Gabion. A kind of basket made of osier twigs, of a cylindrical form, having different dimensions, according to the purpose for which it is used. Filled with earth, these gabions serve in sieges to carry on the approaches under cover, when the assailants come near the fortification. Batteries are often made of gabions, which likewise serve for revetments in constructing parapets of loose earth.

Gabionage. Gabions when used for fortification.

Gabionnade. A work hastily thrown up; especially, one formed chiefly of gabions. A parapet en gabionnade is a parapet constructed of gabions.

Gabions, Corrugated Iron. Are gabions made of corrugated iron. For this purpose, the corrugated sheet should be 6 feet long, 33 inches wide, and of iron weighing three-quarters of a pound to the square foot.

The corrugations running transversely, the sheet is easily bent into a cylindrical form, in which it is retained by two clamps, the holes for which are punched near the corners of the sheet. The chief advantage claimed for the corrugated over the hoop gabion is, the readiness with which it can be put together in the field. It is also rather more portable, and stakes are dispensed with; but it is inferior to the hoop gabion in stiffness.

Gad. The point of a spear, or an arrowhead; a steel spike on the knuckle of a gauntlet.

Gadaru (Fr.). A very broad Turkish sabre.

Gadling. A spike or sharp-pointed boss on the knuckle of a gauntlet; a gad.

Gaeta. A strongly fortified maritime town of the Neapolitan province of Terra di Lavoro, 40 miles northwest from Naples. It is one of the strongest places in the kingdom, and its harbor is the same as it was in the time of the Romans. In 1799 and in 1806 it was taken by the French, and in 1849 Pope Pius IX. sought an asylum here. When Garibaldi took possession of Naples for Victor Emmanuel in September, 1860, Francis II., the last Bourbon king of Naples, took refuge in Gaeta, and remained until the town was taken by Gen. Cialdini, in February, 1861, after a siege of several weeks’ duration.

GÆtulia. An ancient country of Africa, situated south of Mauritania and Numidia, and embracing the western part of the desert of Sahara. Its inhabitants belonged to the great aboriginal Berber family of North and Northwestern Africa. They were a savage and warlike race, and their first collision with the Romans was during the Jugurthine war, when they served as light horse in the army of the Numidian king. Cornelius Cossus Lentulus led a force against them, and for his success obtained a triumph and the surname of GÆtulicus. The ancient GÆtulians are believed to be represented in modern times by the Tuaricks.

Gaffles. The steel lever with which the ancients bent their cross-bows.

Gage. A challenge to combat; that is, a gauntlet, glove, cap, or the like, cast on the ground by the challenger, and taken up by the acceptor of the challenge.

Gages (Fr.). Wages. Among the French this term signified the fruits or compensations which were derived by individuals from appointments given by the crown, whether of a military, civil, or judicial nature, or for service done at sea or by land.

Gain. To conquer; to get the better; as, we gained the day, etc. To gain ground, implies to take up the ground which a retiring enemy vacates.

Gaine de Flamme (Fr.). A sort of linen sheath or cover, into which the staff of a flag or pendant is put.

Gaine de Pavillon (Fr.). A cloth or linen band, which is sewed across the flag, and through which the different ribbons are interlaced.

Gaines’s Mill. In Hanover Co., Va., about 20 miles northeast of Richmond. Here, on June 27, 1862, was fought one of the “seven days’ contests” between the Confederate forces under Gen. Lee and the Federals under Gen. McClellan, in which the latter were victorious.

Gain-pain. Bread-gainer; a term applied in the Middle Ages to the sword of a hired soldier.

Gaiters. A sort of cover for the leg, usually made of cloth, and are either long, as reaching to the knee, or short, as only reaching just above the ankle; the latter are termed half-gaiters, and are worn by infantry soldiers in Europe.

Galatia. An ancient province of Asia Minor; in the 3d century B.C., the Gauls under Brennus invaded Greece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered Troas, 278; were checked by Attalus in a battle about 239; and then settled in what was called afterwards GallogrÆcia and Galatia. The country was ravaged by Cn. Manlius, 189 B.C., and was finally annexed to the Roman empire, 25 B.C.

Galatone. A very ancient town in the south of Italy, in the province of Otranto, about 9 miles northeast of Gallipoli. In the struggle between Joanna, queen of Naples, and Alfonso, Galatone having declared for the former, was besieged by Alfonso, and its ramparts destroyed.

Galea. Among the Romans, a light casque, head-piece, or morion, coming down to the shoulders, and commonly of brass; though Camillus, according to Plutarch, ordered those of his army to be of iron, as being the stronger metal.

Galeated. Covered, as with a helmet.

Galet (Fr.). A round stone thrown from a sling or bow.

Galicia. A province of Northwest Spain, was conquered by D. Junius Brutus, 136 B.C., and by the Vandals, 419, and was subdued by successive invaders.

Galicia. A kingdom or province of the Austrian empire, which formerly constituted a part of Poland. East Galicia was acquired by the emperor of Germany at the partition in 1772; and West Galicia at that of 1795. The latter was ceded to the grand duchy of Warsaw in 1809; but recovered by Austria in 1815.

Gall. To injure; to harass; to annoy; as, the troops were galled by the shot of an enemy.

Gallant. Noble in bearing or spirit; brave; high-spirited; courageous; heroic; magnanimous; as, a gallant youth; a gallant officer.

Gallantly. In a gallant manner, spirit or bearing; nobly; bravely; as, to fight gallantly; to defend a place gallantly.

Gallantry. Bravery; courageousness; heroism; intrepidity; as, the troops attacked the fort with great gallantry.

Gallas. A warlike race occupying the south and east of Abyssinia. They first appear in history in the 16th century, when they extended their conquests from the interior of Africa, laying waste by constant incursions the countries of Eastern Africa to the mountains of Abyssinia. Politically they do not form a single nation, but are divided into numerous tribes, forming separate kingdoms and states, which are frequently at war with each other.

Gallery. An underground passage, whether cut in the soil or built in masonry; it forms the communication between the inner and exterior works of a fortified place. When prepared for defense, it is a defensive gallery. In military mines, galleries are the underground passages leading to and connecting the mine chambers. Scarp and counterscarp galleries are covered passages built in the scarp and counterscarp to give a flanking fire in the ditch.

Gallery Descent of a Ditch. Is the term applied when the besiegers cross the ditch by an underground passage.

Gallet (Fr.). See Jalet.

Galling Fire. A sustained discharge of cannon or small-arms, which by its execution greatly annoys the enemy.

Gallipoli. An important town and seaport of Turkey in Europe, in the province of Rumili, is situated on the peninsula of the same name at the northeast extremity of the Dardanelles, and about 130 miles west-southwest of Constantinople. It was once fortified, but its only defense now is a sorry square castle with an old tower. In 1357 the town was taken by the Turks, and formed the earliest Turkish possessions in Europe. In 1854 the allied armies of England and France occupied it.

Gallipoli. An important commercial seaport of Italy, in the Neapolitan province of Terra di Otranto. It has a good harbor, and in time of war is an important position, being strongly protected by fortifications and a castle. In 450 the town was sacked by the Vandals; in 1284 it was destroyed and almost depopulated by Charles of Anjou; and during subsequent centuries suffered severely from the Venetians, French, Spaniards, and Turks. In 1809 it repulsed an attack from the English flotilla.

Gallop. A mode of running by a quadruped, particularly by a horse, by lifting alternately the fore feet and the hind feet together, in successive leaps or bounds. A word of command in the cavalry service.

Galloper. A carriage on which very small guns are conveyed, having shafts on which the gun may be conveyed without a limber. This carriage is no longer used.

Gallowglass. In ancient times, a heavy-armed foot-soldier of Ireland and the Western Isles.

Galway. A seaport town of Ireland, and capital of Galway County. It was originally surrounded with walls. It was conquered by Richard de Burgo in 1232; in 1690 the city declared for King James, but was taken by Gen. Ginckel immediately after the battle of Aughrim, July 12, 1691.

Gamala. A town and strong fortress in Palestine, frequently mentioned by Josephus. Its site, though so remarkable and minutely described, had been forgotten for nearly 18 centuries; but it has latterly been identified with El-Hossn, which lies to the east of the Sea of Tiberias, nearly opposite the town. In the Jewish rebellion it revolted against Agrippa, who besieged it for seven months, but without success. It was afterwards, however, taken by Vespasian after a spirited resistance, and an indiscriminate slaughter of the inhabitants took place, 4000 being put to the sword, and 5000 being said to have thrown themselves from the walls, and to have been dashed to pieces on the rocks below.

Gambado. A case of leather, formerly used to defend the leg from mud, and in riding on horseback.

Gambeson (Fr.). A term which the French formerly applied to a coat of mail that was worn under the cuirass. It was likewise called cotte gamboisÉe. It was made of two strong cloths interwoven with pointed worsted.

Gamelle (Fr.). A wooden or earthen bowl formerly used among the French soldiers for their messes. It generally contained the quantity of food which was allotted for 3, 5, or 7 men belonging to the same room. The porridge-pots of the navy were made of wood, and held a certain allowance. During the monarchy of France, subaltern officers and volunteers were frequently punished for slight offenses by being sent to the gamelle, and excluded from their regular mess; they were put upon short allowance according to the nature of their transgression.

Gantlope (Fr.). Corruptly gauntlet, from the French gant, a glove. A military punishment, which consisted in passing along the whole line, and receiving a blow from every man’s iron glove or gauntlet (gantelet). Whips and canes were subsequently used; this mode of punishment is now obsolete.

Gaol. A withe used for binding fascines or securing gabions.

Gap. An opening for a passage or entrance; an opening which implies a breach. To stand in the gap, to expose one’s self for the protection of something; to make defense against any assailing danger. To stop a gap, to secure a weak point; to repair a defect.

Gap. A small town of France, capital of the department Hautes Alps. It was sacked and almost wholly reduced to ashes by Victor Amadeus of Savoy in 1692.

Gar. The general term used by the Saxons for a weapon of war.

Garamantes. A Libyan people of the old race called Amazergh, who in ancient times inhabited the largest oasis of the desert of Sahara. When the Romans became masters of North Africa, they found it necessary to repress the barbarian tribes, and accordingly Cornelius Balbus Gaditanus the younger, as pro-consul, was sent against this people. He succeeded in defeating them, and obtained the honors of a triumph; but, owing to their nomadic character, he was unable thoroughly to subdue them.

GarÇon-Major (Fr.). An officer, so called in the old French service. He was selected from among the lieutenants of a regiment to assist the aid-majors in the general details of duty.

Garda, Lake of. A lake of Northern Italy, lying between the provinces of Lombardy and Venice. In 1796 the battle of Rivoli was fought near its eastern shore, in which Bonaparte defeated Wurmser.

Gardant. In heraldry, is said of an animal which is represented full-faced, and looking forward.

Garde (Fr.). Guard. Garde de l’armÉe, the grand guard of an army. Guards in the old French service were usually divided into three sorts: guards of honor, fatigue guard, and the general’s guard. That was called a guard of honor in which the officers and men were exposed to danger. A fatigue guard belonging to a garrison or camp. A general’s guard was mounted before the door or gate of a house in which the commanding officer resided.

Garde-General d’Artillerie (Fr.). An officer was so called under the old government of France, who had charge of all the ordnance and stores belonging to his majesty for the land service. He gave receipts for all ammunition, etc., and his bills were paid by the treasurer-general of the army.

Garde, Imperiale (Fr.). See Guards, Imperial.

Garde, Nationale (Fr.). See National Guards.

Garde Pluie (Fr.). Literally means a fence, or cover against rain. This machine was originally invented by a Frenchman, and submitted to the Prussians, who adopted it for the use of their infantry. Under the cover of them, the besieged, or the troops stationed in the posts attacked, would be able to keep up a brisk and effective discharge of musketry during the heaviest fall of rain, and thereby silence or considerably damp the fire of the enemy.

Gardelegen. A small town of Prussian Saxony, situated about 30 miles north-northwest of Magdeburg, on the Milde. It was destroyed by Duke Dervan in 633, and rebuilt about 924. It remained a free town until 1478.

Gardens. In ancient military history, places of resort to practice military exercises.

Gardes Blancs (Fr.). Were Roman militia, composed of picked men.

Gardes Costes, or CÔtes (Capitaineries), Fr. The maritime divisions, into which France was formerly divided, were so called. Each division was under the immediate superintendence of a captain, named capitaine gardes-costes, who was assisted by a lieutenant and an ensign. Their duty was to watch the coast, and to attend minutely to everything that might affect the safety of the division they had in charge.

Gardes de la Porte (Fr.). A company so called during the monarchy of France, and of so ancient a date, indeed, with respect to original institution, that it appears to have been coeval with it. Mention is made of the gardes de la porte in the oldest archives or records belonging to the king’s household, in which service they were employed, without being responsible to any particular treasurer as other companies were. This company consisted of 1 captain, 4 lieutenants, and 50 guards. The captain and officers received their commissions from the king. The first took an oath of fidelity to the king in person, and received the bÂton from his hands. The duty he did was purely discretionary, and depended on his own will. The lieutenants served by detachment, and took their tour of duty every quarter. Their specific service consisted in guarding the principal gate belonging to the king’s apartments. They were relieved at night by the body-guards, and delivered the keys to a brigadier belonging to the Scotch garrison.

Gardes du Corps (Fr.). The body-guards. Under the old French government, they consisted of a certain number of gentlemen or cavaliers whose immediate duty was to attend the king’s person. They were divided into four companies, under as many captains, whose tour of duty came every quarter. They took rank above the gens d’armes and the king’s light cavalry. The first and most ancient of the four companies was called the Scotch company, which was established by Charles VII. of France in 1423.

Gardes FranÇaises (Fr.). The French guards. In 1563 Charles IX., king of France, raised a regiment for the immediate protection of the palace. The colonel of the gardes FranÇaise was on duty throughout the year, and was entitled to the bÂton de commandement in common with the four captains of the body-guards. Peculiar privileges were attached to every officer belonging to this body. No stranger, not even a native of Strasburg, Savoy, Alsace, or Piedmont, could hold a commission in the French guards. In the revolution of 1789 they took a very active and leading part.

