marsi, Peligni, and other Sabellian tribes, they fought against Rome; and, together with them, they submitted to the Romans, 304 B.C., and concluded a peace with the republic.

Marsacii. A people in Gallia Belgica, on one of the islands formed by the Rhine, which first became known to the Romans through the war with Civilis.

Marsaglia. Near Turin, in Italy. A battle took place here on September 24, 1693, in which Catinat defeated Prince EugÈne and the Duke of Savoy. This battle and place are memorable for being the first at which bayonets were used at the ends of muskets, and to this the French owed the victory.

Marsala (Arab. Marsa Alla, “the port of God”). A maritime town of Sicily, in the province of Trapani, about 19 miles south-southwest of the port of Trapani. Marsala has recently acquired historic interest as the point where Garibaldi, eluding the vigilance of the Neapolitan fleet, landed with his heroic thousand, and began the romantic campaign which terminated the kingdom of the two Sicilies so ignominiously.

Marseillaise. The name by which the grand song of the first French revolution is known. The circumstances which led to its composition are as follows. In the beginning of 1792, when a column of volunteers was about to leave Strasburg, the mayor of the city, who gave a banquet on the occasion, asked an officer of artillery, named Rouget de Lisle, to compose a song in their honor. His request was complied with, and the result was the Marseillaise,—both verse and music being the work of one night. De Lisle entitled the piece “Chant de Guerre de l’ArmÉe du Rhin.” Next day it was sung with that rapturous enthusiasm that only Frenchmen can exhibit, and instead of 600 volunteers, 1000 marched out of Strasburg. Soon from the whole army of the North resounded the thrilling and fiery words, Aux armes! Aux armes! Nevertheless, the song was still unknown in Paris, and was first introduced there by Barbaroux, when he summoned the youth of Marseilles to the capital in July, 1792. It was received with transports by the Parisians, who—ignorant of its real authorship—named it “Hymne des Marseillais,” which name it has borne ever since.

Marseilles (anc. Massilia). A city in the south of France, the capital of the department of the Mouths-of-the-Rhone, situated on the Mediterranean Sea. It was founded by the PhocÆans about 600 B.C.; was an ally of Rome, 218 B.C.; taken by Julius CÆsar after a long siege, 49 B.C.; by Euric the Visigoth, 470; sacked by the Saracens, 839; united to the crown of France, 1482. Marseilles opposed the revolutionary government, and was reduced August 23, 1793.

Marshal (Fr. marÉchal). A term which originally meant a groom or manager of the horse, though eventually the king’s marshal became one of the principal officers of state in England. The royal farrier rose in dignity with the increasing importance of the chevalerie, till he became conjointly with the constable the judge in the CuriÆ Martiales, or courts of chivalry. When the king headed his army in feudal times, the assembled troops were inspected by the constable and marshal, who fixed the spot for the encampment of each noble, and examined the number, arms, and condition of his retainers. With these duties was naturally combined the regulation of all matters connected with armorial bearing standards, and ensigns. The constable’s functions were virtually abolished in the time of Henry VIII., and the marshal became thenceforth the sole judge in questions of honor and arms. (See Earl Marshal.) In France, the highest military officer is called a marshal, a dignity which originated early in the 13th century. There was at first only one marÉchal de France, and there were but two till the time of James I. Their number afterwards became unlimited. Originally, the marshal was the esquire of the king, and commanded the vanguard in war; in later times, the command became supreme, and the rank of the highest military importance. See Field-Marshal.

Marshal. To dispose in order; to arrange in a suitable manner; as, to marshal troops or an army.

Marshal of Scotland, Earl. An officer who had command of the cavalry under the constable. This office was held by the family of Keith, but forfeited by rebellion in 1715.

Marshal, Provost-. See Provost-Marshal.

Marshaler (written also marshaller). One who marshals.

Marshaling of Arms. In heraldry, is the combining of different coats of arms in one escutcheon, for the purpose of indicating family alliance or office.

Marsi. A brave people of Southern Italy, who, after several contests, yielded to the Romans about 301 B.C. During the civil wars they and their allies rebelled, having demanded and been refused the rights of Roman citizenship, 91 B.C. After many successes and reverses, they sued for and obtained peace and the rights they required, 87 B.C. The Marsi being Socii of the Romans, this was called the Social war.

Marsilly Carriage. A naval gun-carriage having but one set of trucks, one of the transoms resting directly on the deck. It is used in the U.S. navy for mounting the 9-inch Dahlgren in broadside.

Marston Moor. Near the city of York, England. The Scots and Parliamentary army were besieging York, when Prince Rupert, joined by the Marquis of Newcastle, determined to raise the siege. Both sides drew up on Marston Moor, July 2, 1644, and the contest was long undecided. Rupert, commanding the right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, at the head of troops disciplined by himself. Cromwell was victorious; he drove his opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second engagement and a second victory. The prince’s artillery was taken and the royalists never recovered the blow.

Marta, or Martha Santa. A town of New Granada, South America, capital of a province of the same name in the department of Magdalena. It was repeatedly sacked by pirates during the 16th and 17th centuries; and in 1672 was completely pillaged by a French and an English vessel. It suffered much from the attacks of the Indians during the revolutionary war, and does not appear to have regained its former importance.

Marteau d’Armes (Fr.). An offensive weapon, so called from its resemblance to a hammer.

Martel-de-fer. A hammer and pick conjoined, used by horse-soldiers in the Middle Ages to break and destroy armor.

Martello Towers. Are round towers for coast defense, about 40 feet high, built most solidly, and situated on the beach. They occur in several places round the coast of Great Britain; but principally opposite to the French coast, along the southern shore of Kent and Sussex, where, for many miles, they are within easy range of each other. They were mostly erected during the French war, as a defense against invasion. Each had walls of 5¹/₂ feet thickness and was supposed to be bomb-proof. The base formed the magazine; above were two rooms for the garrison, and over the upper of these the flat roof, with a 4¹/₂ feet brick parapet all round. On this roof a heavy swivel-gun was to be placed to command shipping, while howitzers on each side were to form a flanking defense in connection with the neighboring towers. Although the cost of these little forts was very great, they are generally considered to have been a failure. The name is said to be taken from Italian towers built near the sea, during the period when piracy was common in the Mediterranean, for the purpose of keeping watch and giving warning if a pirate-ship was seen approaching. This warning was given by striking on a bell with a hammer (Ital. martello), and hence these towers were called tarri da martello.

Martial. Pertaining to war; suited to war; military, as, martial music; a martial appearance; given to war; warlike; brave, as, a martial nation or people; belonging to war, or to an army and navy; opposed to civil; as, martial law; a court-martial.

Martial Law. An arbitrary law, proceeding directly from the military power, and having no immediate constitutional or legislative sanction. When it is imposed upon any specified district, all the inhabitants, and all their actions, are brought within its dominion. It is founded on paramount necessity, extends to matters of civil as well as of criminal jurisdiction, and is proclaimed only in times of war, insurrection, rebellion, or other great emergency. It is so far distinct from military law, which affects only the troops and forces. Martial law may, in fact, be termed a subjection to the Articles of War. In a hostile country it consists in the suspension, by the occupying military authority, of the civil and criminal law, and of the domestic administration and government in the occupied place or territory, and in the substitution of military rule and force for the same, as well as in the dictation of general laws, as far as military necessity requires this suspension, substitution, or dictation, and is simply military authority exercised in accordance with the laws and usages of war. Military oppression is not martial law, it is the abuse of the power which that law confers. As martial law is executed by military force, it is incumbent upon those who administer it to be strictly guided by the principles of justice, honor, and humanity,—virtues adorning a soldier even more than other men, for the very reason that he possesses the power or his arms against the unarmed. Martial law affects chiefly the police and collection of public revenue and taxes, whether imposed by the expelled government or by the invader, and refers mainly to the support and efficiency of the army, its safety, and the safety of its operations.

Martialize. To render warlike; as, to martialize a people.

Martinet (so called from an officer of that name in the French army under Louis XIV.). A strict disciplinarian; one who lays stress on the rigid adherence to the details of discipline, or to forms and fixed methods.

Martinetism. Rigid adherence to discipline.

Martini-Henry Rifle. See Small-arms.

Martinique. An island in the West Indies, the most northern and one of the largest of the Windward group. It was taken from the French by the British in February, 1762; restored to France at the peace of the following year; again taken March 16, 1794; restored at the peace of Amiens in 1802; and was again captured February 23, 1809. It reverted to its French masters in 1815.

Martin’s Shell. A hollow spherical projectile lined with loam and filled with molten iron,—used for incendiary purposes.

Martlet. In heraldry, a bird resembling a swallow, with long wings, very short beak and thighs, and no visible legs, borne on the shield as a mark of cadency by the fourth son.

Maryland. One of the thirteen original States of the United States, and one of the Central Atlantic States. Maryland was first settled in 1631, by a party from Virginia, and in 1632 by a colony of Roman Catholic gentry from England, under a grant to the second Lord Baltimore, when it received its present name in honor of the English queen, Henrietta Maria. From 1642 to 1645 the Virginian and English colonies were at perpetual warfare, and the governor of the English colony, Philip Calvert, was obliged to leave, but in 1646 he returned, the rebellion having ended. Maryland took a prominent part in the two French wars, the Revolution, and the war of 1812-14, when it was twice invaded by the British, who were gallantly repulsed from North Point, near Baltimore, September 13, 1814, although they had gained a temporary triumph a few weeks before at Bladensburg. In the war of 1861-66, its sympathies were with the South, and the first blood of the war was shed in Baltimore, several Massachusetts volunteers having been killed on their way to Washington. The State was the scene of several battles during the civil war, and suffered greatly from the contending armies. Maryland was organized as a State in 1776.

Masada. A fortress on the shore of the Dead Sea, built by Jonathan MaccabÆus, and afterwards greatly strengthened by Herod, as a place of refuge for himself. It fell into the hands of the Romans after the capture of Jerusalem, the garrison having devoted themselves to self-destruction.

Mascara. A town of Algeria, 48 miles southeast from Oran. The town was taken and nearly destroyed by the French in 1835, and occupied a second time by Gen. Bugeaud in 1841, since which time a garrison of French troops has been constantly maintained there.

Mascat, or Muscat. A large seaport of Arabia, standing on a peninsula on the northeast coast of the province of Oman. In 1507 it was taken by Albuquerque. For nearly 150 years after, it continued in the possession of the Portuguese. About the year 1648, however, it was retaken by the natives, who have ever since retained it.

Mascled Armor. A kind of armor sometimes worn by the Norman soldiers, composed of small lozenge-shaped plates of metal fastened on a leathern or quilted under-coat.

Mascoutins. A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who formerly inhabited the region of the Upper Lakes. They afterwards moved to the Wisconsin River, and subsequently settled on the Ohio. In 1765 they fought against Col. Croghan on the Wabash River, and attacked Col. Clarke in 1777. Their name is now lost among the numerous petty tribes that reside in Kansas.

Mask. A military expression used in several senses. A masked battery is one so constructed with grassy glacis, etc., as to be hidden from the view of the enemy, until, to his surprise, it suddenly opens fire upon him,—on his flank, perhaps. The fire of a battery is masked when some other work, or body of friendly troops, intervenes in the line of fire, and precludes the use of the guns. A fortress or an army is masked when a superior force of the enemy holds it in check, while some hostile evolution is being carried out.

Mask. A wire cage to protect the face in fencing.

Mask Wall. In permanent fortification, is the scarp wall of casemates.

Mason and Dixon’s Line. The line which divides Pennsylvania from Maryland, running on the parallel of 39° 43' 26. The boundary between the colonial possessions of the lords Baltimore and of the Penn family had been a subject of almost continual dispute from the first settlement of the country. At length, in 1760, the contending parties having agreed upon a compromise, appointed commissioners to settle definitively the limits between the two territories. Surveyors were employed by both sides, but their progress appeared rather slow; the proprietors who resided in England decided to send Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two distinguished mathematicians and astronomers, to complete the work. They arrived in Philadelphia in November, 1763, and by the autumn of 1767 had carefully surveyed and marked a line of nearly 250 miles, extending for the most part through a dense forest and passing over a number of mountain ridges. This line, dividing as it does the free State of Pennsylvania from Maryland, which was formerly a slave State, has been often referred to, in popular language, as the boundary between freedom and slavery in the United States.

Mass. In statics, is the amount of matter contained in a body. In dynamics, is that measure of the matter in a body which determines its relation to force. The accepted measure is the weight divided by the force of gravity. See Force of Gravity.

Mass. A word signifying the concentration of troops; the formation of troops in column at less than half distance. To mass troops, is to concentrate them by this arrangement on a certain point. A column is closed in mass when the sub-divisions have less than half distance.

Massachusetts. One of the thirteen original States of the American Union, and oldest of the New England States. It was discovered by the Cabots in 1497. In 1614 it was visited by Capt. John Smith. In 1620 the “Mayflower” sailed from Southampton with 102 Puritan settlers, and landed at Plymouth December 22. One half of them died from cold and hardship the first year. In 1637, the colony suffered from Indian massacres; and in King Philip’s war (1675) 12 towns and 600 houses were burned. The war of the Revolution of 1776 began in Massachusetts with the battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill. It adopted the Constitution of the United States, 1788.

Massachusetts Indians. A general name given to all the tribes of aborigines inhabiting the country in which the colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were founded. The five principal tribes were the Nausets, Pokanokets, or Wampanoags, Massachusetts, Pennacooks, and Nipmucks. They were nearly all exterminated in King Philip’s war (1675). At present about 1500 Indians reside in Massachusetts.

Massacre. The killing of human beings by indiscriminate slaughter, murder of numbers with cruelty or atrocity, or contrary to the usages of civilized people; cold-blooded destruction of life; butchery; carnage. The following are among the most remarkable:

Before Christ.—Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, 397; 2000 Tyrians crucified and 8000 put to the sword for not surrendering Tyre to Alexander, 331; 2000 Capuans, friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus, 211; dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and Ambrones near Aix, by Marius, the Roman general, 200,000 being left dead on the spot, 102; the Romans throughout Asia, women and children not excepted, massacred in one day, by order of Mithridates, king of Pontus, 88; great number of Roman senators massacred by Cinna, Marius, and Sertorius, 87; again, under Sylla and Catiline, his minister of vengeance, 82; at Perusia, Octavianus CÆsar ordered 300 Roman senators and other persons of distinction to be sacrificed to the manes of Julius CÆsar, 40.

After Christ.—At the destruction of Jerusalem 1,100,000 Jews are said to have been put to the sword, 70; the Jews, headed by one AndrÆ, put to death many Greeks and Romans in and near Cyrene, 115; Cassius, a Roman general under the emperor M. Aurelius, put to death 300,000 of the inhabitants of Seleucia, 165; at Alexandria, many thousands of citizens were massacred by order of Antoninus, 215; the emperor Probus is said to have put to death 400,000 of the barbarian invaders of Gaul, 277; massacre of the Gothic hostages by Valens, 378; of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons invited into the circus were put to the sword by order of Theodosius, 390; of the circus factions at Constantinople, 532; massacre of the Latins at Constantinople by order of Andronicus, 1184; of the Albigenses and Waldenses, commenced at Toulouse, 1208; thousands perished by the sword and gibbet of the French in Sicily, 1282 (see Sicilian Vespers); at Paris, of the Armagnacs, at the instance of John, duke of Burgundy, 1418; of the Swedish nobility at a feast, by order of Christian II., 1520; of Protestants at Vassy, March 1, 1562; of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants, in France, August 24, 1572 (see Bartholomew, St.); of the Christians in Croatia by the Turks, when 65,000 were slain, 1592; of the pretender Demetrius and his Polish adherents, May 27, 1606; of the Protestants in the Valteline, Northern Italy, July 19, 1620; of the Protestants at Thorn, put to death under a pretended legal sentence of the chancellor of Poland for being concerned in a tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic procession, 1724; all the Protestant powers in Europe interceded to have this unjust sentence revoked, but unavailingly; at Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred by the natives, October, 1740, under the pretext of an intended insurrection; at the taking of Ismail by the Russians, 30,000 old and young were slain, December, 1790; of French royalists (see Septembrizers), September 2, 1792; of Poles at Praga, 1794; in St. Domingo, where Dessalines made proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 1804, and many thousands perished; insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the French, May 2, 1808; massacre of the Mamelukes in the citadel of Cairo, March 1, 1811; massacre of Protestants at Nismes, perpetrated by the Catholics, May, 1815; massacre at Scio, April 22, 1822; destruction of the Janissaries at Constantinople, June 14, 1826; above 500 Kabyles suffocated in a cave in Algeria, June 18, 1845 (see Dahra); massacre of Christians at Aleppo, October 16, 1850; of Maronites by Druses in Lebanon, June, 1860; and of Christians at Damascus, July 9-11, 1860. See Druses and Damascus.

In British History.—Of 300 English nobles on Salisbury Plain by Hengist, about 450; of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 1200, by Ethelfrid, king of Bernicia, 607 or 612; of the Danes in the southern counties of England in the night of November 13, 1002, and the 23d, by Ethelred II. At London it was most bloody, the churches being no sanctuary. Among the rest was Gunilda, sister of Swein, king of Denmark, left in hostage for the performance of a treaty but newly concluded. Of the Jews in England; some few pressing into Westminster Hall at Richard I.’s coronation, were put to death by the people, and a false alarm being given that the king had ordered a general massacre of them, the people in many parts of England slew all they met. In York, 500 who had taken shelter in the castle killed themselves rather than fall into the hands of the multitude, 1189. Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen’s Wood, Ireland (see Cullen’s Wood), 1209; of the English factory at Amboyna, in order to dispossess its members of the Spice Islands, February, 1624; massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in O’Neill’s rebellion, October 23, 1641. Upwards of 30,000 British were killed in the commencement of this rebellion. In the first three or four days of it, 40,000 or 50,000 of the Protestants were destroyed. Before the rebellion was entirely suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were massacred; of the Macdonalds of Glencoe (see Glencoe), February 13, 1692; of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly Protestants, burnt, shot, or pierced to death by pikes, perpetrated by the insurgent Irish, at the barn of Scullabogue, Ireland, in 1798; of Europeans at Meerut, Delhi, etc., by mutineers of the native Indian army, May and June, 1857; of Europeans at Kalangan, on the south coast of Borneo, May 1, 1859; of the Europeans at Morant Bay, Jamaica, by the infuriated negroes, October 11-12, 1865. See Jamaica.

In American History.—Massacre of about 900 French Protestants (soldiers, women, children, the aged and sick) in Florida, by the Spaniards under Melendez de Aviles, on September 21, 1565; of about 347 English on March 22, 1622, and of 300 English on April 18, 1644, by Indians in Virginia; of about 100 Algonkin Indians, in the neighborhood of Manhattan, by the Dutch, on February 25-26, 1643; of 200 people at La Chine, Isle of Montreal, by Iroquois, August 25, 1689; of a large number of the inhabitants at Haverhill, Mass., by the French under Des Chaillons and Hertel de Rouville, assisted by 100 picked Canadians and a number of Algonkin Indians, August 29, 1708; of the English at Pocotaligo, Carolina, by the Yamassees and their confederates, on April 15, 1715; of a colony of French, in the southwest, near the banks of the Mississippi, by the Natchez Indians, November 28, 1729; of about 30 English soldiers, by Indians, allies of the French, after the capitulation of Fort William Henry, August 19, 1757; of some 300 settlers, chiefly boys and old men, by British soldiers, Seneca Indians, and Tories, in Wyoming Valley, Pa., on June 30, 1778 (see Wyoming Valley); of a party of emigrants, by Indians in Mountain Meadows, Utah, 1857; of about 1000 settlers in Western Minnesota, by Sioux Indians in 1862; of the garrison of Fort Pillow, Tenn., by the Confederates, April 13, 1864; of part of the garrison of Fort Phil Kearney (near the fort), by Indians, December, 1866; of five companies of the 7th U.S. Cavalry under Gen. Custer, by Sioux Indians, June 25, 1876.

Massacrer. One who massacres.

MassagetÆ. An ancient Scythian people (probably the ancestors of the Goths), who invaded Asia about 635. In a conflict with them Cyrus the Great was killed, 529 B.C.

Massa-Lubrenze, or Massa-de-Sorrento. A town of Naples, on the gulf of the same name, 19 miles south of the city of Naples. It was sacked by the Turks in 1558.

Masse (Fr.). A species of stock-purse, which, during the French monarchy, was lodged in the hands of the regimental treasurer or paymaster, for every sergeant, corporal, drummer, and soldier. The amount retained for each sergeant was vingt deniers per day, and dix deniers for each of the other ranks, according to the establishment, not the effective number of each battalion. Out of these stoppages a settled and regular masse, or stock-purse, was made up, and at the end of every month it was paid into the hands of the major or officer intrusted with the interior management of the corps, and was then appropriated to defray the expense of clothing the different regiments, and lodged in the hands of the directors or inspector-general of clothing.