Gardes-magazins (Fr.). In the old French service there were two sorts of magazine guards,—one for the military stores and the other for the artillery. The first was subject to the grand master, and the second was appointed by the secretary at war. Gardes particuliers des magazins d’artillerie, officers appointed by the grand master of ordnance for the specific purpose of attending to the ammunition, etc. Their pay was in proportion to the quantity of stores with which they were intrusted.

Gardes Suisses (Fr.). A celebrated Swiss corps in the French army, constituted “Gardes” by royal decree in 1616. They comprised upwards of 2000 men, were always unswerving in their fidelity to the Bourbon kings, and are chiefly remarkable for their heroic end. On August 10, 1792, they withstood the Parisian revolutionary mob, and defended the palace of the Louvre till almost every man was cut down. During the resistance they offered, the royal family was enabled to escape to such shelter as the National Assembly afforded. Gardes Suisses du corps du Roi, one hundred Swiss guards who were immediately attached to the king’s person. They were a select body of men who took an oath of fidelity to the king, and were formed into a regular troop. But in the last period of the monarchy of France, the principal duties of the one hundred Swiss guards consisted in domestic and menial attendance.

Garigliano. A river in Southwestern Italy. After long waiting and refusing to recede a step, the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova made a bridge over this river December 27, 1503, and surprised and totally defeated the French army. Gaeta surrendered a few days after.

Garland. A sort of chaplet made of flowers, feathers, and sometimes of precious stones, worn on the head in the manner of a crown. Both in ancient and modern times it has been customary to present garlands of flowers to warriors who have distinguished themselves. A beautiful young woman was generally selected for that purpose.

Garlasco. A market-town of Northern Italy, 24 miles from Novara. The Austrians, when they invaded Italy in 1849, crossed the Po near this place.

Garnished. In heraldry, any charge is said to be garnished with the ornaments set on it.

Garnish-nails. Diamond-headed nails, formerly used to ornament artillery carriages.

Garret. A turret or battlement. Now obsolete.

Garreted. Protected by turrets. Now obsolete.

Garrison. A body of troops stationed in a fort or fortified town to defend it against an enemy, or to keep its inhabitants in subjection. A strong place, in which troops are quartered for its security. In garrison, in the condition of a garrison; doing duty in a fort or as one of a garrison. Garrison town, is a strong place, in which troops are quartered and do duty for the security thereof, keeping strong guards at each post, and a main-guard in or near the market-place. As a verb it means to place troops in, as in a fortress, for its defense; to furnish with soldiers; as, to garrison a fort or town. To secure or defend by fortresses manned with troops; as, to garrison a conquered territory.

Garrison Court-martial. Is a legal tribunal for the examination and punishment of offenders against martial law, or against good order and military discipline. It is composed of three members and a judge-advocate. See Court-martial, and Trial; also Judge-advocate.

Garrison Gin. The largest size gin. See Gin.

Garrison Guns. Guns used in fortifications. Fortress guns.

Garrison des Janissaries (Fr.). The Élite or flower of the Janissaries of Constantinople was frequently sent into garrison on the frontiers of Turkey, or to places where the loyalty of the inhabitants was doubted. The Janissaries did not indeed assist in the immediate defense of a besieged town or fortress, but they watched the motions of all suspected persons, and were subject to the orders of their officers, who usually commanded the garrison.

Garter, Order of the. One of the most ancient and illustrious of the military orders of knighthood. It was instituted by Edward III. of England, and dates from about the year 1350, though some writers say 1344. Its origin is variously related. In Rastel’s “Chronicles” it is stated that this order was devised by Richard I. at the siege of Acre, when he is said to have caused 26 knights to wear thongs of blue leather about their legs. But the common account is, that the Countess of Salisbury happened at a ball to drop her garter, and that the king took it up and presented it to her, at the same time exclaiming, Honi soit qui mal y pense,—“Evil be to him who evil thinks,” in reference to the smiles which he observed the action had excited among some of the bystanders; adding “that shortly they should see that garter advanced to so high an honor and renown, as to account themselves happy to wear it.” It is founded in honor of the Holy Trinity, the Virgin Mary, St. Edward the Confessor, and St. George; but the last, who had become the tutelary saint of England, was considered its special patron; and for this reason it has always borne the title of “The Order of St. George,” as well as of “The Garter,” and those who wore it were called “Knights of St. George.” The number of knights companions was originally 26, including the sovereign, who is chief of the order; but in 1786 a statute was passed to the effect that this number should be irrespective of princes of the royal family, and illustrious foreigners on whom the honor might be conferred. The well-known emblem of the order is a dark-blue ribbon edged with gold, bearing the motto Honi soit qui mal y pense in golden letters, with a buckle and pendant of gold richly chased, and is worn on the left leg below the knee. The mantle is of blue velvet, and on the left breast a star is embroidered. The hood and surcoat are of crimson velvet, and lined with white taffeta. The hat is of black velvet, with a plume of white ostrich feathers, in the centre of which there is a tuft of black herons’ feathers, all fastened to the hat by a band of diamonds. The collar is of gold, and consists of 26 pieces, each in the form of a garter. The “George” is the figure of St. George on horseback encountering the dragon; it is worn to the collar, and there is a lesser “George” pendent to a broad, dark-blue ribbon over the left shoulder.

Garter King-of-Arms. Is the principal king-of-arms in England. Though held by the same person, they are distinct offices. The first was instituted for the service of the order of the Garter (which see), not on its first foundation, but afterwards by Henry V. as sovereign, with the advice and consent of the knights-companions. The peculiar duty of Garter king-of-arms is to attend upon the knights at their solemnities, to intimate their election to those who are chosen by the order, to call them to be installed at Windsor, to cause their arms to be hung up over their stalls, and to marshal their funeral processions, and those of royal personages, and of members of higher nobility. In the capacity of principal king-of-arms, he grants and confirms arms, under the authority of the earl marshal, to whom he is not subject as Garter king-of-arms. All new grants or patents of arms in England are first signed and sealed by him, and then by the king (of arms) of the province to which the applicant belongs.

Gas-check. The device used in breech-loading cannon to prevent the gas from escaping at the breech. (See Broadwell Ring and Breech-loading.) Also a term applied by the English to the soft metal sabot in the rear of rifled projectiles.

Gasconade. To boast; to brag; to vaunt; to bluster. The term was originally derived from the Gascons, or people of Gascony, in France, who it seems have been particularly distinguished for extravagant stories.

Gasconader. A great boaster; a blusterer.

Gascony. Formerly a district in the southwest of France, situated between the Bay of Biscay, the river Garonne, and the Western Pyrenees. It derived its name from the Basques, or Vasques (Lat. Vascones), who, driven by the Visigoths from their own territory on the southern slope of the Western Pyrenees, crossed to the northern side, and settled here. In 602, after an obstinate resistance, the Vasques were forced to submit to the Franks. They now passed under the sovereignty of the dukes of Aquitania, who for a time were independent of the crown, but were afterwards conquered by King Pepin, and later by Charlemagne. Subsequently it became incorporated with Aquitania, and for a time became part of the English possessions, but was afterwards reconquered by the French.

Gastein, Badgastein, or Wilbad-Gastein. A village of Austria, 49 miles south of Salzburg. On August 14, 1865, a convention was concluded here between Austria and Prussia, to make arrangements relative to the government of the duchies of Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg, which their combined forces had wrested from Denmark.

Gate. A door of strong planks with iron bars to oppose an enemy. Gates are generally fixed in the middle of the curtain, from whence they are seen and defended by the two flanks of the bastions. They should be covered with a good ravelin, that they may not be seen or enfiladed by the enemy. The palisades and barriers before the gates within the town are often of great use.

Gateshead. A borough in Durham, on the Tyne, opposite Newcastle. At Gatesheadfell, William I. defeated Edgar Atheling in 1068.

Gateway. The passage or opening in which a gate or large door is hung. The gateway being a most important point in all fortified places, is usually protected by various devices. It is flanked by towers with loop-holes, from which assailants may be attacked, and is frequently overhung by a machicolated battlement, from which missiles of every description were poured upon the besiegers.

Gath. One of the five chief cities of the Philistines, was situated on the frontiers of Judah, and was in consequence a place of much importance in the wars between the Philistines and the Israelites. It formed in fact the key of both countries, and was strongly fortified.

Gatling Gun. Is a machine gun, the 1 inch composed of six and the ¹/₂ inch of ten rifled barrels of steel, made to revolve around a central axis parallel to their bores, by means of a hand crank. As each barrel comes opposite to the hopper on the left side of the cylinder, a self-primed metal case cartridge falls into a groove of the cartridge-carrier, is pressed into the breech by a plunger, and held there until exploded by the firing-pin. The empty case is withdrawn from the barrel by an extractor attached to the cylinder containing the firing-pin. With each revolution of the crank the 1-inch gun fires once, and the ¹/₂-inch gun three times. The ¹/₂-inch gun is reduced to caliber .45 inch, in order to use with it the projectile of the breech-loading musket.

Gaucho. One of the native inhabitants of the pampas of La Plata, of Spanish-American descent, celebrated for independence, horsemanship, and rude, uncivilized mode of life.

Gaugamela (now Karmelis). A village in the district of Aturia, in Assyria, the scene of the last and decisive battle between Alexander and Darius Codomannus, 331 B.C., commonly called the battle of Arbela. See Arbela.

Gauges. In gunnery, are brass rings with handles, to find the diameter of all kinds of shot with expedition. Also instruments of various kind for verifying the dimensions of cannon and projectiles and the various parts of small-arms. Modern small-arms are made on the interchangeable principle, each part being accurately made to gauges. This principle has revolutionized the manufacture of small-arms. It was first introduced at the U.S. armory, at Harper’s Ferry, by Maj. Wade, of the Ordnance Corps.

Gaul, or Gallia. The ancient name of France and Belgium. The natives, termed by the Greeks GalatÆ, by the Romans Galli or CeltÆ, came originally from Asia, and invading Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled in Spain, North Italy, France and Belgium, and the British Isles.

Gauntlet (Fr. gantelet). A large glove of mail; a covering for the hand with plates of metal on the back, worn as a part of the defensive armor in ancient times. A long glove, covering the wrist; as, a riding-gauntlet. To take up the gauntlet, to accept a challenge. To throw down the gauntlet, to offer or send a challenge; to defy.

Gauntlet. A kind of military punishment; the gantelet used in the expression to run the gauntlet. See Gantlope.

Gauntleted. Wearing a gauntlet.

Gawelgur. A strong fortress of Hindostan, in the dominions of the Nizam or ruler of Hyderabad. It was taken by Gen. Wellesley, December 14, 1803, after a siege of two days, but was restored to the rajah on the conclusion of peace.

Gaza. A city of the Philistines, of which Samson carried off the gates, about 1120 B.C. It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, 332, and near it Ptolemy defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes, 312 B.C. It was taken by Saladin, 1170; by Bonaparte, March, 1799; and by the Egyptians in 1831.

Gaze. In heraldry, when a beast of the chase is represented as affrontÉ, or full-faced, it is said to be at gaze.

Gazette. To announce or publish in a gazette; to announce officially; as an appointment either civil or military. All commissions in the British army, militia, fencible, and volunteer corps must be gazetted.

Gazons. In fortification, pieces of fresh earth, or sods, covered with grass, and cut in the form of a wedge, about a foot long and half a foot thick, to line the outsides of a work made of earth, as ramparts, parapets, banquettes, etc. The first bed of gazons is fixed with pegs of wood, and the second bed is so laid as to bind the former, by being placed over its joints, and so continued till the works are finished. Between those it is usual to sow all sorts of binding weeds or herbs, in order to strengthen the rampart.

Gear. Warlike accoutrements; military harness; equipage.

Geat. The hole through which the metal is conveyed to the mold in casting ordnance.

Gebegis. Armorers among the Turks were so called.

Gebelis. A Turkish corps of picked men.

Gebelus. Every Timariot in Turkey, during a campaign, is obliged to take a certain number of horsemen, who are called gebelus, and to support them at his own expense. He is directed to take as many as would annually cost 3000 aspres for subsistence.

Gela. In ancient times, a very important city on the southern coast of Sicily. It was founded by a Rhodian and Cretan colony, in 690 B.C. In 505 B.C., Cleander made himself tyrant, and the colony reached its highest pitch of power under his brother Hippocrates, who subdued almost the whole of Sicily, with the exception of Syracuse. Gelon, the successor of Hippocrates, pursued the same career of conquest, and Syracuse itself fell into his hands, and was even made his principal residence, Gela being committed to the government of his brother Hiero. After many vicissitudes during the Carthaginian war in Sicily, it ultimately fell into decay. Its ruin was completed by Phintias, tyrant of Agrigentum, who, a little before 280 B.C., removed the inhabitants to a town in the neighborhood which he had founded, and to which he gave his own name. It occupied what is now the site of Terra Nova.

Gelibach. A sort of superintendent or chief of the gebegis, or armorers, among the Turks. He is only subordinate to the toppi bachi, or the grand master of the Turkish artillery.

Gellia Gens. A plebeian family; was of Samnite origin and afterwards settled at Rome. There were two generals of this family in the Samnite wars, Gellius Status in the second Samnite war, who was defeated and taken prisoner 305 B.C., and Gellius Egnatius in the third Samnite war.

Gembloux. A town of Belgium, on an affluent of the Sambre, 11 miles northwest from Namur. The French gained a victory over the Austrians near this town in 1794.

Genappe. A village of Belgium, in Southern Brabant, on the banks of the Dyle, 18 miles southeast from Brussels. Several military actions took place here in 1815, both before and after Waterloo, between the French and the allied forces.

Gendarmes, or Gens d’Armes (men-at-arms). Originally, and up to the time of the first French revolution, the most distinguished cavalry corps in the service of the Bourbon kings, to whom they formed a sort of body-guard. Under existing arrangements the gendarmes constitute a military police, and comprise both cavalry and infantry. The force consists principally of soldiers taken from the army, generally on account of intelligence and good conduct. The men receive much higher pay than the rest of the army, of which, however, the corps is a part, and they are liable in cases of emergency to be sent on active service.

Gendarmery (Fr. gendarmerie). The body of gendarmes or gens d’armes.

General. A term for the roll of the drum which calls the troops together. To “beat the general” is a phrase drawn from the French drum instructors, “Battre la Generale.”

General. The highest military title in the U.S. army, and the highest military title below that of field-marshal in European armies. A general ordinarily commands no body of men less than an army or corps d’armÉe.

General, Adjutant-. See Adjutant-General.

General, Brigadier-. See Brigadier-General.

General, Colonel. An honorary title, or military rank, which is bestowed in foreign services. Thus the Prince of the Peace in Spain was colonel general of the Swiss guards.

General Court-Martial. See Court-martial.

General de Battaile, or General Major. A particular rank or appointment, whose functions correspond with those of a cidevant marshal of France. This situation is intrusted to a general officer, and is only known among the armies of Russia, and some other Northern powers. He takes precedence in the same manner that our major-generals do of all brigadier-generals and colonels, and is subordinate to lieutenant-generals.

General des GalÈres (Fr.). Commander of the galleys, an officer of high rank and extensive jurisdiction in France.

General des Vivres (Fr.). Commissary of stores; a sort of chief commissary or superintendent-general of stores, whose functions were to provide ammunition, bread, and biscuit, for the army.

Generalissimo. The chief officer in command of an army. This word is used in most foreign languages. It was first used to designate the absolute authority of Cardinal Richelieu, when he went to command the French army in Italy.

General, Lieutenant-. The second rank among general officers, and next below that of general. The normal command of a lieutenant-general is that of a division, but he is sometimes intrusted with the command of an entire army.

General, Major-. The rank next below that of lieutenant-general, and above brigadier-general. He usually commands a division; a general of division.

General Officers. Are all officers whose authority extends beyond the immediate command of a regiment, and who have either separate districts or departments at home, or commands on foreign service. A brigade is the smallest body of men constituting the command of a general officer. In an army of very large proportions, the normal sequence of command would be the following: The general commanding-in-chief, generalissimo, captain-general, or field-marshal would command the whole force; the generals would have separate corps d’armÉe; the lieutenant-generals, wings of those corps d’armÉe; the major-generals, divisions in the wings; and brigadier-generals, brigades in the divisions. In practice, however, an army is rarely large enough to allow of this exact scheme of military hierarchy being carried out; and general officers are also frequently assigned to high commands without regard to seniority. In the U.S. service there are one general, one lieutenant-general (whose offices expire with the present incumbents), three major-generals, and six brigadier-generals. The President is ex officio commander-in-chief of the army. In the English service the sovereign is captain-general, and under the sovereign is the commander-in-chief, who takes rank as field-marshal. In the staff corps the word general is also used, as surgeon-, quartermaster-, adjutant-general, etc., to denote that the holder of the office has charge of his special department, and does not necessarily imply that he is a general officer. The chiefs of staff departments, however, in the U.S. service are usually of the rank of brigadier-general. In the German armies, and among the sovereigns of the North, there are certain generals of cavalry, and others of infantry, who take rank of all lieutenant-generals. In these armies it is usual for generals, lieutenant-generals, and major-generals to take their routine of duty, and rise progressively in the infantry or cavalry corps to which they were originally appointed, until they arrived at a chief command: whereas in France and other countries a major-general might be employed to take charge of either infantry or cavalry, without any regard being paid to the particular line of service in which he was bred.

General Orders. See Orders.

General’s Guard. See Garde.

Generalship. The office of general; the exercise of the functions of a general; the skill and conduct of a general officer; military skill in a commander.

Geneva. A walled town of Switzerland, and the capital of a small canton, at the western extremity of the lake of the same name. In 1784 and 1794 revolutions took place in the city and state of Geneva; in 1798 it was taken by the French, and, till 1813, it was the capital of the department Leman, in the French empire, under Napoleon I. In 1814 it joined the Helvetic Confederation.

Geneva, Convention of. In October, 1863, an international convention was held at Geneva, Switzerland, comprising 14 governments, including Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia and Italy, who were represented by delegates, and propositions were drawn up forming the “Red Cross Society,” for the succor of the wounded in time of warfare. It gave aid to the sick and wounded during the Franco-German war, and its flag is recognized by all powers as neutral.

Genius. In a military sense, natural talent or disposition to every kind of warlike employment, more than any other; or, the aptitude a man has received from nature to perform well and easily that which others can do but indifferently and with a great deal of pains.

Genoa. A fortified maritime city in Northwestern Italy, once a celebrated republic, now the capital of a province of Northwestern Italy. From the 11th to the 18th century Genoa was the capital of a flourishing republic; it was bombarded by the French in 1684, and submitted to the Austrians in 1746; but, in consequence of a citizen having been abused by an Austrian officer, the inhabitants rose and massacred most of the soldiery, and drove away the remainder. The republic in 1798 assumed the French form of government, with the title of Ligurian republic, and in 1805 it was annexed to the French empire. In 1815 it was ceded to the king of Sardinia, and in 1859 the French troops landed here on their route to oppose the Austrian army, which had invaded Sardinia.

GenouillÈre. That part of the parapet of a battery which remains above the platform and under the gun, after the opening of the embrasure has been made. The name is derived from the French genou, the knee. The height of the genouillÈre is regulated by that of the gun-carriage, generally from 2 to 3 feet.

Gens. In Roman antiquity, a clan, embracing several families, whose bond of alliance was a common name and certain religious rites performed in common. Persons of the same gens were called gentiles, while those of the same family were designated agnati.

Gens (Fr.). A word in much desultory use among the French, signifying, in the general acceptation of it, people, servants, soldiers, etc. This word is likewise used to distinguish bodies of men that are in opposition to each other.

Gens d’Armes. See Gendarmes.

Gentilhommes de la Garde (Fr.). Gentlemen of the guard. Commonly called Au bec de corbin, or the battle-axe, from the weapon which they carried. This company went through many alterations during the monarchy of France. During the last years of that government it consisted of 200 guards, under the command of a captain, a lieutenant, and an ensign. The captain had the power of giving away the subaltern commissions, and had, moreover, the entire management of the rest; every vacancy being in his gift. They marched in file, each holding his battle-axe, before the king on days of public ceremony. When the company was first raised, its particular duty was to attend the king’s person, and to be constantly near him on the day of battle.

Gentlemen-at-arms (formerly called the Gentlemen-Pensioners). The body-guard of the British sovereign, and, with the exception of the yeomen of the guard, the oldest corps in the British service. It was instituted in 1509 by Henry VIII., and now consists of 1 captain, 1 lieutenant, 1 standard-bearer, 1 clerk of the cheque, and 40 gentlemen, who must all be retired military officers of service and distinction. The attendance of gentlemen-at-arms is now rarely required, except on the occasion of coronations and important state ceremonies.

Geographical Department, Commander of. Is assimilated to the commander of a separate army, with the same powers and duties in similar cases over all the troops within the limits of the department. In all countries he derives his authority to command from the highest power of the government. In the United States he is assigned by order of the President, who alone can relieve him, and who also fixes the limits or boundaries of the department. His duties are mainly derived from customs of service. The only duties defined by statute relate to general courts-martial, which he can convene, and his action is final on all cases tried by such courts, except in the case of a general officer, or where the sentence of the court extends to the loss of life or the dismissal of a commissioned officer. In time of war he is authorized by existing laws to execute the death penalty in cases of persons convicted as spies, mutineers, deserters, or murderers, and in cases of guerrilla marauders convicted in time of war of robbery, burglary, arson, rape, assault with intent to commit rape, or violation of the laws of war. See Department, Military.

Geographical Division, Military. In the United States a geographical military division consists of a number of geographical military departments, usually under the command of a general officer.

Geometry. That branch of mathematics which investigates the relations, properties and measurements of solids, surfaces, lines, and angles; the science which treats of the properties and relations of magnitudes. Its usefulness extends to almost every art and science. It is by the assistance of geometry that engineers conduct all their works, take the situation and plans of towers, the distances of places, and the measure of such things as are only accessible to the sight. It is not only an introduction to fortification, but highly necessary to mechanics. On geometry, likewise, depends the theory of gunnery, mining, mechanics, hydraulics, pneumatics, etc.

George, Lake. A beautiful sheet of water in the State of New York. Its length is 36 miles; its breadth from 1 to 3 miles. Lake George was the scene of important military operations during the French and Indian war of 1755-59. Here stood Fort George, Fort William Henry, and other works.

George, St. Patron of England and Russia, is reputed to have been born in Palestine in the 3d century. According to the legend, he became a prince in Cappadocia, and was distinguished for his exploit of rescuing a king’s daughter from a dragon. He was a Christian, and suffered martyrdom at Nicomedia, April 23, 303, for having torn down the edict of Diocletian against Christians, the emperor himself being then in the city.

George, St., Banner of. Is white with red cross. According to Sir N. H. Nicolas, the cross of St. George was worn as a badge over the armor of every English soldier “in the 14th and subsequent centuries, even if the custom did not prevail at a much earlier period,” to indicate that he was in the service of the crown. On the invasion of Scotland by Richard II. in 1386, it was ordained that every man of the English party should wear a sign of the arms of St. George both before and behind. A similar ordinance was adopted by Henry V. for the government of his army in France. The cross of St. George forms a part of the British standard.

George, St., Knights of. See Garter, Order of the.

George, The. The badge of the order of the Garter exhibiting the figure of St. George on horseback piercing the falling dragon, which lies on a mount. See Garter.

Georges Conspiracy. Took place in France; Gens. Moreau and Pichegru, and Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known by the name of Georges, and others were arrested at Paris, charged with a conspiracy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII., February, 1804. Pichegru was found strangled in prison, April 6, and 12 of the conspirators, including Georges, were executed, and others imprisoned, June 22. Moreau was exiled and went to America; in 1813 he was killed before Dresden.

Georgia. Called by the Russians Grusia, a considerable country of Asia, situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian, to the north of Armenia, and forming a government of Russia. The Georgians are skilled in the bow, and are thought to be the best soldiers in Asia. Georgia was formerly one kingdom, the inhabitants of which were Christians; but, in 1639, when it was conquered by the Persians, the country was divided between two native princes, by themselves called kings, but by the Sophia styled governors. Each of these had a guard of Mohammedan horse in their pay. In 1802 it was annexed to Russia.

Georgia. One of the original States of the United States, bounded on the north by Tennessee and North Carolina, on the east by South Carolina and the Atlantic Ocean, south by Florida, and west by Florida and Alabama. It was named in honor of King George II., who granted a charter for establishing a colony there in 1732; but a permanent settlement was not made till the following year, when Oglethorpe established himself at what is now Savannah. The colony soon became involved in several contests with the Spaniards of Florida, who claimed the territory. In 1739 Oglethorpe invaded Florida, but without much success. In 1742 the Spaniards retaliated by invading Georgia; but they also effected nothing. The next noteworthy event in the history of the colony was a war with the Cherokees in 1761, which was terminated by their suing for peace, after their country had been laid waste. They were afterwards peaceable, and were removed to the Indian Territory in 1838. In the war of the Revolution Georgia warmly sided with the colonies, and, in consequence, suffered severely at the hands of the British, who overran the country, and captured Savannah, December 29, 1778. In the following year (October, 1779) the Americans and French attempted to retake it, but were repulsed with severe loss. In the civil war (1861-65), Georgia took an active part against the Union, and suffered severely in consequence. Atlanta was captured September 2, 1864, after which Gen. Sherman marched with his army through the State to the sea over an area extending from 20 to 60 miles in width, destroying railroad communication, etc., and ending with the capture of Savannah, December 20, 1864. This magnificent military movement effectually humbled the State, and in 1866 the President issued a proclamation declaring it no longer in a state of insurrection.

Gerasa, or Jerash. An ancient city of Syria, whose site is now marked by very extensive and magnificent ruins, situated about 35 miles east of the Jordan, at the eastern extremity of the land of Bashan, and on the borders of the great desert of Hauran. But little of its early history is known. In the time of the Antonines it had arrived at the height of its splendor and prosperity. It was taken by Alexander JannÆus in 85 B.C.; the Jews burned it at the commencement of their last war with the Romans; it was taken and plundered by Annius, the general of Vespasian, and in 1122 its castle was destroyed by Baldwin II. of Jerusalem.

Gerbe. An ornamental firework. See Pyrotechny.

Gerberoi. In Normandy, north of France. Here William the Conqueror was wounded in battle by his son Robert, who had joined the French king, Philip I., 1078.

Gerit (Fr.). A Turkish dart 2¹/₂ feet long.

Germany (Lat. Germania). The name given to a large portion of Central Europe, composed of a number of independent states united together, and forming the German empire. In the time of Julius CÆsar the Germans were the most formidable and warlike of all the European barbarians. They long withstood the attempts of the Romans to subdue them; and, although that people conquered some parts of the country, they were expelled before the close of the 3d century. In the 5th century the Huns and other tribes prevailed over the greater portion of Germany. In the latter part of the 8th century Charlemagne subdued the Saxons and other tribes, and was crowned emperor at Rome, December 25, 800. At the extinction of his family the empire became elective, 911, and was generally obtained by a member of the house of Hapsburg from 1437 to 1806, when the emperor Francis Joseph II. formally renounced the title of emperor of Germany, having assumed that of emperor of Austria two years previously. The Confederation of the Rhine was formed July 12, 1806; the Germanic Confederation, June 8, 1815; and the North German Confederation, August 18, 1866. In consequence of the success of the Prussian arms in the war with France (1870-71) the new empire of Germany was founded, and the king of Prussia declared emperor, January 18, 1871.

Germinal Insurrection. That of the faubourgs of Paris, suppressed on 12th Germinal, year III. (April 1, 1795).

Gerona. A strong town of Spain, in Catalonia, at the confluence of the OÑa and Ter, the latter of which flows through the town. It is built in the form of a triangle, at the foot of a steep mountain, and is surrounded by walls flanked with fortifications, and covered by a fort erected on a hill to the north of the town. It was besieged 28 times, and taken 5 times. In June, 1808, it successfully resisted the French, but after suffering much famine surrendered December 12, 1809.

Gesate, or Gessate (Fr.). Formerly a Gallic mercenary soldier, who volunteered his services beyond his native country. These adventurers, or knights-errant, were called gesates, either on account of the gese, or large dart, which they carried, or, as Polybius imagines, on account of the subsistence they received, which was called by that name.