Masse d’Armes (Fr.). A warlike weapon, which was formerly used. It consisted of a long pole with a large iron head.

Masselotte (Fr.). A French term which is used in foundery, signifying that superfluous metal which remains after a cannon or mortar has been cast, and which is saved or filed off, to give the piece its proper form.

Massie (Fr.). A short stick or rod, used by artificers in making cartridges.

Master, Baggage-. An inspector of roads, formerly an appointment in the British service.

Master, Barrack-. See Barrack-Master.

Master-General. See Ordnance Board.

Master-General, Barrack-. Formerly an officer with the rank of major-general, in the British service, who was vested with considerable powers. His duties consisted in keeping all barracks in repair, and all supplies of barrack furniture, utensils, and other stores for the troops, were furnished by him, as also a proper quantity of good and sufficient firing, candles, and other stores. He also supplied forage to the cavalry.

Master-General, Scout-. See Scout-Master-General.

Master-Gunners. In the British service are pensioned sergeants of artillery, who are placed in charge of the stores in small towers or forts; they are divided into three classes, of which those in the first class receive 5 shillings, in the second, 3 shillings and 6 pence, and in the third, 3 shillings per day. They are now borne in the Coast Brigade of Royal Artillery, but the office has much degenerated in importance since it was first created, at least as early as the time of Henry VIII.

Mastery. Victory in war.

Matafunda. An ancient machine of war, which was used for throwing stones, probably by means of a sling.

Matagorda. A small fort and military post in the south of Spain, contiguous to Cadiz. On February 22, 1810, Capt. (afterwards Lieut.-Gen. Sir Archibald) Maclaine was posted here with a force of about 140 men. The French cannonaded the work with field artillery all the next day; but the garrison were immovable. On March 21, the fire of 48 guns and mortars was directed on the little fort for thirty hours; when 64 men out of the 140 having fallen, Gen. Graham sent boats to carry off the survivors, and the fort was surrendered.

Matan. One of the Philippine Islands, lying to the east of Zebu, where Magellan was killed in a skirmish with the natives in 1520.

Matarieh. A village of Lower Egypt, in the province of Ghizeh, which stands on the site of the ancient Heliopolis, 5 miles northeast from Cairo. The Turks were defeated here by the French in 1800.

Match. A preparation invented to retain fire for the service of artillery, mines, fireworks, etc. For different kinds in use and their composition, see Laboratory Stores.

Match. A bringing together of two parties suited to one another, as for a trial of skill or force, a contest, or the like; as, specifically, a contest to try strength or skill; an emulous struggle.

Matchlock. The lock of a musket containing a match for firing it; hence, a musket fired by means of a match.

Mate-griffon. An ancient machine, the destroyer and terror of the Greeks, which projected both stones and darts.

MatÉriel. All cannon, small-arms, carriages, implements, ammunition, etc., necessary for war purposes, used in contradistinction to personnel. See Personnel.

Mathematics. That science, or class of sciences, which treats of the exact relations existing between the quantities or magnitudes, and of the methods by which, in accordance with these relations, quantities sought are deducible from other quantities known or supposed. It is usually divided into pure, which considers magnitude or quantity abstractly, without relation to matter; and mixed, which treats of magnitude as subsisting in material bodies, and is consequently interwoven with physical considerations; and to this branch may be referred astronomy, geography, hydrography, hydrostatics, mechanics, fortification, gunnery, mining, and engineering. The knowledge of military mathematics is applicable to all the operations of war, where everything consists in proportion, measure, and motion, bringing into play the several important sciences already enumerated, a certain proficiency in most of which is absolutely requisite to the formation of a good and skillful officer.

Matras (Fr.). A sort of dart which was anciently used, and which was not sufficiently pointed to occasion anything more than a bruise.

Matron. A woman, generally the wife of some well-behaved and good soldier, who is employed to assist in the hospital, do the washing, etc., and is under the direction of the surgeon, by whom she is originally appointed to the situation.

Matrosses. Were soldiers in the royal regiment of artillery in the British service, who assisted the gunners in loading, firing, and sponging the great guns. The term is now obsolete in the service, and the duty is done by the gunners.

Matter. That with regard to which anything takes place,—the subject of action, complaint, discussion, legal action, or the like. A word used in reference to courts-martial. The specific charges which are brought against a prisoner, and to which the court must strictly confine itself. Also applied to the evidence before a legal tribunal. New matter is new evidence not before considered.

Mattiaci. A people in Germany, who dwelt on the eastern bank of the Rhine, between the Main and the Lahn, and were a branch of the Chatti. They were subdued by the Romans, who, in the reign of Claudius, had fortresses and silver mines in their country. After the death of Nero they revolted against the Romans, and took part with the Chatti and other German tribes in the siege of Moguntiacum. From this time they disappear from history; and their country was subsequently inhabited by the Alemanni.

Mattock. A pioneer tool, resembling a pickaxe, but having two broad sharp edges instead of points.

Mattress. A quilted bed; a bed stuffed with hair, moss, or other soft material, and quilted. Mattresses are much used by officers on campaigns.

Mattucashlash. An ancient Scotch weapon sometimes called armpit dagger, which was worn under the armpit, ready to be used on coming to close quarters. This, with a broad sword and shield, completely armed the Highlanders.

Maubenge. A town of France, in the department of Nord, situated on the Sambre, not far from the frontiers of Belgium. The town is well fortified, the defenses being by the famous Vauban. The town traces its origin back to the 7th century, and being situated near the frontier, has been an object of great contention. It has been taken no less than ten times since the 15th century, and finally by the allies in 1815.

Maul. A heavy beater, or hammer, usually shod with iron, used in driving piles, etc.

Mauritania, or Mauretania. The ancient name of the northwestern part of Africa, corresponding in its limits to the present sultanate of Morocco and the western portion of Algeria. It derived its name from its inhabitants, the Mauri (Moors). The country was conquered by the Romans, who founded many colonies in it, and in 49 B.C. Julius CÆsar appointed Bogudes and Bocchoris joint kings of Mauritania. In 429 the Vandal king Genseric, at the invitation of Count Boniface, crossed the Straits of Gades, and Mauritania, with other African provinces, fell into the hands of the barbarian conquerors. Belisarius destroyed the kingdom of the Vandals, and Mauritania again became a Roman province under an Eastern exarch. In 698, when the Arabs made the final conquest of Africa, the Moors adopted the religion, name, and origin of their conquerors, and sunk back into their more congenial state of Mohammedan savages.

Mauritius, or The Isle of France. An island in the Indian Ocean, lying about 500 miles east from Madagascar, and forming a colony of Great Britain. This island was discovered by the Portuguese in 1505, and in 1598 it was taken by the Dutch. In 1810 it came into the possession of the English.

Mauser Gun. Is the army service breech-loading rifle used since 1874 by the German infantry. It was invented in 1871, and derives its name from Mauser, a gunsmith of WÜrtemberg, who modified and greatly improved it. Its advantages over the needle-gun, the weapon used in the Franco-German war, are numerous. It is lighter, weighing about two pounds less, and carrying a heavier charge of powder and a lighter ball, is of longer range, being effective at 1300 yards; the manner of loading it is simpler, and it can be fired with greater rapidity.

Maximum Charge. See Charge.

Maya. A gorge in the Pyrenees, between Bidassoa and Nivelle, the scene of an action in July, 1813, in which the French were worsted by the English, under Gen. Stewart.

Mayaguez. A town and port of the island of Porto Rico. An adventurer named Ducondray took this town in 1822, and made an attempt to establish an independent republic.

Maynard’s Primer. Consisted of a coil of paper tape containing small charges of percussion-powder placed at certain intervals. The coil was placed in a circular cavity on the outside of the lock-plate. The cocking of the piece, by unwinding the coil, brought successive charges over the nipple, when they were exploded by the fall of the hammer.

Maynard’s Rifle. One of the first, if not the first rifle in which a metallic cartridge was used. It was described in an official report to the U.S. Chief of Ordnance in 1856. This, as well as the primer mentioned above, was the invention of Dr. E. Maynard. This rifle in improved form is still in the market.

Meal Powder. See Gunpowder.

Measure. To compute or ascertain the extent, quantity, dimensions, or capacity of, by a certain rule or standard.

Measure of Velocity. In projectiles and mechanics, is the space passed over by a moving body in any given time. The space therefore must be divided into as many equal parts as the time is conceived to be divided into: the quantity of space answering to such portion of time is the measure of the velocity.

Measures. For powder are cylindrical copper vessels of various sizes for determining the charges of shells, cannon, etc.

Meaux. A town of France, in the department of the Seine-et-Marne, 23 miles northeast from Paris. After a siege of several months, this place was taken by the English in 1520.

Mecca. A city of Arabia, capital of the province of Hejaz, and of the district Belud-el-Haram. This was the birthplace of Mohammed, and the cradle of the Mussulman creed. In 1804 and 1807, it was taken by the Wahabees, and in 1818, by Ibrahim Pasha.

Mechanical Manoeuvres. The application of the mechanical powers in mounting, dismounting, shifting, and transporting artillery.

Mechanical Powers. Certain simple machines, such us the lever and its modifications, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane with its modifications, the screw, and the wedge, which convert a small force acting through a great space into a great force acting through a small space, or vice versa, and are used separately or in combination.

Mechanics. That science, or branch of applied mathematics, which treats of motion, and develops the effects of powers or moving forces, so far as they are applied to machines.

Mechanicsville. In Henrico Co., Va. Near here, on the left bank of the Chickahominy, on the east side of Beaver Dam Creek, a battle was fought on June 26, 1862, between the Confederate forces, under Gen. Lee, and the Federal troops, under Gen. McClellan, in which the former were compelled to retreat with great loss. The fight was mainly sustained on the Federal side by the brigades of Gens. Reynolds and Seymour, and lasted about seven hours, during the greater part of which time the Federal artillery kept up a destructive fire on the enemy as they essayed to charge the lines, each successive attempt only ending in renewed disaster. Their loss was said to be about 3000, while that of the Federals did not exceed 300.

Mechlin, or Malines. A town of Belgium, in the province of Antwerp, situated on the Dyle. It was founded in the 6th century; destroyed by the Normans in 884; sacked by the Spaniards, 1572; taken by the Prince of Orange, 1578, and by the English, 1580; frequently captured in the 17th and 18th centuries, partaking in the evil fortunes of the country.

Mecklenburg. Formerly a principality in Lower Saxony, now independent as the two grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The house of Mecklenburg claims to be descended from Genseric the Vandal, who ravaged the Western empire in the 5th century, and died, 477. During the Thirty Years’ War, Mecklenburg was conquered by Wallenstein, who became its duke, 1628; it was restored to its own duke, 1630. After several changes, the government was settled in 1701 as it now exists in the two branches of Schwerin and Strelitz. In 1815 the dukes were made grand dukes, and they joined the new North German Confederation by treaty, August 21, 1866.

Medal. Is a piece of metal in the form of a coin, struck to commemorate some remarkable event, or in honor of some distinguished person, but having no place in the currency. Medals belong to two periods, ancient and modern, separated by a wide interval. To the former belong those pieces issued in ancient Rome, known as medallions, and made of gold, silver, or copper. They are generally supposed to have been struck on occasions similar to those on which medals are coined in modern times, on the accession of an emperor, on the achievement of an important victory, or as specimens of workmanship. Modern medals date from the 14th century, but few were struck prior to the 15th. In more recent times, it has become customary to confer medals as marks of distinction for eminent worth or noble conduct, but more particularly for naval or military services. Such medals of honor are seldom of great intrinsic value, their worth depending on the associations connected with them. During the Revolutionary war Congress conferred these marks of honor on several military and naval heroes, who distinguished themselves by their valor or achievements during that eventful period. In the U.S. service, at present, bronze medals of honor are conferred on enlisted men in the army, navy, and marine corps for gallantry in action, or extraordinary heroism in the line of their duties. In the English military service, similar medals are granted. They are generally of silver, and have ribbons attached, with clasps or small bars, each of which bears the name of a particular engagement. Good-service medals of silver are also distributed among meritorious soldiers, sailors, and marines.

Medals of Honor. See Medals.

Medeah, or Medeyah. A fortified town of Algeria, 40 miles southwest from Algiers. This town was taken by the French in 1820.

Media. In ancient times, the name of the northwestern part of Iran, which was bounded by the Caspian Sea on the north, Persia on the south, Parthia on the east, and Assyria on the west. The Medians were in language, religion, and manners very nearly allied to the Persians. After they had shaken off the yoke of the Assyrians, their tribes united about 708 B.C., chose Dejoces for their chief, and made Ecbatana their capital. His son Phraortes, or Arphaxad, subdued the Persians. Cyaxares, the son of Phraortes, in alliance with Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, overthrew the Assyrian empire about 604 B.C., spread the terror of his arms as far as Egypt and the farthest bounds of Asia Minor, and vanquished the brigand hordes of Scythia, who had carried their ravages as far as Syria. He was succeeded by his son Astyage, who was deposed (560 B.C.) by his own grandson Cyrus, king of Persia; and from this time the two nations are spoken of as one people. After the death of Alexander the Great (324 B.C.), the northwest portion of Media became a separate kingdom, and existed till the time of Augustus; the other portion, under the name of Great Media, forming a part of the Syrian monarchy. Media was on several occasions separated from Persia. In 152 B.C., Mithridates I. took Great Media from the Syrians, and annexed it to the Parthian empire, and about 36 B.C., it had a king of its own, named Artavasdes, against whom Mark Antony made war. Under the Sassanian dynasty, the whole of Media was united to Persia. It became, during the 14th and 15th centuries, the stronghold of the Turkoman tribes. In early times the Medes were a warlike race, and were distinguished for their skill with the bow. They were also celebrated for their horsemanship, and it was from them that the Persians adopted this and other favorite exercises and acquirements. In subsequent times, they appear to have become effeminated by luxury.

Mediator. Any state or power which interferes to adjust a quarrel between any two or more powers, is called a mediator.

Medical Department. This department of an army, next to the commissariat, is the most important of all the non-combatant sections. The surgical treatment of the wounded in actual fighting, and still more the combat with disease engendered by crowding, unhealthy stations, and the reckless habits of the soldiery, necessitate a large medical staff; for, on an average of the whole army, it is found that the rate of sickness is at least quadruple that for the civil population. In the British army every battalion, when at home or in the temperate zone, has a surgeon and an assistant-surgeon; when in India or the tropics, another assistant-surgeon is added. The medical department is governed by a director-general, who is a member of the War Office, and has charge of the surgical, medical, and sanitary arrangements of the army. In the United States every military post has at least one medical officer and sometimes two, as the nature of the climate or the strength of the command demands, all of whom are under the command of a surgeon-general, who ranks as brigadier-general, and is permanently established at Washington, D. C. He has full control over everything that pertains to the medical department of the army. Officers of the medical department are assistant-surgeons, with the rank of first lieutenants of cavalry the first five years of their service thereafter, till promoted to the grade of surgeon, when they receive the rank, pay, and emoluments of captain.

Medical Director. In the U.S. service, an officer who is placed on duty at the headquarters of a military geographical division or department, and who, under the supervision of the surgeon-general, has control of the medical department within the limits of the command in which he is serving.

Medical School. At Netley, England, an institution is established for the technical education of medical officers for the British and Indian military service. Candidates are examined competitively in the ordinary subjects of professional knowledge; and, passing satisfactorily through that ordeal, are then required to attend for six months at the Military Medical School. As the school is attached to the Royal Victoria Hospital, which is the great invalid depot for the whole army, the students have ample opportunity of seeing theory exemplified in practice.

Medical Staff. This branch of the British army is under the control of an experienced officer, stationed at headquarters, under the denomination of “director-general.” Immediately under his command are a number of inspectors-general, deputy inspectors-general, and a corps of staff-surgeons. The locality of all the officers subordinate to the director-general is determined by the force to which they may be attached. All the regimental surgeons and assistant-surgeons make their reports to and consult the staff-officer who is placed in their district. The director-general is paid from the civil department of the government. A deputy inspector-general of hospitals must have served five years at home, or three years abroad in this rank, before he shall be eligible to the highest rank of inspector-general.

The medical board consists of three or four medical officers, who may be convened by an order through the Secretary of War, for the inspection of wounded officers, in order to secure them a provision for life, according to the regulations regarding pensions, etc.

Medicine-chest. Is composed of all sorts of medicines necessary for a campaign, together with such chirurgical instruments as are useful, fitted up in chests and portable. The army is supplied with these at the expense of the government.

Medina. Or more fully, Medinat Al Nabi (City of the Prophet), the holiest city throughout Mohammedanism next to Mecca, and second capital and stronghold of Hedjaz in Western Arabia. In this city Mohammed was protected when he fled from Mecca, September 13, 622, others say July 15, 622. (See Hegira.) Medina was taken by the Wahabees in 1804; retaken by the pasha of Egypt in 1818.

Medina de Rio Seco. A town of Spain, 25 miles northwest of Valladolid, on the Seguillo, an affluent of the Douro. Here BessiÈres defeated the Spaniards, July 15, 1808.

Medjidie. A Turkish order, instituted in 1852, and conferred after the Crimean campaign, to a considerable extent, on British officers. It has five classes; and the decoration, which differs in size for the different classes, is a silver sun of seven triple rays, with the device of the crescent and star alternating with the rays. On a circle of red enamel, in the centre of the decoration, is the legend in Turkish, whose signification is “zeal, honor, and loyalty,” and the date 1268, the Mohammedan year corresponding to 1852; the sultan’s name is inscribed on a gold field within this circle. The first three classes suspend the badge round the neck from a red ribbon having green borders, and the fourth and fifth classes wear it attached to a similar ribbon on the left breast. A star, in design closely resembling the badge, is worn on the left breast by the first class, and on the right breast by the second class.

Meeanee, or Miyani. A village in Sinde, Hindostan, on the Indus, 6 miles north of Hyderabad, is celebrated as the scene of a great battle between Sir Charles Napier and the ameers of Sinde, February 17, 1843. Sir Charles’s force, composed partly of Europeans, and partly of natives, amounted to only 2800 men; that of his foes to 22,000, yet the latter were totally routed, losing in killed and wounded 5000, while Sir Charles’s loss was only 256. The result of this victory was the conquest and annexation of Sinde.

Meer Bukshy. In the East Indies, a chief paymaster.

Meer Tozuk. In the East Indies, a marshal whose business is to preserve order in a procession or line of march, and to report absentees.

Meerut, Merut, or Mirut. The chief town of a district of the same name in British India, on the Kali Nuddi, about 42 miles northeast from Delhi. Here on May 10, 1857, the native troops revolted, shooting their own European officers, and massacring the European inmates without respect to age or sex.

Megalopolis (now Sinano, or Sinanu). The most recent, but the most important of the cities of Arcadia, was founded on the advice of Epaminondas, after the battle of Leuctra, 371 B.C., and was formed out of the inhabitants of 38 villages. It was situated near the frontiers of Messenia, on the river Helisson. It was for a time subject to the Macedonians, but soon after the death of Alexander the Great, it was governed by a series of native tyrants, the last of whom united the city to the AchÆan League, 234 B.C. It became, in consequence, opposed to Sparta, and was taken by Cleomenes, who destroyed a great part of the city, 222. After the battle of Sellasia in the following year it was restored by Philopoemen.

Megara. An ancient city of Greece, capital of the territory Megaris, was situated 8 stadia (1 mile) from the sea, opposite the island of Salamis, about 26 miles from Athens and 31 miles from Corinth. In 461-445 B.C. the Athenians had possession of the country, but it subsequently became annexed to Attica, and Megaris formed one of the four ancient divisions of Attica. It was next conquered by the Dorians, and was for a time subject to Corinth; but it finally asserted its independence, and rapidly became a wealthy and powerful city. The government was originally an aristocracy, as in most of the Doric cities; but Theagenes, one of the common people, put himself at the head of the popular party, and obtained the supreme power about 620 B.C. Theagenes was afterward expelled, and a democratical form of government established. After the Persian wars, Megara was for some time at war with Corinth, and was thus led to form an alliance with Athens, and to receive an Athenian garrison in the city, 461; but they were expelled in 441. The city was taken and its walls destroyed by Demetrius Poliorcetes; it was again taken by the Romans under Q. Metellus; and in the time of Augustus it had ceased to be a place of importance.

Meggheteriarque (Fr.). The commanding officer of a body of men; who formerly did duty at Constantinople, and were called Heteriennes, being composed of soldiers who were enlisted in the allied nations.

Mehadpore, Mehidpoor, Mahedpore, or Maheidpoor. A town of Hindostan, Gwalior dominions, 22 miles north of Odjein. Here Sir Thomas Hislop and Sir John Malcolm defeated the Mahrattas under Holkar, December 21, 1817.

Meigs Gun. See Magazine Guns.

Melanippus. The name of four Trojan warriors, who fought valiantly in the wars of their native country.