Geserne. The Anglo-Norman term for battle-axe.

Geses and Materes. Were weapons adopted by the Allobroges (a body of ancient Gauls so called), independently of the broad cut-and-thrust sword which the Swiss still wear. These instruments were only one cubit long; half the blade was nearly square; but it terminated in a round point that was exceedingly sharp. Not only the Romans, but the Greeks received it into their armies. The former retained the full appellation and called it gese, but the latter corrupted it into ysse. This is the only weapon with which those soldiers were armed that escorted malefactors, who were condemned to death, to the place of execution. The term gese was also applied to a sort of a javelin.

Gestic. Pertaining to deeds or feats of arms; legendary.

Gettysburg. Capital of Adams Co., Pa., situated near the southern border of the State, 8 miles from “Mason and Dixon’s line.” Here three days’ severe fighting took place on July 1-3, 1863, between the invading Confederate army under Gens. Lee, Longstreet, and Ewell, and the Federals under Gen. George G. Meade.

On the morning of July 1, Maj-Gen. Reynolds, in command of the 1st Corps, advanced on the Emmittsburg road from Marsh Creek to Gettysburg, arriving about 10 o’clock A.M., and marched directly through the town, and soon after encountered a body of the enemy, which were driven back by Gen. Buford’s cavalry, which allowed the 1st Corps to form up in order of battle on a ridge northwest of the town, which sloped to the west into a little open valley. Beyond this valley was a ridge of higher land thickly wooded. Across this valley the line of Gen. Reynolds advanced somewhat hastily, almost before it was well formed, and soon encountered a heavy force of the enemy’s infantry, and was compelled to fall back, which it did in good order, and by a movement of its left centre against the enemy while falling back secured a large number of prisoners. The Confederate line being broken soon after, Gen. Reynolds again prepared to go forward. His line advanced as before, and drove the enemy from the valley and over the ridge at the farthest side, with a severe loss by the heavy fire of the foe. While reconnoitring on this ridge Gen. Reynolds was killed by a shot from the enemy. The 11th Corps now arrived and Gen. Howard took command of the whole field, Gen. Schurz commanding the 11th Corps. At about half-past 2 P.M. the enemy again advanced in force against the 1st Corps, which slowly fell back to its original position northwest of the town. The Confederate force advanced across the open space in line of battle, whilst their batteries shelled the position of the 1st Corps to cover the advance, but it met a fire so sharp and well served that it caused it to reel and fall back; the line was again formed and reinforced and once more advanced, but with no better success. By this time the line was increased by three more of the enemy’s divisions, and another charge was made by the whole force of the enemy. Their superior numbers enabled them to threaten both flanks of the Federal force, and notwithstanding a brave resistance the 1st Corps was compelled to fall back to the town. By this movement the 11th Corps was uncovered, and a heavy advance completely on its right flank compelled it to retire. The enemy advanced and took possession of the town, while the two corps of the Union troops fell back and occupied the west slope of the hill south of the town, held by Gen. Steinwehr. At dusk the 3d and 12th Corps arrived and next morning the 5th, making in all six corps, which were placed in position by Gen. Meade, the line stretching in a semicircle, having its convex centre toward Gettysburg, with the extreme toward the south and west. The heights on which they were posted sloped gently down from their front. The key of Gen. Meade’s position was Cemetery Hill, a little distance south of the town, and on the northern slope of which the town itself is situated. The enemy having been largely reinforced during the night were prepared to give battle on the morning of the 2d, having formed line on a ridge which ran nearly parallel to the extreme of that on which the Federal forces were formed, and separated from them by a valley varying in width from 1 to 2 miles.

On the ridge occupied by Gen. Meade 100 guns were in position facing the enemy, with reserve artillery in the rear about equidistant from the flanks. The enemy had nearly 150 guns in position. During the forenoon of the 2d no movement of importance took place, but about noon Gen. Lee ordered a general attack on the Federal centre and left. His movement being discovered by the Union commanders they were prepared, and the 3d Corps, commanded by Gen. Sickles, was advanced more to the left and front in order to be in a more commanding position to repel the Confederate attack. He had hardly got into position when the enemy attacked. Having bravely resisted their furious onslaught for about two hours, and not receiving the expected reinforcements, the 3d Corps was compelled to fall back to its previous position, when a most desperate assault was made upon it by Longstreet’s troops; but this part of the line being promptly strengthened it repulsed all the efforts of Longstreet, with great loss, however, on both sides. With the advance of Longstreet a part of the enemy advanced on the centre of the Union line, and meeting with stubborn resistance the battle grew fearful. The enemy pressed forward unrestrained. Gens. Sickles, Hancock, and Gibbon were wounded. The 1st and 2d Corps wavered and the enemy pressed up to the very guns of the batteries, which were exposed to capture; but the 6th Corps, although wearied with marching, hurried up with shouts to the support, and the enemy staggered and drifted slowly back, and being pushed on their left flank by a strong force of the Federals, they retired. At this time a desperate dash was made by the Confederates on the extreme right, which had been weakened to support the centre and left. For a short time the attack was furious, but the Federals being speedily supported the enemy were kept in check, and finally retired about 9 o’clock P.M., having lost the day in every quarter.

The battle commenced again on the morning of the 3d by an artillery fire from the Confederate lines, and an aggressive movement of the right of the Federal forces under Gen. Slocum to drive Gen. Ewell farther back. This attack met with a prompt response from the latter, but Gen. Slocum having been reinforced by part of the 3d and 5th Corps, the struggle was evenly contested for some time, when additional reinforcements having arrived, the tide of battle was turned in favor of the Union troops, causing the enemy to retire, and at 11 o’clock A.M. a general quiet prevailed. The movements of the morning against Gen. Meade thus far had been made to cover up the designs of the Confederates. The battle of the previous day had demonstrated that the issue of the struggle turned on the occupation of Cemetery Hill, the key of Gen. Meade’s position. To get possession of this spot was therefore the object of the enemy. Therefore Lee massed about 115 guns so as to subject the artillery on Cemetery Hill to more than a half circle of cross-fires. At about 1 o’clock P.M. the signal-gun was fired and the cannonading commenced. The fire of the enemy was concentrated on the position held by the 2d and 11th Corps. It drew a most terrific response from the Federal batteries, and as has been described by a spectator in the Confederate army, the almost simultaneous discharge of over 200 guns “made the air hideous with most discordant noise. The very earth shook, and the hills and rocks seemed to reel like a drunken man. For one hour and a half this most terrific fire was continued, during which time the shrieking of shell, the crash of fallen timbers, the fragments of rocks flying through the air, shattered from the cliffs by solid shot, the heavy muttering from the valley between the opposing armies, the splash of bursting shrapnel, and the fierce neighing of wounded artillery horses, made a picture terribly grand and sublime.” At the termination of the firing, the left of the Union line was assaulted twice, which were handsomely repulsed with severe loss to the Confederates. And thus ended the memorable battle of Gettysburg. The forenoon of the 4th was devoted to the burial of the dead, and in the afternoon the Confederate forces commenced to retreat, leaving the Federal forces in possession of the hard-fought field, which covered the Union troops with the highest honor and glory, but at a terrible sacrifice. During the three days the Confederate losses were 18,000 killed and wounded, and 13,000 missing, a large part of the latter prisoners; making a total of 31,000. The Union losses were 16,500 killed and wounded, and 6600 missing, chiefly prisoners captured on the first and second days, making a total loss of not less than 23,000—Extracts from D. Appleton’s “History of the Rebellion,” by Tenney, “Lippincott’s Gazetteer,” and “Haydn’s Dates.”

Ghaut, or GhÂt. A term in India signifying a pass through a range of hills; also a flight of stairs descending to the rivers for the accommodation of bathers, and as landing-places for boats.

Ghent (Fr. Gand). An ancient fortified city of Belgium, capital of East Flanders, situated at the confluence of the Lys and Scheldt. It commenced to acquire importance in the 12th century, when its fortifications were completed. In the 14th century, having revolted against the Duke of Burgundy, it was subdued after seven defeats, in some of which it suffered a fearful slaughter of its citizens. It again revolted against Charles V. in the 16th century, was again subdued, made to pay a heavy fine, and forced to pay for the erection of a citadel to keep it in subjection. The French became masters of Ghent in 1678, 1708, 1745, 1792, and again in 1795. The city was united to the kingdom of the Netherlands after the peace of Paris (1814), and is now a rich and populous city of Belgium. In this city on December 24, 1814, the terms of the treaty were agreed on, between the United States and British envoys, which put an end to the war of 1812-15.

Gheriah. A town of British India, in the presidency of Bombay. It was the principal post of Angria, a famous piratical prince, whose fort here was taken, and his whole fleet destroyed, by Admiral Watson and Col. Clive, in conjunction with the Mahrattas in 1756.

Ghizni, or Ghuznee. A fortified city of Afghanistan, built on a hill 7720 feet above the level of the sea, 90 miles from Cabul. It was the capital of a powerful empire of the same name, and is sometimes called the second Medina, from the great number of illustrious persons who have been interred there. The old town of Ghuznee was destroyed in the 12th century, and the modern one stands on a site about 3 miles from the ruins of the other. It was stormed and taken by Lord Keane in 1839. In 1842 the garrison surrendered to the Afghans, from whom, however, it was again taken in the same year by the British forces under Gen. Nott.

Ghoor, Ghore, or Ghour. A large district of Afghanistan. This was formerly one of the Persian governments; but in the 12th century its chiefs became independent, overturned the Ghiznian empire, and carried their arms as far as Benares. One of their slaves founded the Mohammedan kingdom of Delhi about 1206. This country was overrun in the 13th and 14th centuries by the armies of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane. Its capital is Ghoor, which was taken by the king of Kharezim, and was subsequently sacked by the armies of Genghis and Tamerlane, from which it has never recovered, and is now scarcely known.

Ghorchana. The irregular Sikh yeomanry who served in the wars in the Punjab between the Sikhs and the English.

Ghyretty. Cantonments 14 miles from Calcutta. It is a palace built by Mr. Dupleix, which the British took by force in 1797, and imprisoned the principal French colonists of Chandernagore there.

Giambeux. Greaves; armor for the legs, in ancient times. See Jambeux.

Giant Powder, or Dynamite. See Dynamite.

Giants, Battle of the. See Battle of the Giants.

Giberne (Fr.). A sort of bag in which the grenadiers held their hand-grenades. It was worn like a powder-flask.

Gibraltar. A fortified seaport town and garrison, occupying a promontory in the south of Spain, at the entrance from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean, 60 miles southeast from Cadiz. It consists of a high and rocky mountain running from north to south, about 3 miles in length, and three-fourths in width, its highest point being 1439 feet above the level of the sea. The “rock” was first fortified in the modern style in the reign of Charles V. It was surprised by the English under Sir George Booke in 1704, soon after the commencement of the War of the Spanish Succession, and it has been a British dependency ever since. It has been repeatedly besieged, and always without success,—first in 1720, next in 1727, and lastly in 1779, when it stood a siege of upwards of three years and a half, the French and Spaniards using their utmost endeavors to capture it; but every effort was bravely repulsed by the governor, Gen. Elliott.

Gibraltar of America. See Quebec.

Gib-staff. In England, a staff to gauge water, or to push a boat.

Gin. In military mechanics, is a machine for raising great weights: it is composed of three long legs, one of them being longer than the rest, and called the pry-pole. The other two are kept at a proper distance by means of two iron bars fixed on one of the legs by a staple passing through a hole at one end; the other end has a hook which enters into a staple fixed into the other leg so as to be taken off or put on at pleasure. At about 3 feet from the bottom is a windlass, upon which the cable is wound; and the three legs are joined together at the top by an iron bolt, about which they move; to this bolt is also fixed an iron clevis to which is hooked the blocks and fall. When the gin stands upright with legs at a proper distance, one end of the cable is fastened to a gun, mortar, or other weight; and the other passes through the pulleys and about the roller, which is turned round by means of hand-spikes passing through the holes in the end of the roller; whilst a man holds the cable tight, the gun is raised to the height required, so that the carriage may be put under it. The modern gin has a windlass with pawl and ratchet attachments. There are three different kinds of gins,—the field and siege, the garrison, and the casemate gins; and they only differ in their size and weight.

Gindi. Turkish horsemen, who perform extraordinary feats.

Gingals, Ginjauls, or Gingauls. Large muskets used in India by the natives, with a rest, somewhat similar to those invented by Marshal Vauban for the defense of forts.

Gingee. A strong town on the coast of Coromandel, once the capital of a kingdom of the same name, 85 miles from Madras. Towards the end of the 18th century, the Great Mogul unsuccessfully besieged this place for a period of three years. In 1750 it was taken by the French, who, in 1761, ceded it to the British.

Gionules (Fr.). Turkish volunteer cavalry, renowned for their bravery.

Girandole (Fr.). Any firework turning upon a wheel; a wheel whose circumference is studded with rockets.

Girandole (Fr.). In fortification, several chambers in mines connected for the defense of the place of arms of the covered way.

Girondists. An important party during the French revolution, principally composed of deputies from the Gironde. At first they were ardent republicans, but after the cruelties of August and September, 1792, they labored to restrain the cruelties of the Mountain party, to which they succumbed. Their leaders, Brissot, Vergniaud, and many others were guillotined October 31, 1793, at the instigation of Robespierre.

GironnÉ, or GyronnÉ. A term used in heraldry to indicate that the field is divided into six, eight, or more triangular portions of different trenches, the points of the triangles all meeting in the centre of the shield.

Gisarm. A scythe-shaped weapon, with a pike projecting from one side, formerly borne by foot-soldiers on the end of a long staff. It was used as late as the battle of Flodden. See Guisarme.

Gisors. A town of France, in the department of the Eure, 23 miles from Rouen. Here a battle took place October 10, 1198, between the French and English, in which the former were completely defeated. Richard I., who commanded the English, gave as the “parole,” or watch-word of the day, Dieu et mon droit (God and my right), and ever since the expression has been the motto to the royal arms of England.

Gistes. Pieces of wood which are made use of in the construction of platforms to batteries, and upon which the madriers or broad planks are placed.