Melazzo (West Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on July 20-21, 1860, defeated the Neapolitans under Gen. Bosco, who lost about 600 men; Garibaldi’s loss being 167. The latter entered Messina; and on July 30 a convention was signed by which it was settled that the Neapolitan troops were to quit Sicily. They held the citadel of Messina till March 13, 1861.

MÊlÉe (Fr.). A military term, which is used among the French to express the hurry and confusion of a battle. MÊlÉe corresponds with the English expression “thick of the fight.”

Melegnano. See Marignano.

Melfi. A town of Naples, province of Basilicata (Potenza), 75 miles east-northeast of Naples, and 34 south of Foggia. It was formerly the capital of the Norman possessions in Southern Italy, and was defended by walls, now in a ruinous condition, and by an ancient Norman castle. The town was taken, and 18,000 of its inhabitants massacred by the French, under Lautrec de Foix, in 1528.

Meloria, or Melora. A small island in the Mediterranean, off the coast of Tuscany, 4 miles west of Leghorn. Near Meloria the Pisan fleet defeated the Genoese in 1241, capturing many bishops going with much treasure to a council. The total destruction of the Pisan fleet on August 6, 1284, by the Genoese near the same place, after a most sanguinary conflict, was considered to be the just punishment of impiety.

Melos (now Milo). One of the Cyclades in the Ægean Sea, colonized by the Spartans about 1116 B.C.; it was captured during the Peloponnesian war, after a seven months’ siege, by the Athenians, who massacred all the men and sold the women and children as slaves, 416 B.C.

Melrose. A village at the foot of the Eildon Hills, on the south bank of the Tweed. It is famous for the ruins of its noble abbey founded by King David I. in 1136, its original pile having been destroyed during the Wars of the Succession. Melrose was burned by Kenneth, king of Scots, in 839.

Melton-Mowbray. A town of England, in Leicestershire, situated at the confluence of the Wreak and Eye. It is remarkable as the scene of a defeat of the Parliamentary troops by the royalists in 1644.

Melun. An ancient town of France, capital of the department of Seine-et-Marne, 28 miles southeast from Paris. It was the Melodunum of the Romans; was taken by Clovis in 494; was stormed five times during the 9th century by the Northmen, and fell into the hands of the English after a siege of six months in 1419, and was held by them for ten years.

Members. Officers are so called who are detailed by orders to sit on general or garrison courts-martial.

Members, Supernumerary. In case supernumerary members are detailed for a court-martial, they are sworn, and it is right that they should sit and be present at all deliberations even when the court is cleared, in order to be prepared to take the place of any absent member. Until then they have no voice.

Memel. A town and seaport of East Prussia, on the small river Dange, adjacent to the CÜrische Haff, 74 miles northeast from KÖnigsberg. It is strongly fortified. It was taken by Teutonic knights about 1328.

Memmingen. A town of Bavaria, circle of Swabia, situated on a tributary of the Iller. It is noted as the scene of a victory gained by the French under Moreau over the Austrians, May 10, 1800.

Memoir. Is the title given by military officers to those plans which they offer to their government or commanders on subjects relating to war or military economy.

Memoirs. In military literature, a species of history, written by persons who had some share in the transactions they relate, answering in some measure to what the Romans call commentarii, “commentaries.” Hence CÆsar’s Commentaries, or the memoirs of his campaigns.

Memorial. An address to the government on any matter of public service.

Memphis. A celebrated Egyptian city, situated in the Delta, or Lower Egypt. During the attempts of the native rulers to throw off the Persian rule, Memphis was an important strategic point. Ochus inflicted severe injury on this town, having plundered the temples and thrown down the walls after he had driven out Nectanebus. Ptolemy VIII. destroyed the city. It fell with the rest of Egypt under the Roman rule, and afterwards was conquered by Amru Ben Abas (639-40).

Memphis. A flourishing city and port of entry of Shelby Co., Tenn. During the civil war, it fell into the hands of the Union forces, after a short naval fight, June 6, 1862, and in 1864, Gen. Forrest made a raid upon it, capturing a great number of prisoners.

Men, Battalion. All the soldiers belonging to the different companies of an infantry regiment were so called, except those of the two flank companies.

Men, Camp-color. Soldiers under the immediate command and direction of the quartermaster of a regiment. Their business is to assist in marking out the lines of an encampment, etc.; to carry the camp colors to the field on days of exercise, and fix them occasionally for the purpose of enabling the troops to take up correct points in marching, etc. So that in this respect they frequently, indeed almost always, act as guides, or what the French call jalonneurs. They are likewise employed in the trenches, and in all fatigue duties.

Menace. A hostile threat. Menacing words used in the presence of a court-martial are punishable in accordance with Article of War 86. See Appendix.

Menai Strait (between the Welsh coast and the isle of Anglesey). Suetonius Paulinus, when he invaded Anglesey, transported his troops across this strait in flat-bottomed boats, while the cavalry swam over on horseback, and attacked the Druids in their last retreat. Their horrid practice of sacrificing their captives, and the opposition he met with so incensed the Roman general, that he gave the Britons no quarter, throwing all that escaped from that battle into fires which they had prepared for the destruction of himself and his army in 61.

Menapii. A powerful people in the north of Gallia Belgica, who originally dwelt on both banks of the Rhine, but were afterwards driven out of their possessions on the right bank by the Usipetes and Tenchteri, and inhabited only the left bank near its mouth, and west of the Mosa.

Mendavia. A town of Spain, province of Navarre, 37 miles southwest from Pamplona. CÆsar Borgia, the infamous son of Pope Alexander VI., was killed here in a skirmish in 1507.

Mende. A town of France, capital of an arrondissement of the same name, on the left bank of the Lot. This town was fortified in 1151; it suffered much in the civil wars of the Reformation, and was taken no less than seven times.

Menehould, St. A town of France, in the department of the Marne, situated on the Aisne, 26 miles northeast of Chalons; it was taken by Louis XIV. in 1653.

Menin. A fortified town of Belgium, province of West Flanders, on the Lys, 31 miles southwest of Ghent. It has undergone a great number of sieges, and in the 17th and 18th centuries was frequently taken by the French.

Menomonees. A tribe of Indians, of Algonkin stock. They number about 1500, are partially civilized, and reside on a reservation near Green Bay, Wis.

Men’s-harness. See Implements.

Mensuration. That branch of applied geometry which gives rules for finding the length of lines, the areas of surfaces, or the volumes of solids, from certain simple data of lines and angles. Every military officer should be acquainted with mensuration.

Mentana. A small village, 13 miles from Rome. Here Garibaldi and his volunteers, numbering between 3000 and 4000, after having intrenched his positions at Monterotondo and Mentana on their march towards Tivoli, on November 3, 1867, were totally defeated by the papal and French troops, under Gens. Kanzler and PolhÈs, after a severe conflict, in which Gen. Failly said “the Chassepot rifles did wonders.” There were about 5000 men on each side, but the Garibaldians were very badly armed. The loss of the papal and French troops was about 200 killed and wounded; that of Garibaldi about 800. Garibaldi crossed the Italian frontier, and was arrested at Correse, and eventually sent to Caprera.

Mentonniere (Fr.). Chin-piece; chin-strap; chin-piece of a helmet is so called.

Mentz (Ger. Mainz, Fr. Mayence, anc. Moguntiacum). A city of Germany, in the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the left bank of the Rhine. Mentz was founded by the Romans in the 2d century, and in 406 was destroyed by the Vandals; but after lying in ruins for some centuries it was restored by Charlemagne, and attained great prosperity after the time of Bonifacius. In the Thirty Years’ War, it was taken by the Swedes, and in 1688 by the French, but was restored at the subsequent peace. At the end of 1792, it surrendered to the French. Next year it was taken by the Austrians. By the peace of LunÉville, concluded in 1801, it was formally ceded to France, and in 1815 it was assigned to Hesse-Darmstadt. The town is strongly fortified, and is one of the strongest places in Europe, serving as a defense for Germany on the side of France. On the other side of the Rhine stands the suburb of Castel, which is also fortified.

Mequinenza. A town and port of Spain, on the Ebro, in the province of Huesca, Aragon, 64 miles southeast from Huesca. It is defended by a fortress, which was taken by the French in 1810.

Mercara. A town and fortress in the south of India. It was built by Hyder Ali in 1773, after he had conquered the country. Tippoo Sahib gave it up to the rajah of Coorg in 1792. It was taken possession of by the British in 1834.

Mercenaries. Soldiers serving for pay in a foreign service.

Mercia. One of the largest of the seven kingdoms of the Heptarchy (which see). It comprised the counties from the Thames to Yorkshire, and is said to have been founded by Crida in 585. Three-quarters of a century later, Mercia was conquered for a time by Northumbria; but it recovered its independence, which it retained until Egbert subdued it, when it was included in the kingdom of Wessex.

Merida. A town of Spain, province of Estremadura, on the Guadiana, 35 miles east from Badajos. It was built by the Romans; taken by the Moors in 713; taken from them in 1229; taken by the French, January, 1811. Near this town, at Arroyas Molinos, the British army under Gen. (afterwards Lord) Hill defeated the French under Gen. Girard, after a severe engagement, October 28, 1811. The British took Merida from the French in 1812, Gen. Hill leading the combined forces of English and Spanish troops.

Merionethshire. The most southern county of North Wales, situated at the middle of the Welsh coast. Here Owen Gwynedd defeated Henry II., and brave Glyndwr rose in arms at the call of friendship and patriotism to resist the usurper of the throne of gentle Henry, and the enslaver of his loved Wales. Tradition and records tell of bloody deeds done here in those and later days by freebooters, daring and cruel.

Merit. To earn by active service, or by any valuable performance; to have a right to claim as reward; to deserve. Also, the quality or relation of deserving well or ill.

Merit, Certificate of. In the U.S. army a certificate which is given by the President, upon the recommendation of commanding officers, to enlisted men who have distinguished themselves in the service. The holder of each certificate is entitled to $2 per month.

Merit, Order of. A military distinction given to officers or soldiers for some signal service, the badge of which is generally expressive of the service. Such was the medal, or order of merit, presented by the Austrian emperor to the officers of the 15th British Light Dragoons for their bravery in the affair of Villers en CouchÉ in 1794.

Meritorious. Possessing merit or desert; deserving of reward or honor.

Merkin. A mop to clean a cannon. See Malkin.

Merlin. A handspike.

Merlon. The mass of earth of the parapet between two embrasures, generally from 15 to 18 feet in length. Also, the projection on the top of a crenellated wall.

Merovingians. The first Frankish dynasty in Gaul. The name is derived from Merwig, or MerovÆus, who ruled about the middle of the 5th century, having united a few tribes under his sway. His grandson, Clovis, or Clodwig, greatly extended his dominions, and on his death divided his kingdom among his four sons, one of whom, Chlotar, or Chlotaire I., reunited them under his own sway in 558. On his death, in 561, the kingdom was again divided into four parts,—Aquitaine, Burgundy, Neustria, and Austrasia. His grandson, Clotaire II., again united them in 613; but after his death, in 628, two kingdoms, Neustria and Austrasia, were formed, in both of which the Merovingian kings retained a merely nominal power, the real power having passed into the hands of the mayors of the palace. The dynasty of the Merovingians terminated with the deposition of Childeric IV., in 752, and gave place to that of the Carlovingians.

Merseburg. A town of Prussian Saxony, capital of a circle of the same name, on the Saale. It was near this town that the emperor Henry the Fowler gained his famous victory over the Hungarians in 934. Rudolf of Swabia was here defeated and slain by Henry IV. in 1080.

Mesolonghi. See Missolonghi.

Mess. The law is silent with regard to messes in the army. Executive regulations have been made on the subject, but without law it is impossible to put messes on a proper footing. In England, an allowance is granted by the sovereign in aid of the expense of officers’ messes; and every officer on appointment to a corps subscribes one month’s pay to the mess-fund. All the officers of the corps mess together. (See Guard Mess.) In France, the several grades mess separately; lieutenants and sub-lieutenants forming two tables, captains another, and field-officers of different grades generally eating separately also. Generals and colonels of the French service receive an allowance for table expenses, not sufficient to keep open house, but enough to enable them to entertain guests. In the British navy there are generally three messes, namely, the ward-room mess, the gun-room mess, and the engineers’ mess; in the U.S. navy there are two: the ward-room and steerage messes. Enlisted soldiers and seamen, in the army and navy respectively, mess together in tables comprising a certain number, according to squads or rating; but this has no reference to the technical meaning of messing as applied to officers, and is merely for the purpose of economy of fuel and labor in the cooking of their rations.

Message. Word sent; more especially a dispatch signaled or telegraphed.

Messenia. A district in the southwest of the Peloponnesus. At an early period after the Doric conquest, it rose to power and opulence. It is chiefly noted for its two wars with Sparta, known as the Messenian Wars, the first of which lasted from 743 to 724 B.C., and the second from 685 to 668 B.C. In both instances the Athenians were defeated, and in consequence, a great part of them emigrated to Sicily, where they took possession of Zancle, which then received the name of Messana, the present Messina (which see).

Messina. A city in the northeast of the island of Sicily, situated on a strait called the Faro di Messina, which separates Italy from Calabria. It is 9 miles northwest from Reggio, in Calabria. The town is entirely surrounded with walls and protected by detached forts and a citadel, which stands on the neck of the curved promontory that forms the harbor. It was seized by the Mamertini about 281 B.C. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire; was taken by the Saracens about 829. Roger the Norman took it from them by surprise about 1072. It revolted against Charles of Anjou, and was succored by Peter of Aragon, 1282; revolted in favor of Louis XIV of France, 1676; the Spaniards punished it severely, 1678; headquarters of British forces in Sicily prior to 1814; an insurrection took place here which was subdued September 7, 1848. Garibaldi entered Messina after his victory at Malazzo, July 20-21, 1860; the citadel surrendered to Cialdini, March 13, 1861.

Mestre de Camp GÉnÉral (Fr.). The next officer in rank, in the old French cavalry service, to the colonel-general. This appointment was created under Henry II. in 1552. Mestre de camp gÉnÉral des dragoons, an appointment which first took place under Louis XIV. in 1684.

Metal. Broken stone, etc., used as a road cover.

Metal. In heraldry, the metals in use are gold and silver, known as or and argent. The field of the escutcheon and the charges which it bears may be of metal as well as of color. It is a rule of blazon that metal should not be placed on metal, or color on color.

Metals for Cannon. See Ordnance, Metals for.

Metapontum, or Metapontium. A city of Magna GrÆcia; was situated on the Tarentine Gulf, 14 miles from Heraclea, and 24 from Tarentum. The Metapontines assisted the Athenians in their Sicilian expedition (415 B.C.); they embraced the side of Pyrrhus in his war with the Romans, and after its conclusion fell under the Roman yoke. When Hannibal invaded Italy, the Metapontines after the battle of CannÆ were well disposed to him; but, on account of a garrison of Romans, were unable openly to desert to him till 212 B.C., when the city was occupied by a Carthaginian garrison. When Hannibal was compelled to leave Italy he removed, along with his own troops, the inhabitants of Metapontum; and from that time the city disappears from history.

Metaurus (now Metauro). A river in Central Italy, where Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, was defeated and slain, 207 B.C., when marching with abundant reinforcements for the latter. The Romans were led by Livius and Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter commanded the head of Hasdrubal to be thrown into his brother’s camp. This victory saved Rome.

Meter, or Metre. The French standard of linear measure, intended to be the ten-millionth part of the earth’s quadrant, from the equator to the pole. It is equal to 39.370 British, or 39.369 American inches.

Methone (Modon). An ancient city of Messenia; was situated on the southwest coast. At the close of the second Messenian war it was given by the victorious LacedÆmonians to the exiled Nauplians, but was restored to its rightful owners by Epaminondas. An unsuccessful attack was made upon Methone by the Athenians in 413 B.C. It was made a free city by the emperor Trajan.

MÉtier (Fr.). Literally means any calling or business. In a military sense, it is peculiarly applicable to those nations which keep up large standing armies, and make war their principal object and pursuit. Chevalier Folard gives the following definition relative to the question which is often discussed on the subject of war, namely, whether war be a trade or a science. The English call it a profession. Folard, however, distinguishes it in this manner: La guerre est une mÉtier pour les ignorons, et une science pour les habiles gens, “war in the apprehension, and under the management of ignorant persons is certainly a mere trade or business, but among able men it becomes an important branch of science.”

Metric System. The French system of measures, founded upon the metre. The system is decimal, and includes measures of length, area, volume, and weight.

Metulum. The chief town of the Iapydes in Illyricum; was near the frontier of Liburnia, and was situated on two peaks of a steep mountain. Augustus nearly lost his life in reducing this place, the inhabitants of which fought against him with desperate courage.

Metz (anc. Divodurum). A city and fortress of Alsace-Lorraine, situated on the Moselle. It was the Roman Divodurum, or Meti, capital of the Mediomatrici, a powerful Gaulish tribe (whose name it took at a later date), and of the kingdom of Austrasia, or Metz, in the 6th century; but in 985, Otho II. made it a free imperial city, and thereafter it was used by the German emperors as a barrier against France. It was besieged by Charles VII. in 1444, and could only preserve its freedom by the payment of 100,000 crowns. At length Henry II. obtained possession of it in 1552; and although it was besieged by Charles V. with an army of 100,000 men, his efforts were completely baffled by the skill and energy of the Duke of Guise, and by the courage and constancy of the townsmen; so that the French continued in possession of the town till it, along with Toul and Verdun, was formally secured to them by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Franco-German war (1870-71) the emperor Napoleon III. arrived at Metz, and assumed the chief command, July 28, 1870. After the disastrous defeats at WÖrth and Forbach, August 6, the whole French army, except the corps of MacMahon, De Failly, and Douay, was concentrated here, August 10, 11, and by delay was hemmed in by the Germans. Marshal Bazaine assumed the chief command on August 8, and on August 14 he was attacked at Courcelles, a little east of Metz. On August 16, Bazaine advanced from the fortress, but was attacked by the second army, under command of Prince Frederick Charles, at Vionville, and was compelled to retreat to Metz. But on August 17, Bazaine massed his troops for a decisive conflict, and on August 18 he gave battle at Gravelotte (which see), but was compelled to retreat again, and was shut up in the city. Prince Frederick Charles now surrounded the city, and then began one of the greatest sieges of history. After many brilliant sallies Bazaine was compelled to surrender, October 27, on account of starvation and sickness, with an army including 3 marshals, 66 generals, 173,000 men, including the imperial guard, 400 pieces of artillery, 100 mitrailleuses, and 53 eagles and standards; and on October 29 the Germans entered Metz. All the army that surrendered was compelled to go to Germany as prisoners of war. In May, 1871, Metz was ceded to the German empire by the peace of Frankfort, and its fortifications greatly strengthened.

MeurtriÈres (Fr.), Small loop-holes, sufficiently large to admit the barrel of a rifle or musket, through which soldiers may fire, under cover, against an enemy. They likewise mean the cavities that are made in the walls of a fortified town or place.

Mexico. A federal republic of North America, next to the United States. It was conquered by the Spaniards under Cortez in 1521, and remained as a Spanish dependency for 300 years; and after a long struggle with the mother-country, which commenced in 1810, it shook off the Spanish yoke in 1821, and declared its independence. In 1824 the country was declared a federal republic, with a constitution similar to that of the United States, and its independence was acknowledged by Spain in 1836. About this time Texas, which was then the most northeastern of the Mexican states, withdrew from the federal league and became an independent republic. The Mexican general, Santa Anna, was sent to reduce them to subjection, but he was defeated and taken prisoner by the Texans. In 1845, Texas was annexed to the United States and admitted into the Union as a State. This led to a war between Mexico and the United States, by which the former lost all her northern provinces, consisting of Utah, California, and New Mexico, which were ceded to the United States in 1848. From this time the history of Mexico consists, for the most part, of a long series of insurrections, revolutions, and political changes, which followed each other in rapid succession. Santa Anna, who had been driven into exile shortly after his disgrace in Texas, was recalled and made dictator in 1853. He was succeeded in power by Gens. Carera, Alveraz, Comonfort, and Zulagoa. When the last named was made dictator in 1858, Benito Juarez, the Indian statesman, was declared constitutional president by the liberal party; a civil war ensued, anarchy and confusion reigned supreme in the country; but Juarez, taking advantage of the dissensions between Zulagoa and Miramon, the leaders of two opposite sections of the party that was hostile to his government, at last gained the ascendency, and entered the capital as president of the Mexican republic in January, 1861. In the same year, in consequence of the enormities practiced by Juarez and his partisans, and the outrages committed on European merchants resident in the country, the governments of England, France, and Spain formed a triple alliance, and sent an expedition to Mexico to demand satisfaction for the injuries inflicted on the subjects of their respective countries, and to endeavor to bring about a more settled state of affairs. Vera Cruz was occupied by the allied forces, and this event was followed soon after by the convention of Soledad, signed in February, 1862, in which the government of Juarez engaged to comply with the requisitions of the allies. But the French government disapproved of the convention, and although the forces of England and Spain were withdrawn in compliance with its terms, Napoleon III. determined to advance on the capital, with the view of effecting the overthrow of Juarez and placing the government of the country on a settled basis. The French troops were, however, delayed for some months before Puebla, which capitulated on May 18, 1863, and entered Mexico on the 8th of the following month, amid the acclamations of the people, who had become weary of the intestine strife that had so long convulsed the land, and which had been produced by the jealousy and rivalry of the party leaders who had aspired to the direction of the government. This event was followed by the proclamation of the empire and the nomination of Maximilian, the brother of the present emperor of Austria, as the first emperor of Mexico under the new rÉgime. The republican leaders were violently opposed to this measure, and Maximilian by his severity towards them alienated the affections of many of his original supporters. At length, on the withdrawal of the French troops at the demand of the United States, the republicans advanced into Central Mexico. Maximilian with a Mexican force vainly attempted to oppose them, and was captured and shot at Queretaro, June 19, 1867.

MÉziÈres. An ancient and well-built town of France, the capital of the department of Ardennes, situated on a peninsula formed by the Meuse. In 1520, the Chevalier Bayard successfully defended this place against 40,000 Spaniards under the Count of Nassau, and in 1815 it held out for two months against the Prussians, but was at length obliged to capitulate.

Miami Indians. A tribe of aborigines, of Algonkin stock, who formerly resided in Ohio and Indiana. In the war of 1812, they fought against the United States as allies of the British. In 1846 the majority of the tribe removed to Kansas, on a reservation in which State a remnant still resides.

Michigan. One of the Northern Central States of the United States. It was colonized by the French, near Detroit, in the latter half of the 17th century, but, like other French colonies in America, did not progress rapidly. At the peace of 1763, it came, with the other French possessions in North America, under the dominion of Great Britain, and so remained till the breaking out of the American Revolution, when it passed to the United States. On the expulsion of the French, the celebrated Indian chief Pontiac seized the occasion to rid the country of the hated whites by a general uprising, and simultaneous attacks on all the forts of the English on the lakes. Mackinaw was taken by stratagem, and the garrison mercilessly butchered. Detroit was besieged for some months by Pontiac, with 600 Indians; but it held out till the Indian allies, becoming weary of the siege, retired and left Pontiac no choice but to make peace. The British surrendered Detroit to the United States in 1796. In 1805, Michigan, which up to that period had been a part of the Northwest Territory, was formed into a separate government. In 1812, it became the scene of some stirring events in the war with Great Britain. Lying contiguous to Canada, it was invaded in the very commencement of that struggle, and its capital (Detroit) surrendered August 15, 1812, by Gen. Hull, under circumstances which led to his displacement from his command. Previous to this Fort Mackinaw had been taken by the enemy. In January, 1813, a cruel massacre by the savages of a party of American prisoners took place at Frenchtown, but soon after, Gen. Harrison drove the enemy out of the Territory of Michigan, and removed the seat of war into Canada. Michigan became an independent member of the American Confederacy in 1837. During the civil war, she contributed greatly to the cause of the Union, and sent over 90,000 men to the field.

Micmacs. A tribe of Indians numbering about 4000, who reside principally in New Foundland, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. They were formerly faithful allies of the French in their wars with the New England colonies, and with the English, against whom they maintained a hostile attitude until about 1760.

Middle Ages. The ages or period of time about equally distant from the decline of the Roman empire and the revival of letters in Europe, or from the 8th to the 15th century of the Christian era.

Middle Assembling-bar. See Ordnance, Carriages for, The Caisson.

Middle-chest. The front ammunition-chest on the body of the caisson,—so called because it is between the hind chest and the limber-chest when the caisson is limbered.

Middle-man. The man who occupies a central position in a file of soldiers.

Midea. A town in Argolis, of uncertain site; is said to have been originally called Persepolis, because it had been fortified by Perseus. It was destroyed by the Argives.

Midianites. An Arab race, descended, according to Scripture, from Midian, the son of Abraham by Keturah. They occupied the greater part of the country between the north side of the Arabian Gulf and Arabia Felix as far as the Plains of Moab. The Midianites were very troublesome neighbors to the Israelites till Gideon’s victory over them (about 1249 B.C.), after which they gradually disappeared.

Mignon (Fr.). Picked soldier, now called Élite.

Milan (Mediolanum, capital of the ancient Liguria). A city of Italy, the capital of the province of Lombardy, 78 miles northeast from Turin; is reputed to have been built by the Gauls about 408 B.C. It was conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus, 222 B.C. It was the seat of government of the Western empire in 286; plundered by Attila in 452; taken by the emperor Frederick I., 1158; it rebelled and was taken by Frederick and its fortifications destroyed in 1162; but was rebuilt and fortified in 1169. The Milanese were defeated by the emperor Frederick II. in 1237; and the city was conquered by Louis XII. of France in 1499. The French were expelled by the Spaniards in 1525, and the city annexed to the crown of Spain in 1540; ceded to Austria, 1714. It was conquered by the French and Spaniards in 1743; reverted to Austria upon Sicily and Naples being ceded to Spain in 1748; seized by the French, June 30, 1796, retaken by the Austrians, 1799; regained by the French, May 31, 1800. The Milanese revolted against the Austrians, March 18, 1848, but submitted August 5, 1848. Another insurrection was attempted in 1853, but with disastrous results. On June 8, 1859, by the peace of Villa Franca, Lombardy was annexed to Piedmont, and Victor Emmanuel became sovereign of Milan.

Milazzo (anc. MylÆ). A fortified seaport on the north coast of Sicily, 18 miles west of Messina. It was founded about 700 B.C., and has been the scene of many battles. It was taken by Laches in 427 B.C. It was off MylÆ that the Romans, under their consul Duilius, gained their first naval victory over the Carthaginians, and took 50 of their ships, 260 B.C. Here also Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sextus Pompeius, 36 B.C. On July 20, 1860, Garibaldi with 2500 men defeated 7000 Neapolitans, at Milazzo, and compelled the garrison to evacuate the fortress.

Mileage. An allowance for traveling, as so much by the mile; especially in the United States, an allowance made to military officers to defray the expenses of their journeys on duty when not traveling with troops.

Milesian. A native or inhabitant of Ireland, descended according to the legendary history of the country from King Milesius of Spain, whose two sons conquered the island 1300 B.C., and established a new order of nobility.

Milesian. Pertaining to Ireland, from the tradition that King Milesius of Spain once conquered the country.

Miletus. A flourishing Greek city of Ionia, in Asia Minor, was situated on the north side of the peninsula of Mt. Grion, at the entrance of the Gulf of Latmus, nearly opposite the mouth of the Meander. At the time of the Ionian emigration to Asia Minor it existed as a town, but when the Ionians arrived in Asia, Neleus and a company of his followers seized Miletus, put to death all the male inhabitants, who were Carians or Leleges, and took the women for their wives. Miletus became for a time a prosperous city under the rule of Lydia and Persia, but in 500 B.C. it revolted against Persia, and after repeated defeats in the field, the city was besieged by land and by sea, and finally taken by storm in 494 B.C. The city was plundered and its inhabitants massacred, and the survivors were transplanted to a place called Ampe, near the mouth of the Tigris. The town itself was given up to the Carians. Towards the end of the Peloponnesian war, Miletus threw off the yoke imposed upon her by Athens, and in a battle fought under the very walls of the city, the Milesians defeated their opponents; the Athenian admiral, Phrynichus, abandoned the enterprise. In 334 B.C., Alexander the Great took the city by assault, and destroyed a part of it, but it continued to flourish, until it was destroyed by the Turks and other barbarians.

Milford Haven. A town of Wales, in Pembrokeshire, 6 miles northwest from Pembroke. Here the Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., landed on his way to encounter Richard III., whom he defeated at Bosworth, 1485.

Milice. An old term for militia.

Militancy. Warfare. This term is obsolete.

Militant. Engaged in warfare; fighting; combating; serving as a soldier.

Militantly. In a militant manner. This term is rarely used.

Militar. Military. This term is obsolete.

Militarily. In a military or soldierly manner.

Militarist. One devoted to military pursuits.

Military. Pertaining to soldiers, to arms, or to war; having to do with the affairs of war; as, a military parade or appearance; military discipline. Engaged in the service of soldiers or arms; as, a military man. Warlike; becoming a soldier; as, military bravery, military virtue. Derived from the service or exploits of a soldier; as, military renown. Conformable to the customs or rules of armies or militia; as, the conduct of the officer was not military. Performed or made by soldiers; as, a military election.

Military. The whole body of soldiers; soldiery; militia; the army.

Military Academies. The great improvements made in the art of war in modern times, in weapons, drill, discipline, etc., has made warfare more of a science and less of a trial of brute force than formerly, and hence the necessity for a body of trained officers capable of moving, directing, and bringing into effective operation all the appliances of war with which modern armies are furnished. As this special training cannot be obtained at ordinary educational establishments, special schools for the purpose have been established in all civilized countries. A few of them are here noted.

Great Britain.—The Royal Military Academy, an establishment at Woolwich, through which must pass all candidates for the artillery and engineers. It was instituted in 1741, but the present structure was not erected until 1805. It usually contains about 200 cadets. The age of admission is sixteen, and the vacancies are open to public competition. The parents or guardians have to make annual payments for the support of the cadets as long as they remain at the academy, the amount being greater for the son of a civilian than of a military or naval officer. When the term of instruction—which comprises the subjects of a thorough general education, the higher mathematics, fortification, gunnery, and military duty—is completed, the cadets compete for vacancies in the engineers and artillery, those who pass the best examination being allowed a choice of either branch of the service. All who obtain commissions in the engineers proceed to Chatham for further instruction in their professional duties; the artillery cadets at once join the artillery as lieutenants.

Royal Military College, Sandhurst, is an institution for the training of candidates for commissions in the cavalry and infantry. The course is limited to one year immediately before entering the army, and the subjects of instruction confined to the higher mathematics, modern languages, and military science. Entrance is on the nomination of the commander-in-chief; and the payment by the cadets’ parents or guardians varies according to their circumstances and rank. No payment is made for what are called “Queen’s Cadets,” who must be orphans. Commissions in the cavalry and infantry are given to the cadets in the order of merit at the end of the year.

The Staff College was founded in 1858, about 2 miles from Sandhurst, for the purpose of giving higher instruction to 30 officers aspiring to appointments on the staff. To be entitled to compete for entrance, an officer must have been three years in active service, must have passed the qualifying examination for a captaincy, and must have the recommendation of his commanding officer. A very strict examination decides which among the competitors shall be admitted to the college, one only being eligible from any battalion. The course lasts two years. At the end of each year there is an examination; that of the second fixing the order of the candidates’ choice for staff employment. After passing the Staff College the officer is attached for duty, for a short period, to each of the arms with which he may not have already served. He then becomes eligible for appointment to the staff, as opportunity may occur. There are also the Royal School of Military Engineers at Chatham, for the instruction of engineer officers, the Royal Military School at Dublin, and professional schools for officers and enlisted men, as the School of Musketry at Hythe, and the School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness.

France.—The celebrated Polytechnic School at Paris was established by the National Convention, September 28, 1794. By a decree of July 16, 1804, Napoleon placed it under a military rÉgime. No attempt being made to impart a general education, candidates are required to have a thorough general knowledge before they are admitted. The preliminary examination of candidates for admission comprises mathematics, physics, chemistry, history, German, etc.; in fact, the candidate to be successful should have the degree of Bachelor of Science. Admission is open to competition; a board of examiners passes through the country once every year, and examines all who present themselves, possessing the requisite qualifications of age, etc. A list is made out from the proceedings of the board, and the number of candidates highest in order of merit for whom there are vacancies admitted. The age of admission is from sixteen to twenty years, or if the candidate is in the army, to twenty-five. This school prepares students for various branches of the public service, for the staff, engineers, artillery, for the corps of hydrographical engineers, engineers of roads and bridges and of mines, the department of powder and saltpetre, etc. The number of cadets is usually about 350, and the course of instruction two years. After the final examination the first 30 or 40 candidates usually select civil employment under the government, those next in merit choose the artillery and engineers, and are sent to the School of Application, to pass through a technical course. The remaining students either fail to qualify, and leave the school, or receive commissions in the line, subordinate situations in the government service, civil or colonial, or they retire into civil life altogether.

The Special Military School at St. Cyr, near Versailles, was established for the instruction of candidates for commissions in cavalry and infantry. The age of admission is the same as for the Polytechnic School, and pupils are entitled to partial or entire state aid if they need it, as are also those of the Polytechnic. The course of instruction is two years, at the end of which time the more promising students pass to the Staff School, and thence, after a thorough course, to the État-major of the army; the remaining students pass as subalterns into the cavalry and infantry, selecting the arm of the service in which they desire to serve according to the order of merit in which they graduate. There are also the School of Application for Engineers and Artillery, the School of Application for the Staff, the Cavalry School at Saumur, for one year’s instruction to officers of that arm, and the School of Musketry at Vincennes.

Prussia.—The Prussian system of military education differs from that of France, in that competition is but sparingly resorted to, the object being to give a good general and professional education to all the officers, rather than a specially excellent training to a select few. For this purpose there are established seven cadet schools, one senior, at Berlin, and six junior, situated at Bensburg, Culm, Oranienstein, Ploen, Potsdam, and Wahlstatt. The age of admission to the junior schools is from ten to eleven years, and the usual course of instruction is for four years, and two or three at the senior school, followed by the finishing term of nine months at a division school, when graduates are eligible to commissions. Some, however, are sent to the army to earn their commissions as other candidates. Others pass an additional year at the senior cadet school, in which case the term at the division school is dispensed with. After completing their course at the junior schools, students pass to the senior school without examination. They may also be admitted to the senior school without passing through the junior grade, provided they come up to the required standard of qualification. Aspirants for commissions must enter the ranks, and within six months pass a good examination in general and liberal knowledge if they are not graduates of a cadet school. Those who are graduates are not examined. After some further service the candidate goes for nine months to one of the division schools, which are eight in number, situated at Anclam, Cassel, Engers, Erfurt, Hanover, Metz, Neisse, and Potsdam. Here he completes his professional education, and if he passes the final examination, is eligible for the next vacancy in the line, but cannot be commissioned unless the officers of the corps are willing to accept him as a comrade. Candidates for commissions in the artillery and engineer corps, after graduating from the cadet school or passing an examination from the army, must pass nine months at the Artillery and Engineer School, after which they receive a provisional appointment as sub-lieutenants. Upon graduating, after two more terms of nine months each, they are commissioned as lieutenants. But the culmination of Prussian military education is the Staff School, or War Academy, which presents the highest prizes in the profession, and competition for which is open to all officers of the army who have had three years’ service, and can produce testimonials of good conduct, ability, etc., from their superiors. Admission is by competitive examination, usually about 40 of the applicants being selected. The course of study lasts three years. During three months of each year the officers are sent to do military duty with arms of service or corps not their own. Of the 40 who pass through the Staff School each year, 8 or 10 only are sent to the topographical department of the staff. There they serve two or three years, at the expiration of which time two are selected from the number, and appointed captains on the staff. The remainder return to their regiments or corps, sometimes receiving appointments in the division schools.

Austria.—The Austrian military system of training is very elaborate, and commences at an early age,—boys intended for military service beginning their professional almost contemporaneously with their general education. There are schools of various orders for training non-commissioned officers and for officers, and senior departments for imparting more extended instruction to both classes. Candidates for appointment as non-commissioned officers pass by competition through the lower houses, where they remain till eleven years old, the upper houses, which detain them till fifteen, and the school companies, whence, after actual apprenticeship to service, a few pupils pass to the academies as aspirants for commissions, and the others are drafted into the service as non-commissioned officers. For the education of officers there are four cadet houses, each containing 200 pupils. The boys are pledged to the service by their parents at the age of eleven, after which the state takes charge of them. At fifteen they pass according to qualification to the academy for the line, the engineer or artillery academy, and four years later receive their commissions in the arms of the service for which they have graduated. The young officer’s chance of entering the Staff School—and therefore the staff—depends upon his place at the final academic examination.

The Staff School consists of 30 pupils selected by competitive examination from all arms of the service, 15 entering each year. The course of instruction is two years. To be qualified for admission a candidate must have served two years with his regiment, and be over twenty-one and under twenty-six years of age. The students receive appointments in the staff corps according to the order of merit, immediately after the final examination, if there are vacancies; if there are none, they return to their regiments until vacancies occur. If the successful candidate is a second lieutenant, he is promoted to the rank of first lieutenant; if a first lieutenant, he is promoted captain after three years’ service.

Russia.—Has 22 military colleges for the guards and line, containing over 7000 cadets, a school of ensigns for the guards, an artillery and an engineer school, averaging over 8000 military students. There is also an imperial staff school, into which 20 or 25 officers enter each year after examination. The term of instruction is for two years. Upon graduation, the most distinguished scholar is at once promoted to the rank of captain on the staff, and all the graduates are, from time to time, as vacancies occur, attached to the staff, but not immediately promoted in it.

Italy, Spain, and other powers have also their military academies, but those already given may be considered a fair type of all. It need only be stated that the educational status of the Italian officers is considered very high.

The United States.—The Military Academy at West Point is the only government institution in the United States for the military training of cadets and their preparation for the duties of officers. The necessity for such an institution was recognized at an early date in the history of the country. A committee of Congress which had visited the Continental army at New York recommended the establishment of a military academy in their report, October 3, 1776. The subject was subsequently brought to the notice of Congress on several occasions, but without result until 1794, when provision was made for the establishment of 4 battalions of engineers and artillerists, 8 cadets to be attached to each battalion. The number was increased to 56 in 1798, and provision made for procuring books and apparatus for their instruction. By the act of March 16, 1802, determining the military peace establishment, the artillerists and engineers were made two distinct corps; 40 cadets were attached to one regiment of artillery, and 10 to the corps of engineers, said corps to be stationed at West Point, and to constitute a military academy. The act also provided that the senior engineer officer present should be superintendent of the academy, and authorized the Secretary of War to procure the necessary books, apparatus, etc., for the institution. Another act, dated February 28, 1803, authorized the President to appoint teachers of French and drawing. At the expiration of five years, however, further legislation was deemed necessary, and on April 12, 1808, a bill was passed which added 156 members to the corps of cadets. By the act of April 19, 1812, it was declared that the Military Academy should consist of the corps of engineers, the teachers of French and drawing already provided for, a professor of natural philosophy, a professor of mathematics, and a professor of engineering, with an assistant for each professor. Provision was also made for a chaplain, who was to officiate as professor of geography, physics, and history. The number of cadets was limited to 260; the requirements for admission, terms of study and service, and rate of pay and emoluments were also prescribed. But the commencement of its great success as an educational institution, and the reputation which the academy possesses for its elevating and disciplinary government, dates from July, 1817, when Brevet Maj. Sylvanus Thayer, of the engineer corps, assumed command as superintendent. He was an early graduate of the academy, had served with distinction in the war of 1812, and having studied in the military schools of France, had acquired matured views for the government of such an institution. He organized and perfected a system of management, which he carried into successful operation for sixteen years, and which, with but little modification, is followed to-day. In 1818 the department of geography, history, and ethics was organized, and the chaplain appointed professor; the clerical and secular duties thus combined have ever since remained inseparable. A professorship of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology was created by act of July 5, 1838, and an assistant authorized, “to be taken from the officers of the line, or cadets.” In May, 1846, the teachers of French and drawing were styled professors, and the appointment of assistants was authorized. In 1857 a professorship of the Spanish language was established. By act of Congress approved June 23, 1879, whenever a vacancy occurs in the office of professor of the French or Spanish language, both these offices shall cease, and the remaining one of the two professors shall be professor of modern languages. A professorship of law has also been established, which is held by an officer of the bureau of military justice. The academic staff consist of the superintendent; the commandant of cadets, who is instructor of artillery, cavalry, and infantry tactics, and is charged with the discipline of the cadets, having usually 8 officers detailed from the line of the army as assistants; and of the professors of civil and military engineering and science of war, of natural and experimental philosophy, of mathematics, of history, geography, and ethics (chaplain), of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology, of drawing, of French, of Spanish, and of law, all of whom have one or more commissioned officers as assistants. There are also detailed on duty several officers of the engineer and ordnance corps as instructors in practical military engineering, military signals and telegraphing, and in ordnance and gunnery. A sword-master is also employed. The military staff consists of an adjutant; a treasurer, quartermaster and commissary, of the battalion of cadets; a quartermaster, surgeon, and assistant surgeon. In 1843 the custom which had prevailed of appointing one cadet from each Congressional district received the sanction of law, and thus the number was limited to the number of Representatives. But as the District of Columbia and the army and navy were not represented, the President was empowered to appoint 1 cadet from the former and 10 cadets “at large,” the latter to be selected annually from the army or navy, or any other quarter at his option, without regard to Congressional districts. The age for admission is from seventeen to twenty-two years, except when the candidate has served one year in the war of the Rebellion, in which case he may be admitted up to twenty-four, and the course of instruction is fixed at four years. Candidates must be able to read and write well, have a good knowledge of grammar, of geography, and history, particularly of the United States, and of arithmetic, including vulgar and decimal fractions. Examinations are held annually on January 1 and June 1. All newly-appointed cadets must report for examination by June 25, and none are examined after September 1, unless detained by sickness or other unavoidable cause, when they may be examined with the fourth class on January 1, and if found competent may proceed with that class. Each cadet on admission takes the oath of allegiance and binds himself to serve the United States for eight years, unless sooner discharged. For purposes of instruction, the cadets are divided into four classes, the fourth being the junior class, and for matters of discipline the permanent organization is that of a battalion of infantry composed of four companies. During their academic course cadets receive $500 a year and one ration a day. Upon graduating, the cadets highest in merit are usually commissioned as second lieutenants and appointed to the engineer corps, those next in order of merit to the artillery, and the remainder to the cavalry and infantry. Those for whom no vacancies exist at graduation are attached to regiments or corps as additional second lieutenants, and promoted second lieutenants as soon as a vacancy occurs in the arm to which they are attached. By act of Congress approved June 23, 1879, each member of the graduating classes of 1879-80 may elect, with the assent of the Secretary of War, to receive the sum of $750 and mileage to the place of his residence in lieu of an appointment in the army, except in the event of war, until two years after his graduation. There is also an artillery school at Fort Monroe, Va., for the training of officers and enlisted men. The school is entirely conducted by commissioned officers, and the course of instruction is one year.