Gitschin. A walled town of Bohemia, about 50 miles northeast of Prague. It was captured by the Prussians after a severe conflict with the Austrians, June 29, 1866. Near Gitschin, the same evening, the crown-prince of Prussia was victor in another engagement.

Giurgevo. A town and river-port of Wallachia, opposite Rustchuk, and about 40 miles southwest from Bucharest, of which it is the port. In 1773 the Turks were defeated here by the Russians, who took it in 1811, and again in 1829, when its defenses were leveled with the ground. In 1854 the Russians were defeated in its neighborhood by the Turks.

Givet. A fortified town of France, in the department of Ardennes, on the Belgian frontier. This place was fortified by Vauban; the chief defensive works are Charlemont, the citadel, and the forts Notre Dame and St. Hilaire.

Glabrio. A family name of the Acilia gens at Rome. The Acilii Glabriones were plebeian, and first appear on the consular annals in 191 B.C., from which time the name frequently occurs to a late period of the empire. M. Acilius Glabrio, the most distinguished of the family, became consul in 191 B.C. In that year Rome declared war against Antiochus the Great, king of Syria. Glabrio was sent against him, and with the aid of his ally, Philip II., king of Macedonia, he speedily reduced to obedience the whole district between the Cambunian mountain-chain and Mount Œta. Antiochus, alarmed at Glabrio’s progress, intrenched himself strongly at ThermopylÆ; but, although his Ætolian allies occupied the passes of Mount Œta, the Romans broke through his outposts, and cut to pieces or dispersed his army. Glabrio was engaged in the siege of Amphissa, when his successor, L. Cornelius Scipio, arrived from Rome and relieved him from command. He was unanimously granted a triumph on his return to Rome.

Glacis. A slope of earth, usually turfed, which inclines from the covered way towards the country. Its object is to bring assailants, as they approach, into a conspicuous line of fire from the parapet of the fortress, and also to mask the general works of the place.

Gladiators. Were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre and other places for the amusement of the Roman people. They are said to have been first exhibited by the Etruscans, and to have had their origin from the custom of killing slaves and captives at the funeral pyres of the deceased. The first exhibition of gladiators at Rome occurred in 264 B.C. They were at first confined to public funerals, but afterwards fought at the funerals of most persons of consequence. Combats of gladiators were also exhibited at entertainments. They consisted either of captives, slaves, and condemned malefactors, or of free-born citizens who fought voluntarily. But it was in the amphitheatre that the combats of gladiators most frequently took place. Notice of the exhibition being given beforehand, thousands flocked to witness the spectacle. When a gladiator was vanquished by his antagonist, his fate depended upon the people, who by a sign indicated whether they wished him to be put to death or saved. Shows of gladiators were abolished by Constantine, but appear, notwithstanding, to have been generally exhibited till the time of Honorius, by whom they were finally suppressed.

Gladsmuir. A parish in Scotland, in the county of Haddington, in which the battle of Gladsmuir, or Prestonpans, was fought.

Glaire. A broadsword or a falchion fixed on a pike.

Glais, Militaire (Fr.). A military compliment which was paid to the remains of a deceased general. It consisted in a discharge of ordnance. It also signifies the funeral procession of a sovereign.

Glaive. Sword; a large blade fixed on the end of a pole, whose edge was on the outside curve; a light lance with a long sharp-pointed head. Also a knight, fully armed, with his squire. A kind of sword worn by peers in France in full dress.

Glaize. A kind of halbert, so called by the Saxons.

Glanders. A contagious and very destructive disease of the mucous membrane in horses, characterized by a constant discharge of sticky matter from the nose and an enlargement and induration of the glands beneath and within the lower jaw.

Glarus. A canton in the northeast of Switzerland. In the earliest times Glarus was reckoned sometimes as a part of Rhoetia, sometimes as a part of Swabia, and was peopled by German settlers. After various changes it passed into the possession of the dukes of Austria, but ultimately secured its independence by the victories of Nafels in 1352 and 1388, when it joined the Swiss Confederation.

Glastonbury. A town of England, in Somersetshire, 25 miles from the city of Bath. It was anciently called Avalonia, or the Isle of Avalon, and no person whatever, not even a bishop or prince, was allowed to enter without leave from the abbot, to whom this power was granted by Canute the Dane. There were 61 abbots of Glastonbury, who sat among the barons in Parliament, and governed it successively for nearly 600 years. Richard Withing, the last, was condemned at Wells for refusing to surrender his abbey to King Henry VIII., and acknowledge his supremacy, and carried, with two of his monks, on a hurdle, to Tor Hill, a bleak hill close to the town, where he was hanged in his robes.

Glatz. A town of Prussia, capital of Glatz district; built on both sides of the Neisse, and is strongly fortified. This place surrendered to the Prussians in 1742, and was taken by the Austrians in 1759, but restored at the peace of 1763. It was taken by WÜrtemberg and Bavarian troops in 1807. The celebrated Baron Trenek was confined in its fortress, but made his escape by leaping from the walls.

Glave. See Glaive.

Glazing Powder. See Gunpowder.

Glencoe. A valley of Scotland, in Argyleshire, noted for the military execution of its unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, by a party of English soldiers, in 1692, in consequence of an order signed by William III. in council for that purpose, and issued contrary to the faith of a royal proclamation. Many of the inhabitants had been in arms for James II. during his attempts to recover the crown of England.

Glendale, Battle of. Also known as the battle of Frazier’s Farm, and White Oak Swamp, and Charles City Cross-roads, Virginia, one of the “seven days’ contests,” was fought June 30, 1862, between the Army of the Potomac under Gen. McClellan, on its retreat towards the James River, and the Confederate forces under Gen. Longstreet. The battle commenced in the afternoon, and continued with fury well into the night, the Confederate loss being about 2000 men, and the Union loss about 1500. By next morning McClellan had his whole army in position on Malvern Hill, and communication with the James River was secured.

Glissade (Fr.). A term formerly applied to the forward or backward movement of the pike.

Globe Sight. A form of front sight used specially on target rifles. It consists of a pin with a small ball on the end of it, or a disk with a hole in it. For protection it is set in a tube open at both ends.

Gloire (Fr.). An artificial firework which resembles a large sun.

Glorious Virgin, or St. Mary the Glorious, Order of the. An order of knighthood in Venice, founded by Bartholomew of Vicenza in 1262. This institution was ecclesiastical as well as military; its objects were the protection of widows and orphans, and the furtherance of the peace of Italy. The badge was a purple cross between certain stars, and the costume a white surcoat on a russet cloak. An order of knighthood of St. Mary the Glorious also existed in Rome in the 17th century, whose purpose was the suppression of the Barbary corsairs who infested the Mediterranean.

Glory, Military. Honor, reputation, and fame acquired by military achievements. That precarious splendor which plays around the brows of a warrior, and has been collected by hard service, extraordinary genius, and unblemished integrity; but which may desert the greatest hero through one unfortunate failure, occasioned by the fatality of human imperfection.

Gloucester. A city and the capital of a county of the same name in England. It became a Roman station under the name of Colonia Glevium, and an important town in Mercia under the Saxons, by whom it was called Glean-Ceaster,—whence its present name. Here the celebrated single combat between Edmund Ironsides and Canute is said to have taken place. It was repeatedly visited by William I.; afforded a refuge and support to Queen Matilda in her contest with Stephen; saw Henry III. crowned, and Parliaments held under Richard II. and Henry IV., and sided successfully with the Parliament in the civil war against Charles I.

Gloucestershire. A county of England, which, previous to the Roman invasion, was inhabited by a tribe called the Dobuni; and after that event, the county, or the greater part of it, was included in the province named Flavia CÆsarienes. From the earliest of the Danish invasions down to the battle of Tewkesbury, in 1471, and to the civil wars between the crown and Parliament, Gloucestershire has been the scene of many and disastrous encounters. There are traces of British, Saxon, and Danish works in the county.

Glove. A cover for the hand, or for the hand and wrist, with a separate sheath for each finger. To throw the glove, an old expression which formerly meant to challenge to single combat.

GlÜckstadt. A town of the German empire, capital of the duchy of Holstein, on the Elbe, 32 miles below Hamburg. It was founded in 1620 by Christian IV. of Denmark, and fortified. During the Thirty Years’ War, it successfully withstood three sieges; its fortifications were demolished in 1815.

Glycerine, Nitro-. See Explosives.

Glyoxiline. See Explosives.

Go. The verb “to go” is variously used in a military sense; as, to march in a hostile or warlike manner. To go off implies to depart from any post. To go on is to make an attack. To go over is to revolt. To go out, to go upon any expedition, etc. It was likewise frequently used to signify the act of fighting a duel; as, he went out with so and so.

Goa. A town of Hindostan, on the Malabar coast. It was formerly the capital of the Portuguese dominions in India. This place was taken by the Portuguese under Albuquerque in 1510; and by the English April 2, 1756.

Gobille (Fr.). A small copper ball, a quarter of an inch in diameter, several of which are put into a revolving cask for the purpose of more intimately incorporating the ingredients of powder, carcass, and rocket composition.

Gobisson, or Gambasson (Fr.). A quilted and padded dress worn under the habergeon.

Godesberg. A village of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the Rhine, 4 miles south of Bonn. In 1582, Gebhard, the deposed archbishop, took refuge here, and intrusted the castle to a Dutch garrison. It was, however, soon after taken possession of by his successor, on which occasion it sustained much injury. During the Thirty Years’ War it was alternately in the possession of the Swedes and the Imperialists, and was finally almost demolished by the French.

Godolo. A market-town in Hungary. It was near here that the combined armies of Austria under Prince WindischgrÄtz and Count Jellachich were defeated in two bloody battles by the Hungarians under GÖrgei. On the eve of victory, Governor Kossuth held a conference with the generals GÖrgei, Klapka, and Damjanich for laying down the principles of the famous declaration of independence, issued April 14, 1849. It was this declaration which served the emperor of Russia as a pretext for the invasion of Hungary.

Gohud. A fortified town of Hindostan, in the territory of Gwalior, or possessions of the Scindia family. This place was taken from Bheem Singh by the Mahrattas about 1761. When this nation lost the battle of Paniput, the rannah of Gohud attempted to shake off their yoke, but was conquered by Ragoonauth Row in 1766, and compelled to continue tributary. On a subsequent rupture Gohud was taken by Scindia in 1784. Relinquished to Scindia by a treaty with Great Britain subsequent to 1804.

Goito. A small town in Lombardy, 15 miles northwest from Mantua. In 1630 this place was carried by assault by the Imperialists, who entered Mantua on the same night, and took it by surprise. During the War of the Spanish Succession in 1701, it was alternately captured by the allies and the Imperialists; and in 1796 the French took it, but were expelled, after a brief tenure, by the Austrians. In 1814, a severe engagement took place here between the Austrian and Italian troops; and during the war of independence in 1848, it became the theatre of two other battles between the same powers, to which it owes its modern celebrity.

Goladar, or Goldar. An East Indian term signifying a store-keeper, or store-house keeper.

Golandaazee, or Golandauzee. The Indian term of an artilleryman.

Golconda. A town of Hindostan, strongly fortified by nature and art, standing on a hill 5 miles northwest from Hyderabad. It was once noted for its diamonds. Golconda was once the capital of an extensive kingdom which arose on the dissolution of the Bhamenee dynasty, and was governed by native Hindoo princes; but being taken by Aurungzebe by treachery in 1687, after a siege of seven months, the whole territory became incorporated with the empire of Delhi.

Goldberg. A town in Prussian Silesia, on an affluent of the Oder, 12 miles southwest from Liegnitz. The French were defeated by the Prussians near this place in 1813.

Gold Coast Corps. A corps in the British service formed of drilled Africans, and officered from the West India regiments. It is kept up for the purpose of protecting the possessions of Sierra Leone and Gambia.

Gold Stick. A title given to the captain of the gentlemen-at-arms, or body-guard of the British sovereign, and to colonels of the Life Guards. When either of the regiments of Life Guards is given to an officer, he is presented by the sovereign with the gold stick. The colonels of the two regiments are in attendance on the sovereign alternately month and month. The one thus on duty is called gold stick in waiting; and all orders relating to the Life Guards are transmitted through him. See Silver Stick.

Golden Fleece. A celebrated order of knighthood in Austria and Spain, founded by Philip III., duke of Burgundy and the Netherlands, at Bruges, January 10, 1429. The order was instituted for the protection of the Roman Catholic Church, and ranks next after the order of the Garter. The insignia of the Austrian order are a golden fleece hanging from a gold and blue enameled flint-stone emitting flame, and borne in its turn by a ray of fire. On the enameled obverse is inscribed Pretium laborum non vile. The Spanish decoration differs slightly from the Austrian.

Golden Horde. A name given to the Mongolian Tartars, who established an empire in what is now Southeast Russia about 1224, their ruler being Batou, grandson of Genghis Khan. They invaded Russia, and made Alexander Newski grand duke in 1252. At the battle of Bielawisch, in 1481, they were crushed by Ivan III. and the Nogay Tartars.

Gollette (Fr.). A shirt of mail formerly worn by foot-soldiers.

Gonfalon, or Gonfanon. An ensign or standard; colors.

Gonfalonier. A Turkish general and standard-keeper who always precedes the grand seignor during war.

Gong. An Indian and Chinese instrument of percussion, made of a mixture of metals, which produces a very loud, piercing sound on being struck by a wooden mallet. It is used by the Chinese as an instrument of martial music.

Gong Wallas. Militia in India; so called from gong, a village, and wallas, a man.

Goniometer. A general name for angle-measuring instruments.

Good-conduct Pay. Given in the British service as a stimulus to soldiers to conduct themselves with propriety. Soldiers who have not figured in the defaulters’ book are entitled to extra pay, which goes on increasing at intervals upon the same condition of “good conduct.” To mark the soldiers so distinguished, badges are given them in the form of rings of white lace, worn on the right arm. The receipt of good-conduct pay uninterruptedly for some years influences the amount of pension.

Goojerat. A village in the Punjab, India, the scene of the last stand made by the Sikh army against the British under Lord Gough, in 1849. In this action the Sikhs lost 53 guns, and their army of 60,000 men was entirely broken up and dispersed. The whole of the Punjab then fell under the British yoke.