Military Asylum. See Soldier’s Home.

Military Asylum, Royal. See Asylum, Royal Military.

Military College. See Military Academies (Sandhurst).

Military Column. See Column, Military.

Military Discipline. Next to the forming of troops, military discipline is the first object that presents itself to our notice: it is the soul of all armies; and unless it be established among them with great prudence, and supported with unshaken resolution, soldiers become a contemptible rabble, and are more dangerous to the very state that maintains them than even its declared enemies. See Discipline.

Military Execution. The ravaging or destroying of a country or town that refuses to pay the contribution inflicted upon them. Also, the punishment inflicted by the sentence of a court-martial.

Military First Principles. Is the bodily training for a soldier, to make him hardy, robust, and capable of preserving health amidst fatigue, bad weather, and change of climate; to march at such possible pace, for such length of time, and with such burden, as without training he would not be able to do.

Military Frontier, The. A crown-land of the Austrian empire, bounded on the north by Croatia, Slavonia, and the Wojwodschaft, on the east by Transylvania and Wallachia, on the south by Turkey and Dalmatia, and on the west by the Adriatic, comprising an area of 12,800 square miles. The military frontier owes its origin as a crown-land to the necessity of having a permanent body of defenders on the borders during former wars, and especially during wars with the Turks. In the 15th century the Austrians had gained from the Turks certain tracts of territory on the banks of the Save and Danube. These tracts they colonized, making it, however, a condition that the colonists must render military service against the Turks. The Warasdin frontier originated in the same manner under Ferdinand I. In the 17th century the Petrinier frontier, which at a later period received the name of the Banat frontier, was erected. The military stations along the frontier serve a threefold purpose,—the defense of the country, the prevention of smuggling, and the prevention of the spread of contagious disease into the territories of the Austrian empire. The inhabitants of this crown-land enjoy peculiar privileges. Their immigrant ancestors received only the temporary use of lands consigned to them; but in 1850 a law was passed making over the land to the occupiers as their own property. This right of property does not belong, however, to individuals, but to the family in a united sense. The oldest member of a family is intrusted with the management of the land; his partner ranks equal with him, and they each receive a double share of the profits. All who are able to bear arms are sworn to the service from their twentieth year. The soldier of the frontier, who is clothed as well as armed and supplied with ammunition by government, finds it his duty not only to watch and protect the frontier, but to preserve peace and order in the interior, and to go on foreign service when required. Only the smaller portion of the forces of the military frontier is retained in readiness for active service, while the remainder pursue their ordinary employments. To facilitate the accomplishment of the purposes aimed at by the military frontier, the cordon, a series of guard-houses along the whole frontier, affording accommodation to from 4 to 8 men, as well as larger ones, accommodating 12 men and a junior officer, has been instituted. Within this line are the officers’ posts. Without announcing himself at the posts, no one is allowed to pass the boundary; and after permission is given the passenger must remain a longer or shorter time at the quarantine establishment, in order that all introduction of disease may be prevented.

Military Indications. Officers should study attentively the customs of their enemy, their hours for dining, commencing their marches, etc., and the many indications of intended movements which an enemy may unwittingly afford. The collection of boats, heavy guns, scaling-ladders, gabions, etc., at particular places, are indications that must always precede the passage of rivers, sieges, etc. If large magazines of stores or provisions are collected anywhere, it is clear that no retreat is contemplated; if, on the other hand, the parks of heavy, or spare guns, ammunition, engineer stores, etc., are being sent to the rear, a retreat is imminent, or being prepared for. The dust raised by columns is a fair guide in some countries as to the numbers and composition of the force marching. That raised by cavalry forms a high, light cloud, by infantry, a lower and dense one, by parks and baggage, one more dense still. With a good glass you can sometimes learn from the manner in which troops move, and from their dress, whether they are regulars or militia, or if they belong to any special corps. The manner and bearing of people in a hostile country is usually a fair indication of the public spirit and feeling; if they are gloomy and anxious, it is an indication of want of confidence in their cause, and that their troops are distant; whilst if they are excited and insolent, it shows that they rely upon assistance near at hand, and anticipate success from the number and efficiency of their army. In following a retreating army much can be learned from its trail; if the dÉbris of arms, accoutrements, etc., lie about, there is a want of transport, and it is a sign of demoralization, according to the extent to which it is the case; a large number of graves indicates the existence of disease in the enemy’s army. The places where they halted for the night should be carefully examined; and all indications carefully noted. Did they bivouac or pitch tents; was their camp laid out with regularity; were their cooking-places neatly made. Is their track strewn with dead or dying transport animals; have they plundered the inhabitants or burnt their crops or houses; have they effectually or only partially destroyed the bridges, etc. The most insignificant circumstance affords sometimes whole pages of information to officers who, having studied the manners and customs of an enemy, know how to interpret them aright. Officers commanding small detached parties sent out on reconnoitring duties may many times avoid falling into the hands of strong patrols or detachments by learning their proximity from their track if crossed anywhere; the number and composition of such detachments may easily be estimated from it.

Military Knights. See Knights, Military.

Military Law. See Law, Military.

Military Mines. See Mines, Military.

Military Necessity. As understood by modern civilized nations, consists in the necessity of those measures which are indispensable for securing the ends of war, and which are lawful according to the modern law and usages of war. Military necessity admits of all direct destruction of life or limb of armed enemies, and of other persons whose destruction is incidentally unavoidable in the armed contests of war; it allows of the capturing of every armed enemy, and every enemy of importance to the hostile government, or of peculiar danger to the captor; it allows of all destruction of property, and obstruction of the ways and channels of traffic, travel, or communication, and of all withholding of sustenance or means of life from the enemy; of the appropriation of whatever an enemy’s country affords necessary for the subsistence and safety of the army, and of such deception as does not involve the breaking of good faith, either positively pledged, regarding agreements entered into during the war, or supposed by the modern law of war to exist. Men who take up arms against one another in public war do not cease on this account to be moral beings, responsible to one another, and to God. Military necessity does not admit of cruelty, that is, the infliction of suffering for the sake of suffering, or for revenge, or of maiming or wounding, except in fight, or of torture to extort confessions. It does not admit of the use of poison in any way, or of the wanton devastation of a district. It admits of deception, but disclaims acts of perfidy; and in general, military necessity does not include any act of hostility which makes the return to peace unnecessarily difficult.

Military Orders. Religious associations which arose from the mixture of the religious enthusiasm and the chivalrous love of arms which almost equally formed the characteristic of mediÆval society. The first origin of such associations may be traced to the necessities of the Christian residents of the Holy Land, in which the monks, whose first duty had been to serve the pilgrims in the hospital at Jerusalem, were compelled by the necessity of self-defense to assume the character of soldiers as well as of monks. (See Saint John of Jerusalem.) The order of the Templars (see Templar, Knights) was of singular origin. Those of Alcantara and Calatrava (which see), in Spain, had for their immediate object the defense of their country against the Moors. These orders as well as that of Avis in Portugal, which was instituted with a similar view, followed the Cistercian rule, and all three differed from the Templars and the Knights of St. John in being permitted by their institute to marry once. The same privilege was enjoyed in the Savoyard order of Knights of St. Maurice, and the Flemish order of St. Hubert. On the contrary, the Teutonic Knights, who had their origin in the Crusades (see Grand Master), were bound by an absolute vow of chastity. With the varying conditions of society, these religious associations have at various times been abolished or fallen into disuse; but most of them still subsist in the form of orders of knighthood, and in some of them, attempts have recently been made to revive, with certain modifications, the monastic character which they originally possessed.

Military Positions. See Positions, Military.

Military Punishment. See Punishment, Military.

Military Regulations. The rules and regulations by which the discipline, formations, field-exercise, and movements of the whole army are directed, to be observed in one uniform system. See Army Regulations.

Military Science. See Logistics, Stratagem, Strategy, Tactics, and War.

Military Secretary. An officer on the personal staff of generals in high command. His duties are to conduct the correspondence of his chief, and to transact a great amount of confidential business, which would dangerously occupy the time of the general himself. In the British service the military secretary to the commander-in-chief is usually a general officer. To a commander-in-chief in the field, he is for most part below that rank, while to a general commanding a division only, an assistant military secretary is allowed. His staff pay is of course additional to the officer’s regimental or unattached pay.

Military Service. In the feudal ages, a tenure of lands by knight’s service, according to which the tenant was bound to perform service in war unto the king, or the mesne lord, of whom he held by that tenure. As the king gave to the great nobles, his immediate tenants, large possessions forever, to hold of him for this or that service or rent, so they in time parceled out to such others as they liked, the same lands for rents and services as they thought good. And these services were divided into two sorts, chivalry and socage; the first whereof was martial and military, whereby the tenant was obliged to perform some noble or military office unto his lord. This was of two kinds: either regal, that is, held only by the king, or common, when held of a common person. That which was held only of the king was called servitium, or serjeantia, and was again divided into grand and petit serjeantry. The grand serjeantry was where one held lands of the king by service, which he ought to do in his own person; as, to bear the king’s banner or spear, to lead his horse, or to find a man-at-arms to fight, etc. Petit serjeantry was when a man held lands of the king, to yield him annually some small thing towards his wars, as a sword, dagger, bow, etc. Chivalry that might be holden of a common person was termed scutagium, or escuage; that is, service of the shield, which was either uncertain or certain. Escuage uncertain was likewise twofold: first, where the tenant was bound to follow his lord, by going in person to the king’s wars, or sending a sufficient man in his place, there to be maintained at his cost so long as was agreed upon between the lord and his first tenant at the granting of the fee. The days of such service seem to have been rated by the quantity of land so holden; as, if it extended to a whole knight’s fee, then the knight was to follow his lord forty days; if but a half a knight’s fee, then twenty days; and if a fourth part, then ten days, etc. The other kind of this escuage was called castle-ward, where the tenant was obliged by himself or some other, to defend a castle as often as it should come to his turn.

Military Stores. See Stores, Military.

Military Tenure. Tenure of land, on condition of performing military service.

Military Train. A highly important corps of the army of Great Britain, of which the function is to transport the provisions, ammunition, and all other material, together with the wounded in time of battle. It was formed after the Crimean war, on the dissolution of the Land-Transport Corps. In the year 1863 it comprised 6 battalions, in all 1840 officers and men. The corps ranks after the Royal Engineers, and is classed as Mounted Infantry, the officers receiving infantry rates, and the men cavalry rates of pay. The men are armed with carbine and sword, but rather for defensive than aggressive purposes. Attached to each battalion are 166 horses, with proportionate wagons and ambulances. It is proper to observe that the Military Train constitutes the nucleus of a transport service for a large army, and that in time of war it would be expanded by the addition of thousands of horses or mules, and the incorporation of many hundred drivers, etc. The advantage of possessing even a few men ready trained and capable of directing the movements of others was amply demonstrated by the failures of the Crimea in 1854-56; so that Parliament votes ungrudgingly the expense of this corps, although in time of peace it is comparatively without employment. It is now termed the Army Service Corps.

Military Ways. The large Roman roads which Agrippa caused to be made through the empire in the reign of Augustus for the marching of troops and conveying of carriages. They were paved from the gates of Rome to the utmost limits of the empire. The British have constructed a military road throughout India, with wells and other accommodations at certain distances.

Militia. From the Latin miles, a “soldier,” a term which was formerly synonymous with “military,” or the whole fighting force of a country, but in modern times has come to signify the domestic force for the defense of a nation, as distinguished from the regular army, which can be employed at home or abroad in either aggressive or defensive operations. Every nation has a reserve, under its law military, upon which its defense would fall on the discomfiture of the regular army; but the system differs in each country. France has her Gardes Nationaux, Prussia the Landwehr and Landsturm, and similar organizations exist in other European states. It also comprehends the volunteer organizations of Great Britain and the United States. The laws of the United States require the enrollment into the militia of all able-bodied males between the ages of eighteen and forty-five years, with certain exceptions specified in general and State laws. The militia of each State is required to be arranged into companies, battalions, regiments, brigades, and divisions, as the Legislature of the State may direct, and it shall be subject to military duty and shall serve a definite time. These organizations are to be officered by the respective States, the grades and number of officers being named in the laws requiring enrollment. The Constitution of the United States has given the power to Congress to provide for “calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions.” Congress by legislation has given the President the authority to call forth the militia under certain exigencies, as has been frequently done. When called into actual service of the United States, the militia receive pay from the government, and are subject to the Rules and Articles of War. The militia is therefore a part and parcel of the army of the United States, although in common use the term is limited to mean the regular army alone. The organized militia of the United States numbers 125,906 men, the number of men available for military duty unorganized, is 6,598,105.

Militia-man. One who belongs to the militia.

Mill, Gunpowder-. Is a machine used for mixing or incorporating the ingredients of which gunpowder is composed. The operation was formerly effected as follows: The ingredients being duly proportioned and put into the mortars of the mills, which are hollow pieces of wood, each capable of holding 20 pounds of paste, are incorporated by means of the pestle and spindle. There are 24 mortars in each mill, where are made each day 480 pounds of gunpowder, care being taken to sprinkle the ingredients in the mortars with water from time to time, lest they should take fire. The pestle is a piece of wood 10 feet high, and 4¹/₂ inches broad, armed at the bottom with a round piece of metal. It weighs about 60 pounds. For more modern methods of incorporation, see Gunpowder.

Mill Springs. A village of Wayne Co., Ky., about 100 miles south of Frankfort. Near here a Federal force under Gen. Geo. H. Thomas defeated a Confederate army under Gen. G. B. Crittenden, January 19, 1862. In this engagement the Confederate general F. K. Zollicoffer was killed.

Mill-cake. The incorporated materials for gunpowder, in the form of a dense mass or cake, ready to be subjected to the process of granulation.

Milliken’s Bend. A village of Madison Parish, La., on the right bank of the Mississippi River, about 25 miles above Vicksburg. On June 6, 1863, the Confederates under Gen. McCullough made an attack on this place, which was defended by a body of colored troops and part of an Iowa regiment, and were repulsed after a severe engagement.

Mim Bashy. In the East Indies, a commander of 1000 horse.

Minas, Sabbatha. A fort in Babylonia, built in the time of the later Roman empire on the site of Seleucia, which the Romans had destroyed.

Mincio. A river of Lombardy, Italy. Here the Austrians were repulsed by the French under Brune, December 25-27, 1800, and by Eugene Beauharnais, February 8, 1814, near Valeggio.

Minden. A strongly fortified town of Prussia, in Westphalia, situated on the Weser, 35 miles southwest from Hanover. In its neighborhood the battle of Minden was fought, on August 1, 1759, between the English, Hessians, and Hanoverians (under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick), and the French were beaten and driven to the ramparts of Minden. Lord George Sackville (afterwards Lord Germaine), who commanded the British and Hanoverian horse, for some disobedience of orders was tried by a court-martial on his return to England, found guilty, and dismissed April 22, 1760. He was afterwards restored to favor, and became secretary of state, 1776.

Mines, Military. Constitute one of the most important departments in military engineering, and a very formidable accessory both in the attack and defense of fortresses. A military mine consists of a gallery of greater or less length, run from some point of safety under an opposing work, or under an area over which an attacking force must pass, and terminating in a chamber, which, being stored with gunpowder, can be exploded at the critical moment. Mines are of use to the besiegers in the overthrow of ramparts and formation of a breach; the countermines of the besieged in undermining the glacis over which the assaulting column must charge, and blowing them into the air, or in destroying batteries erected for breaching, are equally serviceable. But far above the actual mischief wrought by the mine—often very great—is its moral influence on the troops, and especially on the assailants. Mines are either vertical,—when they are called shafts,—horizontal, or inclined, in either of which cases they are “galleries,” the word “ascending” or “descending” being added, if there be inclination. The dimensions range from the “great gallery,” 6 feet 6 inches by 7 feet, to the “small branch,”—the last diminutive of the gallery,—which has but 2 feet 6 inches height, with a breadth of 2 feet. The most frequent work is the “common gallery,” 4 feet 6 inches by 3 feet, which is considered the easiest for the miner.

MiniÉ Ball. A ball or bullet of peculiar construction. It is cast hollow for nearly two-thirds of its length, and into the opening of the internal cylinder there is introduced a small concave piece of iron, which the powder at the moment of firing forces into the slug, spreading it open, and causing it to fit perfectly to the barrel. Hence a great increase in the precision of aim and the extent of range.

MiniÉ Rifle. A species of fire-arm, invented by Capt. MiniÉ, from whom it receives its name. It is certain in aim, and fatal in its results at 800 yards.

Mining. In military affairs, is the art of blowing up any part of a fortification, building, etc., by gunpowder. The art of mining requires a perfect knowledge both of fortifications and geometry; and by these previous helps, the engineer may be qualified to ascertain correctly the nature of all manner of heights, depths, breadths, and thicknesses; to judge perfectly of slopes and perpendiculars, whether they be such as are parallel to the horizon, or such as are visual; together with the true levels of all kinds of earth. To which must be added, a consummate skill in the quality of rocks, earths, masonry, and sands; the whole accompanied with a thorough knowledge of the strength of all sorts of gunpowder.

Minion. An ancient form of ordnance of small size, the caliber of which was about 3 inches.

Minister. Is one who acts not by any inherent authority of his own, but under another. Thus, in England all ministers act under a supreme authority, which is vested in the sovereign, lords, and commons, to whom they are responsible. In military matters, there is not only a war minister, but a secretary at war, who likewise acts conjointly with the secretary of state. All dispatches and papers of consequence relating to the army must first pass through the secretary of state, and the war minister, before they are laid before Parliament, or otherwise acted upon by the secretary at war. The common arrangements of corps, directions with respect to marching, are transmitted to the secretary at war, and to the quartermaster-general’s office, without previously passing through the secretary of state, or war minister. See Secretary of War.

Minnesota. One of the Northwestern States of the American Union. The country was visited by white traders as early as 1654, but very few settlements were made in it until about 1845. The eastern part of the State formed a portion of the French possessions which were ceded to the British in 1763, and by them to the United States in 1783. The remaining part belonged to the Louisiana Territory, which was purchased from the French in 1803. The country was traversed by an exploring expedition under Gen. Pike in 1805. A territorial government was organized in 1849, and in 1853 Minnesota was admitted into the Union as a State. The State suffered severely in 1862 from an inroad of the Sioux, who destroyed whole settlements. They were soon afterwards, however, summarily punished, and removed from the State altogether.

Minnetarees. A tribe of Indians, formerly a branch of the Crows, but now affiliated to the Mandans, who reside on the Upper Missouri. They have always been friendly to the whites, and hostile to the Sioux, at whose hands they have suffered severely. They number about 400.

Minor. Under age. Minors will not be enlisted in the army of the United States without the consent of their parents or guardians. If any have enlisted and it becomes known, the Secretary of War, on demand, is required to grant the discharges from the army of minors who have enlisted without the consent of their parents or guardians.

Minorca. One of the Balearic Islands (which see) in the Mediterranean. It was captured by Lieut.-Gen. Stanhope and Sir John Leake in 1708, and was ceded to the British by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713; taken by the Spanish and French in July, 1756, and Admiral Byng fell a victim to public indignation for not relieving it. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1793; besieged by the Spaniards, and taken February 5, 1782; captured by the British under Gen. Stuart, without the loss of a man, November 15, 1798; but was given up at the peace of Amiens in 1802.

MinturnÆ (Minturnensis; now Trajetto). An important town in Latium, on the frontiers of Campania; was situated on the Appia Via, and on both banks of the Liris, and near the mouth of this river. It was an ancient town of the Ausones, or Aurunci, but surrendered to the Romans of its own accord, 296 B.C. In its neighborhood Marius was taken prisoner.

Minute. A hasty sketch taken of anything in writing. Hence minutes of a general or regimental court-martial.

Minute-gun. A gun discharged every minute, as a signal of distress or mourning.

Minute-man. A man enlisted for service wherever required, and ready to march at a moment’s notice;—a term used in the American Revolution.

Minutes of Councils in the Military Department. The notification of orders and regulations, which are directed to be observed by the British army in India, are so called. These minutes receive the sanction of the governor-general in council, and are the result of previous communications from the court of directors in Europe. The answer to the French word, resultat, which was prefixed to all orders and regulations that were occasionally issued by the military boards, or conseils de guerre, for the government of the army. The term, jugement d’un conseil de guerre, corresponded with our minutes of a general or garrison court-martial, and expressed not only the minutes, but the sentence of the court.

Miquelets (Fr.). Bandits, who have infested the Pyrenean Mountains; armed mountaineers of the Pyrenees; the name is now borne by the captain-general’s guard; in 1808, Napoleon organized a corps of miquelets FranÇais, who rendered good services.

Miqueletti. A small body of mountain fusiliers, who formerly belonged to the Neapolitan army.

Mire (Fr.). In the French artillery, a piece of wood about 4 inches thick, 1 foot high, and 2¹/₂ feet long, which is used in pointing cannon.

Mireur (Fr.). An instrument employed in coast batteries for ascertaining whether the enemy’s ships are within the range of the guns, and thus to prevent the gunners from expending their shot unnecessarily.

Mirmillones. A class of Roman gladiators; said to have been so called from their having the image of a fish on their helmets. Their arms were like those of the Gauls; hence we find that they were also called Galli. They were usually matched with the retiarii or Thracians.

Mirror. See Inspection of Cannon; also Looking-glass Signaling.

Misbehavior before the Enemy. See Appendix, Articles of War, 42.

Miscellaneous. An item or charge in the estimates of the British army, so distinguished as miscellaneous services; the same as our contingent expenditures.

Misconduct at Divine Service. See Appendix, Articles of War, 52.

Misconduct in Time of War. See Appendix, Articles of War, 55, 56, 57, and 58.

Misericorde (Fr.). A short dagger, which the cavalry formerly used, for the purpose of dispatching an enemy who would not ask quarter or mercy.

Misnomer. The mistaking of the true name of a person; the using of one name for another. If a prisoner plead a misnomer before a court-martial, the court may ask the prisoner what is his real name, and call upon him to plead to the amended charge.—Hough.

Miss. To fail to hit; to fly wide; as, the bullet missed its mark.

Missile. Capable of being thrown; adapted for hurling, or to be projected from the hand, or from any instrument or engine; as, to wing the missile dart.

Missile. A weapon thrown or intended to be thrown, for doing execution; as, a lance, an arrow, or a bullet.

Missing. Wanting; not present when called or looked for; lost; as, 100 soldiers are wounded and missing.

Mississagas. A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who formerly resided on the north shore of Lake Huron, but are now found to the number of 700 in Ontario. They were one of the Confederate tribes of the “Seven Nations,” fought as allies of the French against the English (1743-48), sided with the English in the seven years’ war against the French and in the war against Pontiac, and aided the Canadian forces against the United States in the war of 1812.

Mississippi. One of the Southwestern States of the American Confederacy. It was first visited by Europeans about the year 1540, when De Soto, with 1000 followers, crossed the State on an exploring expedition from Florida, and remained in it for nearly a year. This party having suffered severely by attacks from the aborigines, no other attempt was made to establish a permanent colony till 1682, when La Salle descended the Mississippi and visited this region. He returned in two years with a party which he intended to settle in Mississippi, but meeting with misfortunes, the colony never reached its destination. The next attempt at settlement was made by Iberville, but with no successful result. The settlement at Fort Rosalie (now Natchez) in 1716, by some Frenchmen under Bienville, was generally considered the first permanent colony. A general massacre of the white inhabitants by the savages took place in 1728, but, as in every other contest between the Indians and the whites, victory ultimately rested with the latter. Other conflicts in 1736, 1739, and 1752, though carried on for a time with varying success, had the same result. At the peace of Paris, in 1763, Mississippi became a part of the English territory. Soon after a portion of the French, so inhumanly driven by the English from Nova Scotia, settled in Mississippi; and in 1768 commenced an emigration from the Eastern colonies by way of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. In 1798 the United States having attained the rights of the British government in this region, erected it into a Territory, and in 1817 it was admitted into the Union as an independent State. Mississippi was one of the first of the Southern States to secede from the Union, and it suffered severely during the civil war. It was the scene of several engagements, raids, etc., the most important being the battles of Iuka, Corinth, siege and capture of Vicksburg, and raids to Meridian.

Missive. Intended to be thrown, hurled, or ejected; missile. “The missive weapons fly.”

Missolonghi, or Mesolonghi. A town of Greece, in the government of Ætolia, is separated from the sea by a large lake. It is noted for the memorable siege it sustained in 1825-26. In the beginning of 1825 it was garrisoned by 5000 Greeks, who were commanded by NÓthi Bozzaris; and on April 25 of the same year a Turkish force of 20,000 under Reshid Pasha appeared before Missolonghi, which was poorly fortified. On May 11, the first bombardment began, and for the space of two months afterwards the town was exposed to numerous bombardments and assaults; but the defenders were not less active in answering the enemy’s fire, and making sallies from their defenses, by which means they succeeded in repelling their assailants, and inflicting on them considerable loss. During this time they were supplied with ammunition and provisions by the fleet which was stationed at the entrance of the lake; but on July 10, a superior Turkish fleet, after compelling the ships of Greece to retire, succeeded in landing a strong reinforcement to the besiegers. The assaults on the town were then renewed with increased fury, and the cannonade of the Turks carried destruction to its frail ramparts and death among the ranks of its brave defenders. Yet the garrison, though reduced to the number of 4000, continued to maintain their ground until, in the month of August, the Greek fleet appeared in the offing, and by defeating the Turkish squadron relieved Missolonghi for a time from the blockade. But the sultan was resolved at all hazards to reduce this stronghold of liberty; and in the end of November the Greek ships were again driven off, and the blockade renewed by the combined Turkish, Egyptian, and Barbary fleets. In the beginning of 1826 the besieging army was reinforced by the arrival of 14,000 troops under Ibrahim Pasha, who took command of all the besieging forces. On January 25, a bombardment was commenced, which lasted for three days, and reduced the town to ruins, but could not shake the resolute courage of the Greeks. The repeated assaults of the enemy were still repulsed with great loss. At last, reduced to the utmost extremities by famine, and seeing on all sides nothing but the ships and tents of the enemy, yet never entertaining any thought of surrender, the Greeks determined to force their way through the opposing ranks. Although by treachery the enemy was made aware of their design, and thus prepared to meet them, they were not able to prevent nearly 2000 of the besieged from making their way to the mountains. Many prisoners fell into the hands of the Turks, and the remainder, who were unable from their wounds or weariness to accompany their fellows, continued to defend themselves among the ruins until the explosion of a powder-magazine, destroying alike friends and foes, put an end to the bloody conflict. Such was the siege of Missolonghi, which attracted, during its continuance, the eyes of all Europe, and in which the Greeks showed themselves the worthy sons of the heroes of Marathon and ThermopylÆ.

Missouri. One of the Central States of the Mississippi Valley, and the first organized wholly west of the Mississippi River. The French were the earliest settlers in the country, having built a fort there in 1719. By the treaty of 1763 it was ceded to Spain, with all the territory west of the Mississippi. Spain being at war with England during the American Revolution, her colonies were harassed by the English and their Indians allies. In 1780, a body of British and Indians attacked and besieged St. Louis, killing 60 of its defenders. The siege was raised by Col. Clark, an American, who came to the relief of the place with 500 men. In 1800 Spain restored the territory to France, and it passed to the United States by purchase in 1803. After the admission of Louisiana as a State in 1812, the remaining portion of the territory received the name of Missouri, from which was separated the State of that name in 1821. Though the State officially declared itself in favor of the Union in 1861, many of its prominent citizens sided with the Confederates. It was the scene of several engagements during the civil war.

Missouria Indians. A tribe of Dakota stock, who reside at the Otoe agency, Nebraska. They number about 200, and are progressing favorably in the arts of civilization.

Mithridatic War. The name of the celebrated contest carried on for a long series of years by the Romans against Mithridates VI., king of Pontus. It was caused by the massacre of about 100,000 Romans by Mithridates, 88 B.C., and remarkable for its duration, its many sanguinary battles, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having taken the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of Asia, crying out as he rode, “I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans.” He is said to have killed him by causing melted gold to be poured down his throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B.C.

Mitigate. To diminish the severity of; as, to mitigate punishment; to reduce in amount of severity, as a penalty. See Appendix, Articles of War, 112.

Mitraille (Fr.). Small pieces of old iron, such as heads of nails, etc., with which pieces of ordnance are sometimes loaded.

Mitrailleur. A gun in which several barrels are combined in order to produce a greater effect by the rapid succession of a number of shots. Mitrailleures existed as early as the 14th century. They were called killing-organs at that time. The Scaligers at the end of the 14th century, the Protestant princes of Germany in the Smalkaldian war, and Austria in the war against Turkey, used this kind of gun. But the ancient mitrailleur differs from the modern both in dimensions and in the positions of the barrels. A peculiar kind of mitrailleur was the espingol, each barrel being loaded with several shots, which, by a slowly-burning charge, were discharged one after the other. The espingol was used not only in the Middle Ages, but also recently,—by the Danes in 1848-50, and 1863-64. At the storming of DÜppel the Prussians took about thirty such guns. In modern times the term has been specifically applied to certain battery guns employed by the French in the Franco-Prussian war. (See Battery Gun.) In the U.S. Light Artillery Tactics the term mitrailleur is applied to the Gatling gun.

Mitylene, or Midulu (anc. Lesbos). An island of the Grecian Archipelago, belonging to Turkey, and lying off the west coast of Asia Minor. Mitylene suffered much in the Greek war of independence, in the course of which it lost nearly the half of its inhabitants. (See Mytilene.)

Moabites. A tribe descended from Moab, the son of Lot, and consequently related to the Hebrews; they inhabited the mountainous country east of the lower part of the Jordan and of the Dead Sea. In the time of the Judges, the Jews were for eighteen years under the yoke of the Moabites, who were afterwards made tributary by David, but about 900 B.C. shook off their allegiance to the Jewish kings, and after the Assyrians invaded the land of Judah, took part with the Chaldeans against the Jews.

Moat. The ditch round the ramparts of a fortress may be either wet—i.e., full of water—or dry. In the latter, which is the commoner case, the depth should not be less than 12 feet, nor the width under 24. The more perpendicular the walls, so much the greater will be the obstruction to the enemy. In regular works the walls are usually reveted with masonry, that at the foot of the rampart being the scarp or escarp, and that below the covered way the counterscarp. See Ditch.

Mobile. A city and capital of Mobile Co., Ala., situated on the west bank of the Mobile River, immediately above its entrance into the bay of the same name. It was founded by Bienville in 1711, passed into the hands of the English in 1763, was taken by the Spanish general Galvez in 1780, and was confirmed to Spain by the treaty of 1783. Mobile was blockaded by the Federal fleet in May, 1861. In 1864 the Confederates constructed several ironclads and gunboats, and threatened to raise the blockade. On August 5, Admiral Farragut with his fleet passed Forts Morgan and Gaines, the Confederate fortifications guarding the entrance to Mobile Bay, captured the ram “Tennessee” and the gunboat “Selma,” and effectually crippled the “Gaines.” With the co-operation of the land forces, the forts were soon captured, and the city was effectually cut off from external commerce. Mobile was evacuated by the Confederates, and surrendered to Gen. Canby and Rear-Admiral Thatcher, April 12, 1865, about 1000 prisoners, 150 guns, and a large quantity of ammunition and supplies falling into the hands of the Federals.

Mobilization. The calling into active service troops not previously on the war establishment.

Mobilize. To call into active service;—applied to troops which, though enrolled, were not previously on the war establishment.

Moccasin (Algonkin, makisin). A shoe or cover for the foot, made of deer-skin or soft leather, without a sole, and ornamented on the upper side; the customary shoe worn by the American Indians.

MÖckern. A town of Prussian Saxony, 13 miles east of Madgeburg, on the Ehle. Here the French army under EugÈne Beauharnais was defeated by the Prussians under York, April, 1813, and here BlÜcher defeated the French, October 16, 1813.

Modena (anc. Mutina). A fortified city of Northern Italy, 24 miles west-northwest of Bologna, capital of the former duchy of the same name. In ancient times Mutina was an important town of Gallia Cispadana, situated on the Via Æmilia; it fell into the hands of the Romans in 218 B.C., who established a colony here thirty-five years later; in 117 B.C. the settlers were disturbed by an incursion of the Ligurians, who for a short time held possession of the town, but were ultimately expelled by Consul Claudius; it was held by M. Brutus against the victorious Pompey; sustained a siege of about four months against the troops of Mark Antony; besieged and taken by Constantine in 312; was laid waste by Attila in 452. The modern town is surrounded with walls, and defended by bastions and a citadel; was governed by the house of Este from 1288 till 1796, when the last male of that house, the reigning duke, Hercules III., was expelled by the French. By the treaty of Campo Formio the Modenese possessions were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797, and with the kingdom of Italy, 1805. The Archduke Francis of Este, son of the Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, and of Mary, the heiress of the last duke, was restored in 1814. Modena was annexed to Sardinia March 18, 1860.

Modocs. A treacherous tribe of Indians of the Klamath nation. In 1872 they left the Klamath reservation under the leadership of their chief, Captain Jack, and refused to return. Military aid was invoked to compel them, and the troops were fired upon by the Indians, who retreated to the almost inaccessible fastnesses of the lava-beds. Here they held out until June 5, 1873, by which time nearly all were killed or captured. Captain Jack and some of the principal men of his tribe were tried by military commission for the murder of Gen. Canby and Mr. Thomas, Indian peace commissioner, who were treacherously slain in April while attending a conference with the Indians outside the camp. Captain Jack and three others were hanged October 3, 1873, and the remainder of the tribe deported to Indian Territory.

Moesia. A Roman province in Europe. It was invaded by the Romans, when C. Scribonius Curio gained a victory over the Moesians (75 B.C.), but not until the reign of Augustus was it finally subdued, 29 B.C. A line of fortresses was then planted for its defense along the southern bank of the Danube. The principal of these were afterwards known as Singidunum (Belgrade), Viminacium, and Axiopolis. It was successfully invaded by the Goths, numbers of whom eventually settled here. In the 7th century invading hordes of Bulgarians and Sclavonians founded the kingdoms of Bulgaria and Servia, which now comprise the territory of ancient Moesia.

Mogador, Mogodor, or Suerrah. A seaport town of Morocco, on the Atlantic, 132 miles southwest from Morocco. Mogador is walled and fortified; but its defenses, which are the work of Genoese engineers, are of no great strength; its harbor, although much exposed, is considered the best on the coast. Mogador was bombarded in 1844 by a French fleet under the Prince de Joinville, on which occasion it suffered severely.

Mognions (Fr.). A sort of armor for the shoulders.

Mograbian. A soldier of a branch of the Turkish infantry composed of the peasants of the northern part of Africa, who sought to better their condition by entering foreign service.

Mogul Empire, The. An empire which at one time extended over the greater part of Northern India. It was founded by Sultan Baber, a descendant of Timur (or Tamerlane), in 1526, and lasted until 1749, when the Mogul army was totally defeated by the Rohillas, and the empire was broken up into a number of petty sovereignties. In 1857, Mohammed Bahadur, the last king of Delhi and head of the Mogul empire, joined in the Indian mutiny, and was transported to Rangoon (1858), where he soon after died.

Mohacs. A town of Southern Hungary, on the western arm of the Danube. It owes its historical importance to the great battle fought here, August 29, 1526, between Louis II. of Hungary, with 25,000 Hungarians, and the sultan Solyman, at the head of about 200,000 Turks. The battle resulted in the disastrous defeat of the Hungarians, who lost their king, seven bishops, many nobles and dignitaries, and upwards of 22,000 men. A second battle was fought here on August 12, 1687, when the Turks in their turn were defeated by an Austro-Hungarian army under Charles of Lorraine.

Mohammerah. A Persian town near the Euphrates; captured, after two hours’ cannonading, by Sir James Outram, during the Persian war, March 26, 1857.

Mohawks, or Maquas. A warlike tribe of Indians who formerly inhabited the valley in the State of New York which bears their name. They were allied with the Onondagas, Oneidas, Senecas, Cayugas, and Tuscaroras, the confederation constituting what was known as the “Five Nations.” They were allies of the English in their wars with the French, and in the Revolutionary war. After the peace of 1783 they removed to Upper Canada, and settled on Grand River upon lands procured for them by their chief, Brant.

Mohegans, or Mohicans. A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who formerly inhabited a considerable part of New England, and a part of New York. The town of Norwich, Conn., called Mohegan by the Indians, is situated about the centre of their ancient country. When the English first settled at Hartford, Uncas, the chief of the tribe, formed a treaty of amity with them, which appears to have been generally observed. The Mohegans were long the sworn foes of the Narragansetts. The latter, under their chief, Miantonomoh, invaded the Mohegan country in 1643, but were defeated by Uncas, who captured Miantonomoh and put him to death in September of that year. In 1645, the Narragansetts, under Passacus, the brother of Miantonomoh, burning to avenge the death of that chief, again invaded the Mohegan territory. On this occasion they were more successful. They laid waste the country in all directions, and compelled Uncas and his warriors to take refuge in his strong fortress at Shantock, which they would probably have become masters of but for the timely assistance of the English, who furnished a supply of provisions to the besieged. The invasion was again repeated, and with almost fatal effect to Uncas. The English again saved him, however, and after nearly twenty years of strife the hatchet was at length buried between these tribes.

Mohilow. A town in Russia, where the Russian army under Prince Bagration was signally defeated by the French under Marshal Davoust, prince of EckmÜhl, July 23, 1812.

Mohrungen. A town of East Prussia, 62 miles south-southwest of KÖnigsberg. The French defeated the Russians here in 1807.

Moienne (Fr.). A piece of ordnance, which is now called a 4-pounder, and which is 10 feet long, was formerly so called.

Moineau. A small, flat bastion, raised in front of an intended fortification, to defend it against attacks from small-arms.

Mojave Indians. A tribe of aborigines, of Apache stock, residing in Arizona. They number about 2100, of whom about one-third are located on a reservation on the Colorado River, and about an equal number (known as Mojave Apaches) at the San Carlos agency, Arizona.

Moldavia. A province in the northeastern part of Turkey in Europe. The princes of Moldavia were formerly called voyvodes, or military leaders, a name which was afterwards changed by the Turks to that of hospodars, which is still retained. In the 13th century Moldavia was frequently disturbed by civil war, occasioned by rival claimants for the crown, and these dissensions rose to such a height that the country was divided into two parts, one of which acknowledged the sovereignty of Poland, and the other that of Hungary. A union was, however, soon after effected, and Moldavia became subject to Hungary, paying at the same time a tribute to the Poles. In 1536 Moldavia came under the protection of the sultan; for a considerable time after this period, it was the scene of constant wars between the Poles and Turks, until the claims of the former to the sovereignty of the state were finally abandoned in 1621, and peace concluded between Turkey and Poland; in 1738, during the war of Austria and Russia against Turkey, Moldavia was invaded by a Russian force, and occupied for two years, but was evacuated after the peace of Belgrade; in 1769 it was again occupied by the Russians, and became for a short time subject to the czar, but was restored to Turkey in 1774; in 1789 this unfortunate principality was again the scene of contest between Russia and Turkey, until the peace of Jassy in 1792, when the Russian frontier was fixed by the Dneister; in the war of 1807-12, Moldavia again fell into the hands of the Russians, who, by the treaty of Bucharest, acquired possession of Bessarabia, and thus extended their frontier to the Pruth. At the commencement of the Greek war in 1820 an insurrection broke out in the Danubian principalities, but it was suppressed by the Turks; in 1828 another war between Turkey and Russia broke out, and Moldavia was occupied by the Russians without opposition until peace was established by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. A conspiracy was formed in 1840, to unite the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia into one state, but without success. In 1848 the influence of revolutionary sentiments was felt in Moldavia; the people of Jassy demanded a new constitution, and, although the hospodar successfully resisted this movement, he laid down his authority in the same year. In 1853 a Russian army took possession of Moldavia and Wallachia; after attempting in vain to cross the Danube in Wallachia, the Russians, in the spring of 1854, crossed that river at Galatz, and seized the fortresses in the Dobrudscha; they then proceeded to lay siege to Silistria, but this town was so vigorously defended that they were obliged to raise the siege, and the British and French troops having arrived at Varna, the Russian army evacuated the principalities in the autumn of 1854; the hospodars then returned to their respective governments, and the principalities were occupied by an Austrian army. At a conference at Paris, August 19, 1858, it was decided that the principalities should thenceforth be called the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, and should have in common a central commission and court of appeal, but be governed by different hospodars, to be elected by the people, and confirmed by the Porte.