Gordian Knot. It is said to have been made of the thongs that served as harness to the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, afterwards king of Phrygia. Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the oracle declared should be ruler of Persia. Alexander the Great cut away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a military sense at least, interpreted the oracle, 330 B.C.

Goree. A town and small island, or rather rock, off the coast of Africa, a little more than a mile from Cape Verd. This island was first occupied by the Dutch, and afterwards taken by the French, to whom it was finally ceded by the treaty of Nimeguen, 1678. It is now the bulwark of the possessions of the French in Africa. Goree was taken by the British in 1758, 1779, 1800, and 1804.

Gorey. A town in the southeast of Ireland. Near here the king’s troops under Col. Walpole were defeated, and their leader slain by the Irish rebels, June 4, 1798.

Gorge. The entrance into any piece of a fortification, which consists of the distance or space between the inner extremities of the two faces; as, between the faces of a half-moon, redoubt, bastion, redan, lunette, etc.

Gorge, Demi-. See Demi-gorge.

Gorge of a Bastion. In fortification, is usually an open space between the extremities of the flanks of the bastion. The larger this gorge is, the better is the defense; for when the ruined bastion is about to fall by siege into the hands of the enemy, the defenders can construct defensive works or dig small ditches in the gorge of the abandoned bastion. Such resistance sometimes drives the besiegers to the necessity of battering in breach the curtain.

Gorge of Mountains. Is the passage, more or less compressed, between two mountains, which is used as a passage-way into valleys. Gorges are important military points. If they lead to an intrenched camp, it is necessary to fortify them, and there post grand guards; these positions are the principal theatres for affairs of posts.

Gorged. In heraldry, when an animal is represented with a crown round its neck, it is said to be gorged.

Gorgerin (Fr.). In ancient times, that part of the armor which covered the neck of a man. Hence our word gorget.

Gorget (Ital. gorgietta, from gorga, a throat). That part of ancient armor which defended the neck. Also a crescent-shaped ornament formerly worn by military officers on the breast.

Gorgons. In military antiquity, a warlike female nation of Lybia, in Africa, who had frequent quarrels with another nation of the same sex, called Amazons.

Gothard, St. The pass of St. Gothard is one of the best and most frequented routes across the Alps. On the northern slope is the celebrated Devil’s Bridge across the Ruess. The French and Russians had several combats here in 1799.

Gothland. An island in the Baltic Sea. It was conquered by the Teutonic knights, 1397-98; given up to the Danes, 1524; to Sweden, 1645; conquered by the Danes, 1677, and restored to Sweden, 1679.

Goths. A warlike nation that inhabited the country between the Caspian, Pontus, Euxine, and Baltic Seas. They entered Moesia, took Philippopolis, massacring thousands of its inhabitants; defeated and killed the emperor Decius, 251; but were defeated by Claudius, 320,000 being slain. Aurelian ceded Dacia to them in 272; but they long troubled the empire. After the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained their dominion till 553, when they were finally conquered by Narses, Justinian’s general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a kingdom, which continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens.

Gotthard, St. Near the river Raab, Hungary. Here the Turks under the grand vizier Kupriuli were totally defeated by the Imperialists and their allies, commanded by Montecuculli, August 1, 1664. Peace followed this great victory.

Goudrons (Fr.). Small fascines, or fagots, which are well steeped in wax, pitch, and glue, and then are lighted for the purpose of setting fire to beams, planks, traverses, galleries, pontons, etc. They are likewise used in various shapes and ways, to convey light into the ditches, or upon the ramparts.

Goujat (Fr.). A soldier’s boy. It likewise signifies an ignorant, good-for-nothing fellow.

Gourdin (Fr.). A flat stick, two fingers in breadth, which was used by the French to punish galley-slaves.

Government. The Constitution of the United States provides that Congress shall make rules for the government and regulation of armies. By government is understood not only the body of fundamental laws of a state, but also the body of persons charged with the management of the executive power of a country; direction, power or authority which rules a community; administration; rule; management. Government of the military is that branch of the code which embraces the creation and regulation of the military hierarchy, or the gradual distribution of inferior authority. The power of making rules of government is that of supreme command, and from this living principle proceed the localization of troops, their organization and distribution; rules for rewards and punishments; and generally, all rules of government and regulation whatsoever, which the legislature may judge necessary to maintain an efficient and well-disciplined army. All authority over the land forces of the United States must, therefore, be derived from Congress. For, although the President is the commander-in-chief, yet his functions, as such, must be regulated by Congress, under the 17th clause of Sec. 8 of the Constitution, as well as under the general authority of Congress to make rules for the government and regulation of the land forces. The President cannot be divested of power which Congress may assign to any inferior military commander, because the authority of the greater includes that of the less. But all the authority over the land and naval forces, save the appointment of the commander-in-chief, rests with Congress, and no authority can be exercised not delegated by Congress, except such as may be fairly deduced from powers given for the effective discharge of the duties annexed to his office.

Government’s Island. See Rock Island.

Governor. An officer placed by royal commission in the military command of a fortress, not only over the garrison but over the inhabitants. In time of war it is an office of great responsibility, and at all times requires considerable experience and military information. Also, in the United States, one who is invested with supreme authority in a State.

Governor’s Island. An island in New York harbor, about a mile and a half south of the City Hall. It belongs to the United States, and is strongly fortified by Fort Columbus, Castle Williams, and a battery commanding the entrance to Buttermilk Channel, the channel which separates the island from Brooklyn. The ordnance department has a depot here. It is now the headquarters of the military division of the Atlantic.

Gowrie Conspiracy. One of the most singular events in the history of Scotland took place in August, 1600. John Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, and others entered into a conspiracy to possess themselves of the king’s (James VI.) person, to convey him to England and to administer the government in the interest of the Presbyterian leaders at home. They succeeded in enticing the king to the Gowrie House at Perth, and after they had held him as a prisoner were almost successful in dismissing his attendants without exciting suspicion; but the king crying out for assistance his voice was instantly recognized; his attendants hastened to the rescue, and quickly dispatched the earl and his brother Alexander.

Grade. Synonymous with rank; peculiarly applicable to the different ranks among officers, beginning from an ensign to the commander-in-chief of an army.

Gradivus. A surname of Mars (which see).

Grain. See Forage.

Grainoir, or GrÉnoir (Fr.). A term used in the French artillery to signify a sort of sieve, in which there are small round holes for moist powder to be passed through, in order to make the grains perfectly round.

Gran. A town of Hungary, on the right bank of the Danube, 25 miles northwest of Pesth. It is one of the oldest towns of Hungary, was formerly fortified, and has undergone assaults and sieges almost without number.

Granada. A city of Southern Spain, founded by the Moors in the 8th century. It formed at first part of the kingdom of Cordova. In 1236, Mohammed-al-Hamar made it the capital of his new kingdom of Granada, which was subjugated by the “great captain,” Gonsalvo de Cordova, in 1492. Granada was taken by Marshal Soult in 1810, and held till 1812.

Granada, New. The name formerly given to the republic now known as the United States of Colombia (which see).

Grand. This word is frequently used, both in French and English, to indicate superiority of position, force, or display; as grand master, grand army, grand march, grand parade, etc.

Grand Division. A battalion or regiment being told off by two companies to each division, is said to be told off in grand divisions; hence, grand-division firing is when the battalion fires by two companies at the same time, and is commanded by one officer only.

Grand Guard. The main guard of an army; the guard covering the army or camp from an attack by the enemy; other guards are called interior guards.

Grand Master. The title of the head of the military orders, the Hospitallers, the Templars, and the Teutonic knights.

Grand Master of Cross-bows. The personnel of the French artillery was for a long time prior to 1420 retained, together with the engineers, under the general direction of an officer who was titled “grand master of cross-bows.” In 1420 the master-general of artillery was made independent of this officer.

Grand Rounds. See Rounds.

Grand Tactics. See Tactics.

Granicus. A river in Northwestern Asia Minor, near which, on May 22, 334 B.C., Alexander the Great signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian troops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse) crossed the Granicus in the face of the Persian army (600,000 foot and 20,000 horse). Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken by storm, and other great towns submitted to the conqueror.

Granson, or Grandson. A town of Switzerland, canton of Valid, on the southwest shore of the Lake of NeufchÂtel, 20 miles north of Lausanne. Near it the Burgundians under Charles the Rash were defeated by the Swiss with great loss, March 8, 1476.

Granville. A fortified seaport of France, in the department of La Manche, on a rocky peninsula 12 miles northwest from Avranches. In 1695 this place was burned by the English, and in 1793 it was besieged by the Vendeans.

Grape-shot. A certain number of iron balls, usually nine, put together by means of two cast-iron plates, two rings, and one pin and nut. Each plate has on the inside three beds for the shot, of a depth equal to half the thickness of the plate and of the form of a spherical segment, the curvature of which is the same as that of the shot. An iron pin riveted to the bottom iron plate passes through the centre and also through the top plate, where the whole is secured by a nut and screw. In the United States the use of these shot for field-pieces has been discontinued, canister answering the purpose. (See Canister-shot.) In the old pattern, the balls were placed in tiers around an iron pin attached to an iron tampion at the bottom, put into a canvas bag, and then quilted around with a strong cord.

Grapple. To seize; to contend in close fight; to attach one’s self as if by a grapple, as in wrestling; hence to grapple with, to enter into contest with, resolutely and courageously.

Grappling. A laying fast hold of; also, that by which anything is seized and held.

Grasp. The handle of a sword, and of an oar. Also, the small part of the stock of a musket.

Grass-cutters. Followers of cavalry regiments in India, whose duty it is to go forth and collect green forage for the horses.

Grassin (Fr.). An ancient name for militia composed of light troops.

Gratification. In a general acceptation of the term, this word meant, among the French, certain rewards which generals gave to the troops, after a severe engagement, in testimony of their valor and good conduct. These rewards were distributed according to rank. This custom was prevalent in the most ancient times. By gratification was likewise meant the accumulation of a certain sum, which was deposited for the specific purpose of burying a deceased soldier. This term also meant a certain allowance in money allotted to prisoners of war.

Gratuity. An allowance to officers of the British service in the Indian army, varying with their rank. This and other allowances, such as batta, tentage, etc., had been granted for the purpose of augmenting an officer’s emoluments in India, without giving him a claim to a higher rate of net paper when on furlough in England. Gratuities are allowed to officers in the French service at the beginning of a campaign.

Gravelines. A small fortified town and seaport of France, in the department of Nord, 12 miles southwest of Dunkirk. Here Count d’Egmont obtained a victory over the French army commanded by Marshal de Thermes in 1558. Ten years later, it was taken by Louis XIV., who had it fortified by Vauban.

Gravelotte, Battle of. Also called the battle of RÉzonville, the bloodiest battle of the Franco-German war, took place August 18, 1870. It was gained by the German armies, commanded by the king in person, after twelve hours’ hard fighting. The most desperate struggle took place on the slopes over Gravelotte, which the Germans gained by nightfall, after repeated charges, the fortune of the day being long in suspense. But the right of the French had been outflanked, they fell back fighting to the last, and retired under cover of Metz. The French are said to have lost 19,000, including officers and men, besides a large number of prisoners; and the Germans, 25,000.

Graveurs (Fr.). Persons employed and paid by the founders of cannon for repairing damaged pieces of artillery. Some individual, however, was distinguished by the name of graveur de l’artillerie (engraver to the artillery), and was permitted by the grand master of the ordnance to exhibit over his shop door the arms of the royal artillery.

Gravimetric Density of Gunpowder. Is the weight of a measured quantity.

Gravity. Is the tendency of all bodies towards the centre of the earth. The force of gravity is in the inverse proportion to the square of the body’s distance from the centre of the earth. The specific gravity of a body is the ratio of the weight of a body to that of an equal volume of some other body assumed as a standard, usually pure distilled water at a certain temperature for solids and liquids, and air for gases.

Graze. The point at which a shot strikes and rebounds from earth or water. Grazing-fire, that which sweeps close to the surface it defends.

Great Britain. See Britain, Great.

Great-coat. A soldier’s overcoat is so called.

Great Fortification. One of the divisions of the first systems of Vauban. It consists in a fortification whose exterior side is from 185 to 260 toises, or from 370 to 520 yards, and is seldom adopted but towards a river or a marsh.

Great Radius. In fortification, the whole oblique radius.

Greaves. Were a kind of armor for the legs, worn both by the Greek and Roman soldiers; the latter having adopted them from the former. They were made of brass, copper, tin, or other metals. The sides were closed about the ankles with buttons of gold, silver, etc. This kind of defensive armor was at first peculiar to the Grecians. The Etruscans had them, apparently of rough hides, fastened behind by a single ligature near the middle of the calf; these subsequently gave way to buskins. Servius Tullius introduced the Etruscan greaves among the Romans; but from the time of the republic the word ochrea applied to the laced-up boots, which succeeded them.

Greece, or Hellas, Kingdom of. The ancient GrÆcia, a maritime country in the southeast of Europe. In the early ages the Greeks were governed by monarchs; but the monarchical power gradually decreased, and the love of liberty led to the establishment of the republican form of government. No part of Greece, except Macedonia, remained in the hands of an absolute sovereign. The expedition of the Argonauts first, and, in the succeeding age, the wars of Thebes and Troy, gave opportunity to their warriors, who afterwards ranked as heroes and demigods, to display their valor in the field of battle. The spirit of Greece, however, was crushed by the Romans; and in 1718 she became a Turkish province. In 1821 the ancient spirit seemed to have revived in the modern Greeks, and they determined to be free. The struggle was severe and protracted; but, by the interference of the great European powers, the Turks were forced to acknowledge Greece an independent state in 1829.