Molded Powder. See Gunpowder.

Mole. A mound or massive work formed of large stones laid in the sea, extended either in a right line or an arc of a circle before a port, which it serves to defend from the violence of the waves, thus protecting ships in harbor; also, sometimes the harbor itself.

Molino del Rey. A range of massive stone buildings, about 500 yards long, forming the western side of an inclosure which surrounds the rock and castle, groves and fields of Chapultepec, 2 miles southwest of the city of Mexico. These buildings were occupied by the troops of Santa Anna in September, 1847, to intercept the march of the American army under command of Gen. Scott upon the city of Mexico. They were attacked on the morning of the 8th by Gen. Worth’s division, and, after a severe contest, the buildings were captured, with a loss to the Americans of 787 killed and wounded (including 59 officers), out of 3447, the whole number engaged. The Mexican forces numbered about 10,000 men.

Mollwitz. A village of Prussian Silesia; to the east of it lies the celebrated battle-field where Frederick II. of Prussia gained his first victory over the Austrians, April 10, 1741.

Moluccas, or Spice Islands. A numerous group of islands in the Asiatic Archipelago, situated between Celebes on the west, and New Guinea on the east, and stretching from lat. 2° N. to lat. 9° S. They were discovered by the Portuguese about 1510; became dependencies of Holland, 1795; during the French war of 1796, however, they were taken by the British, who held possession of them till 1800, when they were returned to Holland. The islands were again occupied by the British in 1810, but were finally restored to the Dutch in 1814, by the treaty of Paris.

Molycrium. A town in the most southerly part of Ætolia; it was founded by the Corinthians, but was afterwards taken possession of by the Ætolians.

Mombas. A seaport town of Africa, on a small island, in a bay on the coast of Zanzibar. It was first visited by the Portuguese under Vasco de Gama in 1498. In 1505, Francisco de Almeida, the Portuguese viceroy of India, took and burnt the town; in 1529 the Portuguese returned and repeated their work of destruction, and retained the city from that date to 1720, when Mombas fell into the hands of the imam of Muscat, but he was soon dispossessed by a rebellion of the inhabitants. It was under British protection from 1824 to 1826, and is now governed by an Arab sheikh.

Momentum. Is that force possessed by a body in motion; and is measured by the product of the mass of the body into its velocity.

Mona (now Anglesey). An island off the coast of the Ordovices, in Britain; it was invaded by Suetonius Paulinus, 61, and was conquered by Agricola, 78.

Moncontour. A town near Poitiers, in France. Here Admiral Coligny and the French Protestants were defeated by the Duke of Anjou, October 3, 1569.

Mondovi. A town of Northern Italy, near the river Ellero, about 47 miles south from Turin. The town is defended by walls and a small citadel, and contains a great number of religious houses. The French, under Napoleon I., defeated the Sardinian troops, under Colli, near this town in 1796, and in 1799 the town was sacked by the French under Soult.

Monghir. A town of Hindostan, East Indies, situated on the southern bank of the Ganges. It was an object of contention between the kings of Behar and Bengal in the early part of the 16th century; taken by the British in 1763.

Mongolia. A vast district in Asia. Its present boundaries east and north are Manchuria and Siberia, respectively, and on the south and west Thibet and Turkestan; but these boundaries have varied greatly at different periods of history. The whole of what is now usually recognized as Mongolia is considered to belong to the Chinese empire. See Tartary.

Mongols. See Tartary.

Monmouth, Battle of. Was fought June 28, 1778, between the Revolutionary forces under Gen. Washington and the British under Sir Henry Clinton. Gen. Washington, whose army of about 12,000 men was encamped at Valley Forge, being informed of the intention of the enemy to evacuate Philadelphia and proceed to New York, placed his forces in a condition to march immediately in pursuit. Accordingly, when intelligence of the evacuation reached him, he broke up his encampment, and detaching a small force under Gen. Arnold to take possession of Philadelphia, marched rapidly with his whole army toward the Delaware. On the morning of June 28 the advance of the Colonial army, under Gen. Lee, became engaged with the enemy’s rear on the plain near Monmouth Court-house, in New Jersey; but the English line being soon reinforced, the Americans were compelled to give way, upon which Lee ordered a retreat. Gen. Washington, who was riding ahead of the main body of his army, met the retreating force, and peremptorily ordered Lee to reform his troops and hold his position. This he for a time partially effected, but was being again driven back, when the main body of the army arrived to his assistance. The battle now became general, and under the inspiring influence of their commander-in-chief the Americans fought with such desperate resolution that the British were at length obliged to give way. Washington made preparations to follow up his advantage, but owing to the broken character of the ground, and twilight coming on before a proper disposition of his troops could be made, the attack was postponed until next morning. When morning dawned, however, it was found that Sir Henry Clinton with his whole force had retreated during the darkness of the night toward Sandy Hook, and Washington, on account of the heat of the weather and the fatigue of his men, did not pursue them. This was one of the most severely contested battles of the war. The American loss was 227 killed and wounded, the English was a little greater.

Monomachy (Fr. monomachie). A single combat, or the fighting of two, hand to hand. It is derived from the Greek. A duel may properly be called a monomachy.

Mons (Flemish, Berghen). A strongly-fortified town of Belgium, in the province of Hainault, on the Trouille, 33 miles southwest from Brussels. It has been frequently besieged and taken; in 1709 it was taken by the allies under Marlborough and EugÈne; in 1746 by Marshal Saxe; and in the wars of the French revolution in 1792-94 it was taken alternately by the French and the allies, the former of whom held the town from 1784 to 1814.

Monsoon. A wind blowing half the year in one direction, and the other half in the opposite;—a term applied particularly to certain winds of the Indian Ocean, which blow from the southwest from April to October, and from the northeast the rest of the year. The term is sometimes used to designate similar winds in other parts of the globe.

Mont St. Jean. A village of Belgium; it is near the scene of the battle of Waterloo, called by the French the battle of Mont St. Jean.

Montana Territory. A Territory of the United States, which is bounded on the north by the British possessions, east by Dakota, south by Wyoming and Idaho, and west by Idaho. This Territory has been overrun by hostile Indians, who, under the management of the military, are being rapidly subjugated. It was formed into a separate Territory in May, 1864, before which time it formed part of Idaho.

Montauban. A town of France, capital of the department of Tarn-et-Garonne, 342 miles south by west from Paris. At the Reformation the people embraced the Protestant cause; and the town was ineffectually besieged by the adverse party in 1580. It afterwards, in 1621, resisted for three months the assaults of Louis XIII., and did not yield till after the fall of Rochelle in 1629. The fortifications were soon after destroyed.

MontbÉliard, or MontbÉlliard. A town of France, in the department of Doubs, 48 miles northeast from BesanÇon. It was in former times a place of some strength, and the capital of a county that originally formed part of the kingdom of Burgundy, but was transferred to the WÜrtemberg family in 1395. Although twice taken by the French in the 17th century, it was not finally ceded to them till 1796.

Monte Aperto, Battle of. See Siena.

Monte-Baldo. A mountain of Lombardy; the Austrians were defeated in its vicinity by the French in 1797.

Montebello Casteggio. A village of Northern Italy, in the province of Voghera; here the Austrians were defeated by a French army under Gen. Lannes, after a desperate conflict, June 9, 1800; in the last Italian war the Austrians were again defeated here by the united armies of the French and Piedmontese in May, 1859.

Montemaggiore Belsito. A town of the island of Sicily, 31 miles southeast of Palermo. It was occupied by the Saracens when they first took possession of the country.

Montenegro. A principality of Europe, situated between the Turkish eyalets of Bosnia and Albania, and separated from the Adriatic by the narrow strip of land known as the circle of Cattaro, in Austrian Dalmatia. The Montenegrins are Slavs of the Servian race, knit together in clans and families, and have many fights among themselves, which are perpetuated by the hereditary obligation of avenging blood. Montenegro belonged in the Middle Ages to the great Servian kingdom, but after the dismemberment of the latter, and its conquest by the Turks at the battle of Kossovo (1389), the Montenegrins, under their prince, who was of the royal blood of Servia, maintained their independence, though compelled to relinquish the level tracts of land, and confine themselves to the mountains, in 1485. The Turks continued to assert their claims to Montenegro, but they were only defeated in their plans, and in 1710 the Montenegrins sought and obtained the protection of Russia, the czar agreeing to grant an annual subsidy on condition of their harassing the Turks by inroads. In 1860 the Montenegrins excited an insurrection against the Turkish rule in Herzegovina, which was soon suppressed, and in return they themselves were so hard pressed by the Turks that they were glad to agree to a treaty (September 8, 1862) by which the sovereignty of the Porte over Montenegro was recognized.

Montenotte. A small village of Northern Italy; here the Austrians were defeated by the French under Bonaparte, April 12, 1796.

Monter (Fr.). This word means to rise from one rank to another in the way of promotion, as from lieutenant to captain, etc., or from having the command of the youngest company to be promoted to that of the oldest.

Montereau. A town of France, in the department of Seine-et-Marne. In its immediate vicinity Napoleon, on February 18, 1814, gained his last victory over the allies.

Monterey. A city of Mexico, capital of the state of Nuevo Leon, about 85 miles east by north of Saltillo. Gen. Taylor with an army of about 6000 men, the first division under Gen. Worth, appeared before this place, September 21, 1846. It was defended by a force of about 10,000 Mexicans under Gen. Ampudia. In approaching the city the first obstacles to be overcome were two batteries, which were in a commanding position. These were soon taken and their guns turned on a third battery erected in a large stone building, called the Bishop’s Palace. This was stormed on the morning of the 22d, and a vigorous sortie of the garrison having been repulsed, the Americans entered the city with the flying Mexicans. During the day a feigned attack on the defenses in front was soon converted into a real one, and after a severe contest the Americans entered the city, though with great sacrifice of life; for every street was barricaded, and guns were pointed from almost every wall. On the morning of the 23d, the defenses on the opposite side were assaulted and carried by the division of Gen. Worth, and the garrison soon after surrendered.

Monterey. A port of entry and capital of the county of the same name in California, about 95 miles south-southeast of San Francisco. It was once a populous and thriving city, but has greatly declined since the rise of San Francisco. Being led to suppose that war existed between the United States and Mexico, Commodore Sloat took this place July 7, 1846, and raised the American flag without opposition.

Montero. A military cap and hood formerly worn in camp.

Monterotondo. A town of Central Italy, situated about 26 miles south-southwest of Rieti. An engagement took place here October 25, 1867, between the French and pontifical troops and the volunteers of Garibaldi, in which the latter were victorious.

Montevideo. The capital of the republic of Uruguay, in South America. It was taken by the British forces under Sir Samuel Auchmuty, February 3, 1807, but was evacuated by them July 7 of the same year, in consequence of the severe repulse the British met with at Buenos Ayres (which see). Montevideo was given up to Uruguay in 1828.

Montgomery. The capital of the State of Alabama. A convention of delegates from the Southern States met here February 4, 1861, to organize a provisional government for the seceded States, which were thereafter to be known as the Confederate States of America, and Montgomery was chosen as the seat of government. Richmond being afterwards made the capital of the Confederacy, the seat of government was transferred thither on May 20 in the same year.

Montiel (Spain), Battle of. Took place on March 14, 1369, between Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, and his brother, Henry of Transtamare, aided by the French warrior, Bertrand du Guesclin. Peter was totally defeated, and afterwards treacherously slain.

Montilla. A town of Spain, in Andalusia; in 1508 the fortifications of this place were destroyed by Ferdinand the Catholic.

Montlhery (Seine-et-Oise, France). The site of an indecisive battle between Louis XI. and a party of his nobles, termed “The League of the Public Good,” July 16, 1465.

Montmartre. A village of France immediately to the north of Paris, and standing within the new line of fortifications; it was the scene of some sharp fighting in March, 1814.

Montmirail. A town of France, in the department of the Marne; Bonaparte defeated the Russians near this place in 1814.

Montmorency, or Montmorenci. The name of a noble French family, whose celebrity dates as far back as the 11th century, and which has produced many famous princes, peers, and generals. Among them were 6 constables and 11 marshals of France.

Mont-Pagnote (Fr.). In fortification, an eminence where persons post themselves out of the reach of cannon, to see a camp, siege, battle, etc., without being exposed to danger. It is also called the post of the invulnerables.

Montreal. The largest city of the Dominion of Canada and of British America; it was surrendered to the English by the French, September 8, 1760; taken by the Americans, November 12, 1775, and retaken by the English, June 15, 1776.

Montserrat. A West India island, discovered by Columbus in 1493; it has several times been taken by the French, but was secured to the British in 1783.

Moodkee. A small town of Hindostan; it is only remarkable for a victory gained by the British over a greatly more numerous force of the Sikhs on December 18, 1845.

Mook. A village of Holland, in the province of Limburg; Louis of Nassau was defeated by the Spaniards near this place in 1574, and was slain in the action.

Mooltan, or Moultan. A city of India, in the Punjab; this place was stormed by Runjeet Sing, 1818; it was taken by the British after a protracted siege, in January, 1849.

Moon. A crescent-formed outwork. See Half-moon.

Moors. Formerly the natives of Mauritania (which see), but afterwards the name given to the Numidians and others, and now applied to the natives of Morocco and the neighborhood. They assisted Genseric and the Vandals in the invasion of Africa, 429, and frequently rebelled against the Roman emperors. They resisted for a time the progress of the Arab Mohammedans, but were overcome in 707, and in 1019 by them introduced into Spain, where their arms were long victorious. In 1063 they were defeated in Sicily by Robert Guiscard. The Moorish kingdom of Granada was set up in 1237, and lasted till 1492, when it fell before Ferdinand V. of Castile. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain was decreed by Charles V., but not fully carried into effect till 1609, when the bigotry of Philip III. inflicted this great injury on his country. About 1518 the Moors established the piratical states of Algiers and Tunis. In the history of Spain the Arabs and Moors must not be confounded.

Mootiana. In the East Indies, the soldiers are so called, who are employed to collect the revenue.

Moppat. An early name for a sponge of a cannon.

Moquis. A body of Pueblo Indians, in Arizona, numbering about 1700, inhabiting seven villages in the region southwest of the Navajoes. Their towns would be almost impregnable to an Indian assault. Each pueblo is built around a rectangular court, and is surrounded by a wall 15 feet high, the top of which forms a landing, upon which the doors of the houses open. The exterior walls, which are of stone, have no openings, and would have to be scaled or battered down before access could be gained to the interior. The successive stories are set back, one behind the other. The lower rooms are reached through trap-doors from the first landing; the latter is reached by means of detached ladders. The houses are three rooms deep, and open from the interior court; the arrangement is as strong and compact as could be well devised; but as the court is common, and the landings are separated by no partitions, it involves a certain community of residence.

Morat. An old town of Switzerland, situated on a lake of the same name, in the canton of Friburg. Charles the Bold of Burgundy was defeated before Morat by the Swiss in 1476.

Moravia. An Austrian province, occupied by the Slavonians about 458, and conquered by the Avars and Bohemians who submitted to Charlemagne. About 1000 it was subdued by Boleslas, king of Poland, but recovered by Ulric of Bohemia in 1030. After various changes, Moravia and Bohemia were amalgamated into the Austrian dominions in 1526. Moravia was invaded by the Prussians in 1866.

Morea. The name borne by the ancient Peloponnesus since the Middle Ages, if not from as early a period as the 4th century; it forms the most southern part of Greece. Morea was overrun by the Goths and Vandals, and became a prey in the second half of the 8th century to bands of Slavic invaders, who found it wasted by war and pestilence. Gradually, however, these barbarians were subdued and Grecianized by the Byzantine emperors. In 1207 Morea was conquered by French knights; part of the country was reconquered in 1261 by the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII. PalÆologus; but in 1460 the greater part of the Morea fell into the hands of the Turks, who retained possession of it down to the period of the Greek revolution, except from 1687 to 1715, when it was held by the Venetians.

Morella. A strongly-fortified town of Spain, province of Castellon-de-la-Plana. It was taken by Philip V. in 1707, surprised in 1838 by Cabrera, and retaken, after a brave defense, by Espartero in 1840. During the last civil war, the walls and magazines of the citadel were destroyed.

Morgarten. A mountain of Switzerland, 5 miles north from Schwyz, where, in November, 1315, the first battle was fought for Swiss independence. On this occasion 20,000 of the Austrian forces were defeated by 1300 Swiss. In 1798 the French were also defeated here by the Swiss.

Morglay. A deadly weapon; a great sword.

Morion. An iron or steel head-piece worn by a man-at-arms in the days when armor was used. It was distinguished from the helmets of the knights and esquires in having neither visor nor beaver. Under the Norman laws, every yeoman between certain ages was bound to keep his morion ready for service.

Mormons. A modern sect who profess the religious doctrines of one Joseph Smith. Polygamy is one of the prominent features of their religion. The sect has its headquarters at Salt Lake City, Utah.

Morne. The head of the lance used in tilting or other peaceful encounters. It was curved so that an adversary might be unhorsed, but not wounded, by a stroke.

Morning Gun. The gun fired at the first note of reveille in military barracks, forts, etc.

Morning Star. A weapon consisting of a ball with projecting spikes attached by a chain to a short staff. Used as late as the time of Henry VIII. by the train-bands of London.

Morocco. An empire in Northern Africa, formerly Mauritania. In 1051 it was subdued for the Fatimite caliphs, by the Almaravides, who eventually extended their dominion into Spain. They were succeeded by the Almohades (1121), the Merinites (1270), and in 1516 by the Scherifs, pretended descendants of Mohammed, the now reigning dynasty. The Moors have had frequent wars with the French, Spaniards, and Portuguese, due to piracy.

Moron, or Moron-de-la-Frontera. A town of Andalusia, Spain, about 32 miles northeast of Seville. On a hill east of the town are the ruins of an ancient castle erected by the Moors, which was one of the most important strongholds in Spain for several centuries. It was blown up by the French in 1812.

Morris Island. A low sand island, about 5 miles long, on the south side of Charleston harbor, S. C. A Confederate battery erected on its northern extremity aided in the capture of Fort Sumter, April 12-13, 1861, after which Fort Wagner and other batteries were erected for the defense of Charleston. An expedition against the city having been contemplated, the military occupation of the island by the Federals, and the erection of land-batteries for the reduction of Fort Sumter were deemed necessary. As the latter was a task requiring engineering skill, the duty was assigned to Gen. Q. A. Gillmore, who took command of the department. He took possession of the south end of the island on July 10, 1863, and on the 11th and 18th made two attempts to capture Fort Wagner near the north end by assault, his object being to get within more effective breaching distance of Fort Sumter. His efforts, however, were unsuccessful, and it was accordingly determined to reduce Fort Wagner by a regular siege. Gen. Gillmore commenced by the erection of parallels, which he pushed forward with such diligence in spite of all difficulties, that by August 13 his works were within about 400 yards of Wagner. On the morning of the 17th, having completed his batteries, which numbered about 60 pieces, and obtained the range, his guns opened fire on Sumter. The fleet, consisting of the frigate “Ironsides” and the monitors, aided by some wooden gunboats, made an attack at the same time upon Fort Wagner and Fort Gregg, another Confederate work, both of which were nearly silenced. On August 26, having completed a parallel and sap which extended very close to Fort Wagner, Gen. Gillmore determined to possess a ridge of sand which interposed, and was necessary to the success of his operations. It was constantly occupied by a strong body of the enemy’s pickets and at night by a force protected by rifle-pits. A bombardment of the position was made just before dark, after which it was carried by the 24th Massachusetts, and one company of North Carolina troops captured. After a terrific bombardment of forty-two hours, September 5-6, it was determined to carry the place by storm on the next day, but during the night the enemy evacuated the fort, and Gen. Gillmore became master of the whole island.

Morris-pike. An ancient Moorish pike.

Mortar. Short cannon for throwing shells, usually fired at angles from 45° to 60° elevation, called “vertical fire,” in contradistinction to the fire of long cannon, usually made at low angles. Mortars—so called from their similarity of form to the mortar for pulverizing, which has retained its familiar shape from the earliest ages—are believed to have been the first guns used, and, though changed from age to age frequently in form of chamber, size, and projectile, all ages have found them too useful in their special way to suppress or essentially alter them. The “Coehorn” mortar—so called from the famous Dutch engineer, Gen. Coehorn, who first proposed them in 1674—is to-day in use, of the same pattern and for the like service then suggested. Monster mortars have been constructed from time to time, in the hope of producing immense destruction in bombardments with single shells containing a large quantity of powder. The most recent of these, the monster mortar made by Mallet for the British government, weighing 114,000 pounds, with a bore of 36 inches and a shell of 2912 pounds, failed to be of any service. Perhaps the most unique mortars ever made were to be found in the island of Malta in the last century. The solid rock had been hollowed out into immense mortars, some of them 6 feet wide at the mouth. These tremendous fougasses (the proper term for them) were to be filled with stones, shells, and missiles of various kinds, to descend in a crushing shower upon an enemy attempting a landing. For different kinds of mortars now in use, see Ordnance.