Greek Fire. A combustible composition (now unknown, but thought to have been principally naphtha), thrown from engines said to have been invented by Callinicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the 7th century, in order to destroy the Saracens’ ships, which was effected by the general of the fleet of Constantine, Pogonatus, and 30,000 men were killed. A so-called “Greek fire,” probably a solution of phosphorus in bisulphide of carbon, was employed at the siege of Charleston, U.S., in September, 1863. Greek fire, as now understood, is simply a solid, highly combustible composition, consisting of sulphur and phosphorus dissolved in the bisulphide of carbon, to which occasionally some mineral oil is added, with the view of increasing its incendiary powers. When the liquid is thrown on any surface exposed to the air the solvent evaporates, leaving a film of the phosphorus or sulphide of phosphorus, which then inflames spontaneously. The proper mode of extinguishing such a fire is to throw damp sand, ashes, sawdust, or lime, wet sacking or carpeting; in short, any material which will exclude the air from the fire. No attempt should be made to remove the covering for some time after the flame has been extinguished. The place should afterwards be thoroughly washed by a powerful jet of water forced upon it.

Greener’s Bullet. One of the first attempts to make a bullet take the grooves by the expanding action of the powder was by Mr. Greener, an English gunsmith, in 1836. He used a conical pewter wedge, which was driven into a cavity in the base of the bullet by the powder and forced the outer walls of the bullet into the grooves.

Grenada. An island in the West Indies belonging to the Windward group. It was discovered by Columbus in the year 1498. It was originally settled by the French, but was taken by the British in 1762, to whom it was confirmed by the peace of Paris in 1763.

Grenade. In gunnery, is a shell thrown from the hand, or in barrels from mortars of large caliber, and ignited as other shells by means of a fuze. There are hand-grenades and rampart-grenades; old 6-pounder spherical-case may be used for the former, and shells of any caliber for the latter. Grenades are useful in the defense of works, the smaller, thrown by hand into the head of a sap, trenches, covered way, or upon the besiegers mounting a breach; the larger kinds are rolled over the parapet in a trough. Hand-grenades are intended to be used against the enemy when he has reached such parts of the defenses (the bottom of the ditch for example) as are not covered by the guns, or the muskets of the infantry posted on the banquettes. After the enemy has passed the abatis and jumped into the ditch, hand-grenades will be used; and then if he mounts the parapet, he must be met there with the bayonet. Ketchum’s hand-grenade is a small oblong percussion shell which explodes on striking the object.

Grenadier. Originally a soldier who was employed in throwing hand-grenades, but in some modern armies a member of the first company of every battalion of foot, in which the tallest and finest men of the regiment are placed.

Grenadier Guards. The first regiment of foot guards in the British Household Brigade of Guards, and generally considered the finest corps in the army. It comprises 2697 officers and men, divided into three battalions. The officers of this fashionable corps are usually from the families of the nobility, or more distinguished landed gentry. The 1st Foot Guards, under which name the regiment was originally known, was first raised in 1660. The Grenadier Guards distinguished themselves in the Peninsula, at Waterloo, and in the Crimea.

Grenadiers Auxiliaries (Fr.). Auxiliary grenadiers. During a siege, and when a place was closely invested, a certain number of grenadiers were chosen out of the battalions belonging to the trenches, for the purpose of making head against the besieged, whenever they might risk a sally, or assault the works. It was the peculiar duty of these men to stand forward on every occasion, to set fire to the gabions attached to the batteries, and to crush every attempt which might be made by the garrison to annoy the men that were posted in the trenches, etc.

Grenadiers, Horse. Called by the French grenadiers volans, or flying grenadiers, are such as are mounted on horseback, but fight both on foot and on horseback. They were first established in France by Louis XIV. in 1676, and formed in squadrons.

Grenado. The ancient term for a live shell.

Grenoble. A fortified town of France, in the department of the IsÈre. The town is surrounded with fortifications, and the heights which command the town are also fortified. This was the first place which openly received Napoleon I. on his escape from Elba, in 1815.

Gribeauval’s System of Artillery. About 1765 various improvements were introduced into European artillery by Gen. Gribeauval. He separated field from siege artillery, lightened and shortened field-guns and diminished the charges. He adopted elevating screws and tangent scales, strengthened the carriages, and introduced neater uniformity in the dimensions, enabling spare parts to be carried for repairs.

Grices. In heraldry, are young wild boars.

Griffe (Fr.). Means literally a claw; but in a military sense, as accepted by the French, it signifies an iron instrument which is made like a hook, and is used by miners to pick out the small stones that are incorporated with cement, etc.

Griffin. A fabulous animal, usually represented in heraldry with the body and hind legs of a lion, and the beak, wings, and claws of an eagle.

Griffin Gun. A name sometimes given to the 3-inch rifle used in the U.S. field service from its inventor, Mr. Griffin, of the Phoenixville Iron-Works, Pa., where the gun was made.

Grip. The handle of a sword.

Grisons. The largest of all the cantons of Switzerland. The country was anciently inhabited by the RhÆtii; it was conquered by the Roman emperor Constantius in the 4th century, and his camp (Curia, Chur, or Coire, the name of the present capital) was planted on the Rhine. In the 10th century the country of the Grisons was added to the German empire, and remained till 1268 subject to the Swabian dukes. With the decay of the imperial authority it came to be oppressed by a numerous nobility, the ruins of whose castles still crown the heights. Against them the people began, in the end of the 14th century, to form leagues in the different valleys. In 1472, these separate unions entered into a general confederation, which then formed an alliance with the Swiss cantons, but it was not till 1803 that it was admitted into the Swiss Confederation as the fifteenth canton. Grisons was overrun by the French in 1798 and 1799.

Grochow. Near Prague, a suburb of Warsaw. Here took place a desperate conflict between the Poles and Russians, February 19-20, 1831, the former remaining masters of the field of battle. The Russians shortly after retreated, having been foiled in their attempt to take Warsaw. They are said to have lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000.

Grognard (Fr.). Grumbler; an old soldier of the French empire was so called.

Groma (Fr.). A Roman measuring-rod, 20 feet long, used for setting off distances in a camp.

Grommet. Consists of a ring of rope-yarn, with two pieces of strong twine tied across at right angles to each other. Grommets are used as wads for cannon. The size of the ring is the full diameter of the bore of the piece, in order that it may fit tight, and stop the windage. They increase the accuracy of fire, and are to be preferred when the object of the wad is merely to retain the projectile in its place, as in firing at a depression. They stop the windage best when placed behind the projectile.

Groom. One of several officers of the English royal household, chiefly in the lord chamberlain’s department; as the groom of the chamber; groom of the stole, or robes.

Groom-porter. An officer in the household of the king of England, who succeeded the master of revels, and gave directions as to sports.

Grooved Ball. See Projectile.

Grooved Bullet. See Bullet.

Grooves. Spiral grooves or “rifles” cut into the surface of the bore of fire-arms, have the effect of communicating a rotary motion to a projectile around an axis coincident with its flight. This motion increases the range of the projectile, and also corrects one of the causes of deviation by distributing it uniformly around the line of flight. There are two kinds of twist used,—uniform and increasing. Increasing twists are supposed to give greater accuracy, and are well adapted to expanding projectiles which have but short bearing in the grooves. They are also used for stud projectiles. The uniform twist is generally applicable and has many advantages. In small-arms at the present time the bullet used has such a long bearing in the grooves that an increasing twist is not desirable. The ordinary twist is right-handed, giving a drift to the right. The gras, the official arm of France, has a left-handed twist. In regard to number and form of grooves authorities differ. The polygroove (or many small grooves) system has given very accurate results, especially in breech-loading cannon. It is in great favor on the continent of Europe. The French system, also used in a modified form in Woolwich and Elswick guns, consists of a few deep grooves in which the studs of the projectile move. The objection to this system is the weakening of the gun and the great strain when fired. For expanding projectiles, experiment shows that broad and shallow grooves with a moderate twist give range, endurance, accuracy of fire, and facility in loading and cleaning the bores. The proper twist to be given to the grooves depends on the length, diameter, and initial velocity of the projectile used; the most suitable twist is best determined by experiment. Other things being equal, the longer the projectile the more rapid the rotation necessary to steady it; the greater the diameter the less rapid the rotation. As the initial velocity is increased, the rotation must be increased. The farther forward the centre of inertia of the projectile, the less the tendency to tumble. The tendency in modern small-arms is to shorten the twist on account of large charges and long bullets. Grooved bullets are best suited to broad shallow grooves; patched bullets to a greater number of sharp-edged grooves.

Gros (Fr.). A body of soldiers; a detachment. The French frequently say, Un gros de cavalerie, a body of cavalry; un gros d’infanterie, a body of infantry.

Gros Ventres Indians. A tribe of aborigines living in Dakota and Montana. They received their name Gros Ventres, “Big Bellies,” from the Canadian voyageurs of the Hudson Bay Company. They are peaceably disposed, and are mostly located at Fort Berthold agency, Dakota, and at Fort Peck, Montana. See Indians and their Agencies.

Groton. A village of New London Co., Conn., on the east side of Thames River, opposite New London. It is famous as being the scene of the massacre perpetrated by British troops under Arnold. Old Fort Griswold, commanded by the brave Ledyard, who was barbarously slain with his own sword after he had surrendered, is still standing on Groton Heights; and a granite obelisk has been erected to commemorate the patriotism of those who perished.

Ground. In a military sense, the field or place of action. To take ground; a battalion or company is said to take ground when it extends in any given direction. This term is likewise used in dueling; as, they took their ground at eight or ten paces from each other.

Ground Arms. An old word of command, on which the soldiers laid down their arms upon the ground.

Ground-work. See Foundation.

Grynia, or Grynium. A very ancient fortified city on the coast of the Sinus Elaiticus, in the south of Mysia. Parmenio, the general of Alexander, destroyed the city and sold the inhabitants as slaves, after which the place seems to have decayed.

Guadaloupe. An island in the West Indies, and one of the largest and most valuable of the Leeward group. This island was first discovered by Columbus. It was taken possession of by the French in 1635, who drove the natives into the mountains. In 1759 it was taken by a British squadron, and was restored to France at the peace of 1763. It was again taken by the British in 1794; but was retaken by the French in 1795. In 1810 the British once more took possession of it, and in 1814 restored it to the French, to whom it now belongs.

Guad-el-ras. In Northwestern Africa. Here the Spaniards signally defeated the Moors, March 23, 1860, after a severe conflict, in which Gen. Prim manifested great bravery, for which he was ennobled.

Guanches. The original inhabitants of the Canary Islands, who were supposed to have come from the adjoining coast of Africa. In the 15th century many of these people fell in opposing the Spanish invasion; many were sold by the conquerors as slaves, and many conformed to the Roman Catholic faith, and intermarried with the Spaniards; so that all trace of them as a distinct race is lost. They were celebrated for their tall stature, and were styled by Humboldt the Patagonians of the Old World.

Guarantee Association, The British. An association which, for a small percentage, undertakes to vouch for the prudence and fidelity of such public officers (military) as paymasters, ordnance store-keepers, commissaries, staff-officers of pensions, barrack-masters, etc. The government accepts the guarantee of this particular office in preference to that offered by private individuals.

Guard. A body of men whose duty it is to secure an army or place from being surprised by an enemy. In garrison the guards are relieved every day. On guard is being engaged on guard duty.

Guard, Advanced. See Advanced Guard.

Guard, Baggage. A guard who has the care of the baggage on a march.

Guard-chamber. A guard-room.

Guard, Counter-. See Counter-guards.

Guard, Detail. The men from a company, regiment, or other organization detailed for guard duty.

Guard, Dismounting. The act of coming off guard.

Guard, Forage. A detachment sent out to secure foragers. They are posted at all places where either the enemy’s party may come to disturb the foragers, or where they may be spread too near the enemy, so as to be in danger of being taken. This guard consists both of horse and foot, who must remain on their posts till the foragers are all come off the ground.

Guard, Grand. The main guard of a camp or army. See Grand Guard.

Guard-house. A building occupied by the guard. The prisoners being kept in the building, it is frequently used as a synonym for prison-room or lock-up. To take one to the guard-house, is to confine him.

Guard, Magazine-. See Gardes-magazine.

Guard, Main. Is that from which all other guards are detached, and constitutes the chief guard of a garrison.

Guard Mess. Is the table which is kept for the officers of the Life and Foot Guards in St. James’ Palace. The sum of £4000 per annum is allowed for the mess.

Guard Mounting. The act of going on guard. The military ceremony of marching on guard.

Guard of Honor. A guard drawn up to receive eminent personages, as a mark of respect, or to accompany them.

Guard, Picket. An outpost guard for the purpose of preventing a surprise.

Guard, Police. The interior guard of a camp or army in charge of arms, property, tents, etc. Also a guard in charge of prisoners engaged in policing a camp or garrison.

Guard, Provost-. See Provost-guard.

Guard, Quarter. The guard which is posted in front of a camp.

Guard, Rear-. The guard posted in rear of a camp. It also means the body of troops which, when troops are on the march, bring up the rear, and hold a pursuing enemy in check.

Guard Report. The report which the non-commissioned officer or officer in charge of the guard sends in on dismounting. It contains a statement of duties performed, of hours at which the guard was visited by the officer of the day or field-officer, a list of government property and its condition, and also of the prisoners handed over to the guard, with the charge against each, together with the name of the officer by whom the prisoner was confined.

Guard Tent. Tent occupied by the guard.

Guardable. Capable of being guarded or protected.

Guardiagrele. An old town of Southern Italy, in the province of Chieti. Belisarius surrounded it with a turreted wall as a defense against the Goths. It was often besieged during the Middle Ages, and in 1799 was mercilessly sacked and burned by the French.

Guards. In the British service constitute in time of peace the garrison of London, and the guard of the sovereign at Windsor. The Guards compose what is called the Household Brigade, and include in cavalry the 1st and 2d Life Guards, and the Royal Horse Guards; and in infantry the Grenadier Guards, the Coldstream Guards, and the Scots Fusilier Guards. The officers of the regiments of Foot Guards hold higher army rank than that they bear regimentally,—that is, ensigns rank with lieutenants of other regiments, lieutenants with captains, and so on.

Guards, Imperial. The name of a body of select troops organized by the French emperor, Napoleon I., which greatly distinguished themselves at Austerlitz.

Guards’ Institute. An establishment in London; it consists of reading-, lecture-rooms, etc., for all officers and soldiers in the metropolis. It was inaugurated by the Duke of Cambridge, July 11, 1867.

Guards, The Horse Grenadier. Formerly a body of horse guards in the British service; the first troop was raised in 1693, and the second in 1702. This corps was reduced in 1783, the officers retiring on full pay.