Mortara. A walled town of Italy, situated on the right bank of the Arbogna, 14 miles south-southeast of Novara. In 774, the Lombards were here defeated by Charlemagne with great slaughter.

Mortar-bed. See Beds, and Ordnance, Carriages for.

Mortar-fuze. See Laboratory Stores.

Mortar-piece. An old term for a mortar.

Mortar-scraper. See Implements.

Mortar-wagon. A wagon used to transport mortars, mortar-beds, spare guns, and projectiles. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Mortfontaine. A village of France, in the department of the Oise, in the castle of which peace between France and the United States was signed in 1800.

Mortimer’s Cross. Four cross-roads about 6 miles northwest from Leominster, in Herefordshire, England, where the Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians in 1461.

Mortlach. A parish of Scotland, in Banffshire. In this parish the Danes were defeated by Malcolm II. in the 11th century.

Mortne. See Morne.

Moscow. A city of Russia in Europe, situated on the river Moskwa, 375 miles southeast from St. Petersburg. It was the ancient capital of Russia, and was founded about 1147. It was plundered by Timur, 1382; by the Tartars, 1451 and 1477; ravaged by Ladislas of Poland in 1611. It was entered by Napoleon I. and the French, September 14, 1812; the governor, Rostopchin, ordered it to be set on fire (11,840 houses burnt, besides palaces and churches), September 15, 1812. It was evacuated by the French in October, 1812.

Moskirch (Baden). Here the Austrians were defeated by Moreau and the French, May 5, 1800.

Moskwa, Battle of. See Borodino.

Moslem. Pertaining to the Mohammedans.

Moss-troopers. A name formerly applied to the raiders and cattle-thieves who infested the borders of England and Scotland.

Mothir al Moolk. In the East Indies, fortifications, barricades, intrenchments, or breastworks, are so called.

Motion. Each movement in the manual of arms is divided into motions to facilitate instruction of recruits.

Motion of Projectiles. See Projectiles.

Moton. In ancient armor, a small plate covering the armpits of a knight, used when plate-armor was worn.

Motto. In heraldry, is a word or short sentence which forms an accompaniment to a coat of arms, crest, or household badge. In modern heraldry it is customary to place the motto in an escrol either above the crest or below the shield.

Motya. An ancient town in the northwest of Sicily, situated on a small island (now Isola di Mezzo), only 6 stadia from the coast. It passed from Sicily into the hands of the Carthaginians; was taken from them by Dionysius of Syracuse about 397 B.C., and was finally captured by the Carthaginian general Himilco, who transplanted all its inhabitants to the town of LilybÆum. From this time it disappears from history.

Moulinet. A circular swing of the weapon in sword exercise.

Moultrie, Fort. See Fort Moultrie.

Mound. A bulwark for offense or defense.

Mound. In heraldry, a representation of a globe, surmounted with a cross (generally) pattÉe. As a device, it is said to have been used by the emperor Justinian, and to have been intended to represent the ascendency of Christianity over the world. The royal crown of England is surmounted by a mound, which first appeared on the seal of William the Conqueror, though the globe without the cross was used earlier.

Mount. The means or opportunity for mounting, especially a horse; and the equipments necessary for a mounted horseman.

Mount. To place one’s self on, as a horse or other animal, or anything that one bestrides or sits upon; to bestride. Hence, to put on horseback; to furnish with animals for riding; to furnish with horses. “To mount the Trojan troop.” See Dismount.

Mount. To put anything that sustains and fits, for use; as, to mount a gun on a carriage. To prepare for being worn or otherwise used, as a sword-blade by adding the hilt and scabbard. A ship or a fort is said to mount cannon when they are arranged for use in and about it.

Mount. A word of command in the cavalry exercise for the men to mount their horses.

Mount a Breach, To. To run up in a quick and determined manner to any breach made in a wall, etc. To mount guard, to do guard duty in a town, garrison, camp, etc.

Mount Desert Island. A mountainous island in the Atlantic, and in Hancock Co., Me.; is 14 miles long and 7 wide. The French settled it in 1608; they were driven out by the English in 1616. The English settled it in 1761.

Mountain Artillery. A species of light artillery which is used in the United States and other countries in mountain warfare. See Mountain Battery.

Mountain Battery. A battery of mountain pieces. The pieces and carriages are carried separately upon the backs of animals, by means of pack-saddles of special construction. These have, however, of late been almost entirely superseded for this purpose by the aparejo. A portable forge also accompanies each battery, and is carried with a bag of coal upon a pack-saddle.

Mountain-carriage. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Mountain-gun. See Mountain Artillery.

Mountain-howitzer. The howitzer used in the U.S. service is a 12-pounder brass gun of old pattern with cylindrical chamber. The gun weighs 220 pounds and has an extreme length of 37.21 inches. This gun is ignored in the Light Artillery Tactics.

Mounted Troops. Cavalry.

Mounting Guard. See Guard Mounting.

Mourne. That part of a lance or halbert to which the steel or blade is fixed.

Mouser. In the British army, a sobriquet which was sometimes used in sport to distinguish the battalion men from the flank companies. It was indeed generally applied to them by the grenadiers and light bobs, meaning that while the latter are detached, the former remain in quarters, like cats to watch the mice, etc.

Mousquetaires, or Musketeers. A body of horse-soldiers under the old French rÉgime, raised by Louis XIII. in 1622. This corps was considered a military school for the French nobility. It was disbanded in 1646, but was restored in 1657. A second company was created in 1660, and formed Cardinal Mazarin’s guard.

Mouth. See Muzzle.

Mouth. The outer opening of an embrasure.

Movement. A term used to express the changes of position which troops undergo in performing their evolutions.

Mow. To cut down with speed; to cut down indiscriminately, or in great numbers or quantity; to sweep away; as, a discharge of grape-shot mows down whole ranks of men.

Moyan. A species of early artillery.

Moyen (Fr.). The bastions which are constructed on the angles are called royal bastions. Some engineers have distinguished those bastions by the name of moyens royaux, or medium royals, whose flanks contain from 90 to 100 toises.

Moyenne (Fr.). An ancient 4-pounder, 10 feet long, weighing 1300 pounds. In the time of Charles IX. (1572) it was a 2³/₄-pounder.

Moyenne Ville (Fr.). A term formerly given by the French to any town in which the garrison was equal to a third of the inhabitants, and which was not deemed sufficiently important to bear the expense of a citadel; more especially so because it was not in the power of the inhabitants to form seditious meetings without the knowledge of the soldiers who were quartered on them.

Moyens CÔtÉs (Fr.). In fortification, are those sides which contain from 80 to 120 toises in extent. They are always fortified with bastions on their angles. The moyens cÔtÉs are generally found along the extent of irregular places, and each one of these is individually subdivided into small, mean, and great sides.

Mozyr. A town in the southeast of the government of Minsk, in European Russia, situated on the Pripet, a tributary of the Dnieper. It is a town of considerable antiquity, and played a rather important part in the wars between the various Russian princes previous to the Tartar invasion. It was unsuccessfully besieged by the Tartars in 1240.

Muff and Collar. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Limber.

Muffle. To wrap with something that dulls or renders sound inaudible; to deaden the sound of; as, to muffle a drum.

Mufti. The civilian dress of a military officer when off duty; hence, a citizen’s dress, as distinguished from military uniform.

Muhlagis. Turkish cavalry composed of expert horsemen, who generally attend the beglierbeys. They are not very numerous.

Muhlberg. A town of Prussian Saxony, situated on the Elbe. Here, on April 24, 1547, a battle was fought between Johann-Friedrich, elector of Saxony, and the emperor Charles V., a battle fraught with the most important results to the cause of Protestantism in Germany. The battle was soon decided in favor of the emperor; the elector was taken prisoner, and stripped of his territories. From this time till 1552, the Catholics were triumphant in Germany.

Muhldorf. In Bavaria, near which place Frederick, duke of Austria, was defeated and taken prisoner by Louis of Bavaria, September 28, 1322.

Mulct. A soldier is said to be mulcted of his pay when put under fine or stoppages for necessaries, or to make good some dilapidations committed by him on the property of the people or the government.

Mule. See Pack and Draught Animals.

Mullet. In heraldry, is a charge in the form of a star, generally with five points, intended to represent a spur-rowel. It is a mark of cadency assigned to the third son.

Multan, or Mooltan. An ancient and important city of India, in the Punjab, 200 miles southwest from Lahore. Multan is a military station, with a small redoubt in the rear of the cantonment. In 1849 it was taken by the British troops under Gen. Whish, and annexed with its territory to the British possessions.

Multi-charge Gun. Many attempts have been made by inventors to utilize the accelerating effect on the projectile of several charges successively fired in a gun. Lyman’s multi-charge gun has a series of pockets along the bore, the charges in which are successively fired as the projectile passes them. Bessemer proposed plan is to use a gun of great length. The charges are placed separately in holes at the breech, to be fired in succession by electricity.

Multiple Lines. In fortification, several lines of detached walls for the defense of a position.

Munchengratz. A town of Bohemia, on the Iser, 8 miles northeast from Jungbunzlau; it was taken by the Prussians under Prince Frederick Charles, after a severe action, June 28, 1866. The Austrians lost about 300 killed and 1000 prisoners, and the prince gained about 12 miles of country. There is a palace here, in which the emperors of Austria and Russia and the king of Prussia met in 1833.

Munda. A Roman colony and an important town in Hispania BÆtica, situated on a small river, and celebrated on account of two battles fought in its neighborhood, the victory of Cn. Scipio over the Carthaginians in 216 B.C., and the important victory of Julius CÆsar over the sons of Pompey in 45.

Munich (Ger. MÜnchen). The capital of the kingdom of Bavaria, situated on the Iser, 117 miles southeast from Stuttgart. It was taken by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1632; by the Austrians in 1704, 1741, and 1743; and by the French under Moreau, July 2, 1800.

Munifice (Lat. munifex), Fr. A Roman soldier who was subjected to every kind of drudgery-work in camp.

Munimell. A stronghold, fortification, etc.

Munition. Whatever materials are used in war for defense, or for annoying an enemy; ammunition; also, stores and provisions; military stores of all kinds.

Munkacs. A market-town of East Hungary, 80 miles northeast from Debreczin. It was taken by the Imperialists in 1687, after a siege of three years.

Munsees, or Minsees. A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who were closely allied to the Delawares. Many of them became converts to Christianity. A few of them now reside on the reservation of the Stockbridge Indians in Wisconsin, and about 60 are settled in Kansas.

MÜnster. A city of Germany, on the small river Aa, 77 miles northeast from Cologne. It is the capital of a government of the same name in Prussian Westphalia. It was seized by the French in 1806; part of the duchy of Berg, 1809; annexed to France, 1810; ceded to Prussia, 1815. It was the headquarters of the Anabaptists under John Leyden, who defended it against the bishop of MÜnster, 1534-35. Here was signed the treaty of Westphalia or MÜnster, October 24, 1648.

MÜnsterthal. Two valleys of Switzerland, one in the canton Grisons, the other in Berne, where, in 1444, the battle of St. Jacob was fought between the French and Swiss, when the latter were nearly annihilated.

Muotta Valley. A secluded valley of Switzerland, canton of Schwytz, traversed by the river Muotta, an affluent of Lake Lucerne. Here a sanguinary struggle took place in 1799, between the French under Lecourbe, Mortier, and MassÉna, and the Russians under Suwarrow. The latter was hemmed in on all sides, but by a desperate onslaught he cut his way through the French lines, and made a masterly retreat.

Muradal, Battle of. See Tolosa.

Murage. Money appropriated to the repair of military works; anciently so called.

Mural Crown. In Roman antiquity, a golden crown, or circlet of gold, indented so as to resemble a battlement; bestowed on him who first mounted the wall of a besieged place, and there lodged a standard.

Murcia. An old kingdom in the southeast of Spain, now divided into the modern provinces of Murcia and Albacete. It was conquered by the Arabs in 711 (712, 713); after the fall of the caliphate of Cordova, it became an independent Arab kingdom, but six years afterward was subjugated by King Ferdinand II. of Castile.

Murcia. A city of Spain, capital of the ancient kingdom and modern province of its own name, 30 miles north-northwest of Carthagena. It was taken by the Moors in 713; wrested from them by Ferdinand of Castile. In 1810 it was taken and sacked by the French.

Murderer. A great piece of artillery. Among the ordnance given up to Monk with Edinburgh Castle in 1650 is mentioned “The great iron murderer, Muckle Meg.”

Murdresses. In ancient fortification, a sort of battlement with interstices, raised on the tops of towers in order to fire through.

Muret (Southern France). Here the Albigenses under the Count of Toulouse were defeated by Simon de Montfort, and their ally, Peter of Aragon, killed, September 12, 1213.

Murfreesboro’. A town and capital of Rutherford Co., Tenn., about 30 miles southeast of Nashville. A Federal force which occupied this place in 1862 was surprised and captured by a body of Confederates under Gen. Forrest. Near here, on December 31, 1862, the Army of the Ohio under Gen. Rosecrans encountered the Confederates under Gen. Bragg, and a desperate battle ensued, continuing at intervals and with varying success until January 3, 1863, when the Confederate army retreated, and Gen. Rosecrans occupied Murfreesboro’. The Federal loss was about 8500 killed and wounded, and 3600 missing; the Confederates represented their loss at 10,000, of which 9000 were killed and wounded. This battle is known as the battle of Murfreesboro’, or of Stone River.

Murviedro. A fortified town of Spain in the province of Valencia, 17 miles north from Valencia. It was taken by Hannibal 219 B.C.

Muscule, or Testude. In ancient times, a machine of war; a mantelet; shed; low, long, and sharp-roofed shed, which enabled the besiegers to advance to and sap the wall of the besieged.

Music. A general term for the musicians of a regimental band.

Music, Phrygian. A martial sort of ancient music, which excited men to rage and battle; by this mode Timotheus stirred up Alexander to arms.

Musicians. See Band, Drummer, Fifer, and Trumpeter.

Musket, or Musquet (Fr. mousquet). The fire-arm for infantry soldiers, which succeeded the clumsy arquebuse, and has itself given way before the rifle (which see). The first muskets were matchlocks; after which came wheel-locks, asnaphans or snaphance muskets, and lastly percussion muskets, which were a vast improvement both for accuracy and lightness on all which had gone before. Compared, however, to the present rifle, the musket was a heavy, ugly, and ineffective weapon.

Musket Baskets. These are about a foot or a foot and a half high, 8 or 10 inches diameter at bottom, and a foot at the top, so that being filled with earth there is room to lay a musket between them at the bottom, being set on low breastworks, or parapets, or upon such as are beaten down.

Musketeer. A soldier armed with a musket.

Musketoon. An obsolete weapon; was a short musket of very wide bore, carrying a ball of 5 ounces, and sometimes bell-mouthed like a blunderbuss. Also one who was armed with such a weapon.

Musket-proof. Capable of resisting the effects of musket-balls.

Musketry. Muskets in general or collectively. “The rattle of musketry.”

Musselburgh. A royal burgh of Scotland, county of Mid-Lothian, at the mouth of the Esk, 6 miles east of Edinburgh. The town is historically important on account of the battle of Pinkie, which was fought in the neighborhood in 1547, when the Scottish army was defeated by the English under the Earl of Somerset.

Mustang. The wild horse of the prairies in Mexico, California, etc. It is small, hardy, and easily sustained.

Muster. A review of troops under arms, fully equipped, in order to take an account of their numbers, inspect their arms and accoutrements, and examine their condition. In the U.S. service troops are mustered bi-monthly. During the civil war, the mustering in and mustering out of troops (into or out of the U.S. service) were performed by staff-officers, called commissaries of musters.

Muster-book. A book in which military forces are registered.

Muster-file. A muster-roll.

Muster-master. One who takes an account of troops, and of their arms and other military apparatus. This title is not known in the U.S. army. The person who performs these duties is called a mustering officer, or an inspecting officer.

Muster-roll. A roll or register of the men in each company, troop, or regiment.

Muta (Syria). Here Mohammed and his followers defeated the Christians in his first conflict with them, 629.

Mutilated. In a military sense, signifies wounded in such a manner as to lose the use of a limb. A battalion is said to be mutilated when its divisions, etc., stand unequal.

Mutina. See Modena.

Mutine. To mutiny; a mutineer. This term is obsolete.

Mutineer. One guilty of mutiny; a person in military or naval service, who rises in opposition to the authority of the officers, who openly resists the government of the army or navy, or attempts to destroy due subordination.

Mutinous. Disposed to mutiny or resist the authority of laws and regulations, especially in an army, or openly resisting such authority; turbulent; seditious.

Mutinously. In a mutinous manner.

Mutinousness. The quality or state of being mutinous; seditiousness.

Mutiny. Insurrection against constituted authority, particularly military authority; open and violent resistance to the authority of officers; concerted revolt against the rules of discipline; hence, generally, forcible resistance to rightful authority on the part of subordinates. Violent commotion; tumult; uproar; strife.

Mutiny. To rise against lawful authority in the military service; to excite, or to be guilty of mutiny, or mutinous conduct; to revolt against one’s superior officer or rightful authority.

Mutiny Act. In Great Britain, an annual act of Parliament fixing the strength of the army for the military year, which commences April 1, and ends March 31, and imposing certain penalties for offenses connected with the army. It also authorizes the sovereign to issue Articles of War.

Muzzle. See Ordnance, Nomenclature.

Muzzle Velocity. Velocity at the muzzle. See Initial Velocity.

Muzzle-ring. The metallic ring or circle that surrounds the mouth of a cannon or other piece.

Muzzle-sight. A front sight placed on or near the muzzle.

Mycale (now Samsum). A mountain in the south of Ionia, in Asia Minor, north of the mouth of the Meander. It forms the western extremity of Mount Messogis, and runs far out into the sea, opposite to Samos, forming a sharp promontory, which was called Mycale, or Trogilium (now Cape St. Maria). This cape and the southeast promontory of Samos (Posidonium) overlap one another, and the two tongues of land are separated by a strait only about three-fourths of a mile in width, which is renowned in Greek history as the scene of the victory gained over the Persian fleet by Leotychides and Xanthippus, 479 B.C.

Mycalessus. An ancient and important city in Boeotia, mentioned by Homer, situated on the road from Aulis to Thebes. In 413 B.C., some Thracian mercenaries in the pay of Athens surprised and sacked the town and butchered the inhabitants. From this blow it never recovered, and was in ruins in the time of Pausanias.

MycenÆ, sometimes Mycene (now Karvata). An ancient town in Argolis, about 6 miles northeast of Argos; it is said to have been founded by Perseus in 2 B.C. After the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, it ceased to be a place of importance. It still, however, continued an independent town till 468 B.C., when it was attacked by the Argives, whose hatred the MycenÆans are said to have incurred by the part they took in the Persian war in favor of the Greek cause. The massive walls of MycenÆ resisted all the attacks of the Argives; but the inhabitants were at length compelled by famine to abandon their town. They effected their escape and took refuge, some at CleonÆ, some in Achaia, and others in Macedonia.

MylÆ. See Milazzo.

Myonnesus (now Cape Hypsili). A promontory of Ionia, with a town and a little island of the same name, forming the northern headland of the Gulf of Ephesus. Here the Romans, under the prÆtor L. Æmilius, gained a great naval victory over Antiochus the Great, 190 B.C.

Myriarch. A captain or commander of 10,000 men.

Myrmidons. The soldiers who accompanied Achilles in the expedition against Troy. Rough, desperate characters banded under a leader.

Mysore, Maheshasoora, or Maisur. A raj or native principality of Southern India. It was ruled by Hyder Ali, who acquired the sovereignty in 1761, and afterwards by his son Tippoo Sahib, who was slain when Seringapatam (May 4, 1799) was stormed and taken, and the country occupied by the British, who set up, in the same year, an heir of the ancient Hindoo royal family of Mysore to rule in his stead. The state is now subsidiary to the British.

Mytilene, Mitylene, or Metelin. The city of Lesbos. At the beginning of the 7th century B.C., the possession of its colony, Sigeum, at the mouth of the Hellespont, was disputed in war between the Mytileneans and Athenians, and assigned to the latter by the award of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Mytilene submitted to the Persians after the conquest of Ionia and Æolis, and furnished contingents to the expeditions of Cambyses against Egypt and of Darius against Scythia; it was active in the Ionian revolt; became again subject to Persia, and took part in the expedition of Xerxes against Greece. After the Persian war it formed an alliance with Athens, and remained one of the most important members of the Athenian confederacy. In 428 B.C. it headed a revolt of the greater part of Lesbos, the progress and suppression of which forms one of the most interesting episodes in the history of the Peloponnesian war. Mytilene fell under the power of the Romans after the Mithridatic war.