Guastadours (Fr.). Turkish pioneers. Armenians and Greeks are generally employed in the Turkish armies to do the fatigue-work that is necessary for the formation of a camp, or for conducting a siege.

Guastalla. A city in Northern Italy, near which the imperial army, commanded by the king of Sardinia, was defeated by the French, September 19, 1734. The ancient district of that name, long held by the dukes of Mantua, was seized by the emperor of Germany, 1746, and ceded to Parma, 1748. After having been comprised in the Italian republic, 1796, and subjected to other changes, it was annexed to Parma, 1815, and to Modena, 1847.

Guatemala. A republic in Central America, declared independent March 21, 1847. A war between Guatemala and San Salvador broke out in January, 1863, and on June 16 the troops of the latter were totally defeated.

Guatuso Indians. A tribe of aborigines living on the Rio Frio, in Central America. They are said to be a brave and warlike race.

Gubbio (anc. Iguvium). A city of Central Italy, 27 miles south of Urbino, on the southern declivity of the Apennines. It bore a conspicuous part in the beginning of the civil war between CÆsar and Pompey, when it was occupied by the prÆtor Minucius Thermus with five cohorts; but on the approach of Curio with three cohorts, Thermus, who was apprehensive of a revolt of the citizens, abandoned the town without resistance.

Gudda. An Indian term for a fool; also a small fort erected upon a hill or eminence.

Guelphs and Ghibellines. Names given to the papal and imperial factions who destroyed the peace of Italy from the 12th to the end of the 15th century (the invasion of Charles VIII. of France in 1495). The origin of the names is ascribed to the contest for the imperial crown between Conrad of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, lord of Wiblingen (hence Ghibelin), and Henry, nephew of Wolf, or Guelf, duke of Bavaria, in 1138. The former was successful; but the popes and several Italian cities took the side of his rival. Hie Guelf and Hie Ghibelin are said to have been used as war-cries in 1140, at the battle before Weinsberg, in WÜrtemberg, when Guelf of Bavaria was defeated by the emperor Conrad IV., who came to help the rival duke, Leopold. The Ghibellines were almost totally expelled from Italy in 1267, when Conrad, the last of the Hohenstaufens, was beheaded by Charles of Anjou. Guelph is the name of the present royal family of England.

Guelphs, Order of. An order of knighthood for Hanover, instituted by George IV., when regent, on August 12, 1815. It is both a military and civil order, unlimited in number, and consisted originally of three classes,—Knights Grand Cross, Commanders, and Knights; but in 1841 another class of simple members was added to the order.

Guerite (Fr.). A sentry-box, small turret. In fortified towns there are several small turrets of this denomination, which are sometimes made of wood, and sometimes built with stones. They are generally fixed to the acute points of bastions, and sentinels are posted within them for the purpose of watching the ditch, and of preventing any surprise in that quarter.

Guerre (Fr.). War; warfare; art of war; dissension; strife. En guerre, at war; in action; ready for action; a piece of ordnance unlimbered, trunnions shifted, and everything made ready for firing.

Guerrillas (Sp. guÉrra, “war”). The name given to armed bands, who on occasion of foreign invasion or civil wars, carry on an irregular warfare on their own account. The name was first applied in Spain to irregular soldiery. From 1808 to 1814 they were regularly organized against the French, and being favored by the character of the country which they fought in, were successful on many occasions. In our late civil war many bands were organized in the Border States, and were a great annoyance to both armies. If guerrillas are taken captive in open warfare, they should be treated according to the usual customs of war, unless they are known to have been guilty of acts not tolerated in civilized warfare. In the Franco-German war, however, we find that the Germans refused to recognize as soldiers, or extend the privileges of war, to the francs-tireurs, a body of French volunteer sharpshooters, who, to a great extent, adopted this system of guerrilla warfare.

Guerrillero (Sp.). An irregular soldier; a member of a guerrilla band or party; a partisan.

Guet (Fr.). This term was particularly attached to those persons belonging to the French body-guard, who did duty during the night. It also signified rounds, or those duties of a soldier, or patroling party, which are prescribed for the security of a town, etc., and to prevent surprises. It is also used in a military sense in conjunction with other words; as guet À pied, foot patrol; guet À cheval, horse patrol, etc.

Gueux (Fr.). “Beggars.” A name applied by the Count of Barlaimont in 1566 to the confederated nobles and others of the Low Countries who opposed the tyrannies of Philip II. The malcontents at once adopted the title, and calling themselves gueux, for many years opposed the Spanish king by sea and land with varying success.

Guichet (Fr.). A small door or outlet, which is made in the gates of fortified towns. It is generally 4 feet high, and 2 broad, so that a man must stoop to get through. In garrison towns the guichet was left open for the space of one-quarter of an hour after the retreat, in order to give the inhabitants time to enter.

Guides. Generally the country people in the neighborhood where an army encamps. They give intelligence concerning the country, and the roads by which the enemy may approach. In time of war, particularly in the seat of it, the guides invariably accompany headquarters. Of late years it has been customary to form them into regular corps with proper officers at their head.

Guides. The name given to the non-commissioned officers, or other enlisted men, who take positions to mark the pivots, marches, formations, and alignments in modern discipline; the French call them jaloneurs, from jalon, a post.

Guides, Corps des (Fr.). The corps of guides. This body was originally formed in France in 1756, and consisted of 1 captain, 1 first lieutenant, 2 second lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 2 corporals, 1 anspessade, and 20 privates, called fusiliers-guides. Another corps of guides was also formed in 1796. This corps now forms part of the imperial guard.

Guidon. A small flag or streamer, as that carried by cavalry, which is broad at one end, nearly pointed at the other, and usually of silk; or that used to direct the movements of infantry, or to make signals at sea. In the U.S. service, each company of cavalry has a guidon.

Guidon. One who carries a flag. Also, one of a community of guides established at Rome by Charlemagne to accompany pilgrims to the Holy Land.

Guienne, or Guyenne. An old province in the southwest of France, lying to the north of Gascony. It was part of the dominions of Henry II. Philip of France seized it in 1293, which led to war. It was alternately held by England and France till 1453, when John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, in vain attempted to take it from the latter.

Guilford Court-house was situated about 5 miles northwest of Greensboro’, N. C. Here an engagement took place between the British troops under Cornwallis, and the American forces, chiefly composed of inexperienced militia, under Gen. Greene, on March 15, 1781. The fight resulted in a partial victory for the royal troops, owing principally to the disorganization and flight of the North Carolina militia. Gen. Greene, not wishing to risk the annihilation of his army, retreated to Speedwell’s iron-works, 10 miles distant. Cornwallis, however, did not attempt to pursue him, but fell back himself to Cross Creek (Fayetteville).

Guillotine. The instrument of decapitation introduced during the French revolution by the Convention, and named after its supposed inventor, J. I. Guillotin. It is composed of two upright posts, grooved on the inside, and connected on the top by a cross-beam. In these grooves a sharp iron blade, placed obliquely, descends by its own weight on the neck of the victim, who is bound to a board laid below. The invention of machines of this kind is ascribed to the Persians. In Italy, from the 13th century, it was the privilege of the nobles to be put to death by a machine of this kind, which was called mannaia. Machines of similar kind were used in Scotland and Holland for the purpose of decapitation.

Guinegate, Battle of. Or more familiarly, the “Battle of the Spurs,” was fought at Guinegate, not far from Tournai, in the province of Hainault, August 16, 1513, between the English under Henry VIII., assisted by a considerable body of troops headed by the emperor Maximilian, and the French under the Duc de Longueville. The latter were defeated. The battle received its familiar designation from the circumstance of the French knights having made better use of their spurs than of their swords.

Guisarme, or Gisarme (Fr.). An offensive weapon formerly used in France; it was a two-edged axe mounted upon a long handle, and sometimes called voulque. There were three kinds; the glaive gisarme had a sabre-blade with a spike, the bill gisarme a blade like a hedging-bill, and the hand gisarme was a kind of bill with a serrated back.

Guisarmiers (Fr.). Were French foot-soldiers (piÉtons) of the free archers, armed with the guisarme.

Gujerat, or Guzerat. A walled town of the Punjab, on the right side of the Chenab, about 8 miles from the stream. It is a place of some military importance, being on the great route between Attock and Lahore. Here on February 21, 1849, a Sikh army of 60,000 men was utterly defeated by a British force decidedly inferior in point of numbers.

Gules. The term by which the color red is known in heraldry. In engraving it is marked by perpendicular lines traced from the top of the shield to the bottom. It is supposed to indicate valor, magnanimity, and the like, and is regarded as the most honorable heraldic color.

Gun. In its most general sense, a gun is a machine, having the general shape of a hollow cylinder closed at one end, and used for the purpose of projecting heavy bodies to great distances by means of gunpowder. Technically, it is a heavy cannon, distinguished by its great weight, length, and absence of a chamber. It is used for throwing projectiles with large charges of powder to long distances, with great accuracy and penetration. Guns came into use in the 14th century, and were first fired from supports, and in reality were artillery. Shortly after, they took the form of a clumsy hand-gun, called an arquebuse, which was portable, but discharged from a forked rest. The next modification, which came into use about the end of the 14th century, was called the matchlock. The piece was discharged by a lighted match brought down on the powder-pan by the action of a trigger. This was superseded in 1517 by the wheel-lock, the fire being produced by the action of a toothed wheel upon flint or iron pyrites. Almost contemporary with this was the snaphance gun, in which sparks were generated by the concussion of flint on the ribbed top of the powder-pan. About the middle of the 17th century the flint-lock began to be employed. This was a combination of the two latter weapons, but much superior to either. It continued universally in use until the early part of the present century, when the percussion-lock was invented, which by 1840 (the time of its adoption by the British government), had completely superseded it. As the lock improved, and the rapidity of firing increased, the weight of the piece diminished; the old tripod first used as a rest gave way to one stake, and finally, in the 18th century, was abandoned altogether. The weapon was then the smooth-bore musket, which continued in use with various modifications until the middle of the 19th century, when it was partially superseded by the rifle. (See Small-arms.) In their earlier stages cannon went by various names, as bombards, culverins, petronels, and later on were reduced to the three denominations, technically, of guns, howitzers, and mortars. For the two latter, see Howitzer and Mortar. Guns are subdivided in the U.S. service according to their use, into field, siege, and sea-coast guns. The field-guns consist of two rifle pieces; the 3-inch rifle, adopted in 1861, and the 3¹/₂-inch rifle, adopted in 1870 (see Ordnance, Construction of), and the Napoleon gun, a 12-pounder smooth-bore, adopted in 1857. (See Napoleon Gun.) The only siege gun adopted by the United States is a 4¹/₂-inch rifle. The 30-pounder Parrott, so extensively employed in our service for siege purposes, is not a regulation gun. The sea-coast guns consist of 13-, 15-, and 20-inch smooth-bores, and 10- and 12-inch rifles. An 8-inch rifle has been constructed by converting the 10-inch smooth-bore according to the Palliser or Parsons method. The 13-inch smooth-bore and the 10- and 12-inch rifles are regarded as experimental guns. The guns principally in use for the land and sea forces of the United States are those known as the Columbiad, or Rodman, Dahlgren, Gatling, Hotchkiss, Napoleon, Parrott. (For particular descriptions, see appropriate headings.) In the British service they are the Armstrong, Palliser, Woolwich, or Fraser, and the Lancaster, Mackay, and Whitworth; the three latter being now very little used. (See appropriate headings.) The only breech-loader in general use in Europe is the Krupp, which is largely employed for all purposes by Germany and Russia. See Krupp Gun.

Gun, Curricle. Is a small piece of ordnance, mounted upon a carriage of two wheels, and drawn by two horses. The artilleryman is seated on a box, and the whole can be moved forward into action with astonishing rapidity. The tumbrils belonging to curricle guns carry 60 rounds of ball cartridges. This gun is no longer in general use.

Gun Factories, Royal. Are government establishments in England, at Woolwich, and Elswick, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, for the construction of great guns for the use of the British army and navy.

Gun-barrel. The barrel or tube of a gun. Gun-barrels were formerly made on the coiled principle, and this method is still largely followed in thin barrels like those of shot-guns. The superior kinds of shot-gun barrels are known as stub, stub-twist, wire-twist, laminated, etc.

Stub-iron is made from horseshoe nails cleaned by tumbling and mixed with a small proportion of steel scrap. It is then puddled and put through various processes, which end in the production of a flat bar called a skelp.

Twist is the term applied to coiled barrels. The iron or steel is made into a ribbon, which is wound spirally around a mandrel and welded.

Stub-twist is stub-iron coiled.

Wire-twist is made by welding iron and steel bars together, or two qualities of iron, and drawing the compound bar into a ribbon, which is coiled as before described. The term is specially applied to coiled barrels made from small ribbons.

Damascus iron is made by twisting compound bars of steel and iron, welding several of the twisted bars together and forming a ribbon from the mass.

Laminated is the term applied to barrels made from compound bars.

In twist-barrels, the ribbon is several yards long, about half an inch wide, and thicker at the breech than at the muzzle end. It is heated to redness, wound on the mandrel, then removed and heated to the welding-point slipped over a rod with a shoulder at the lower end. The rod is then dropped vertically several times on a block of metal, which welds the spiral edges together. This is called jumping. The welding is completed by hammering.

Rifle-barrels and the cheaper kinds of shot-gun barrels are made directly from the skelp, which is passed between rollers, which first bend the plate longitudinally and afterwards convert it into a tube. The tube is then heated to a welding heat, a mandrel is pushed into it, and it is passed through the welding rolls, which weld the edges and at the same time taper and lengthen the tube. The boring and turning are done in lathes.

Gun-carriage. See Carriage.

Gun-carriage, Barbette. See Barbette Carriage.

Gun-carriage, Field. See Field-carriage.

Gun-carriage, Flank Casemate. See Flank Casemate Carriage.

Gun-carriage, Mountain. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Gun-carriage, Prairie. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Gun-carriage, Sea-coast. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Gun-carriage, Siege. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Gun-cotton, or Pyroxyle. Gun-cotton was discovered by SchÖnbein in 1846, and was first made by treating ordinary cotton with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. The product resembles ordinary cotton in appearance, but in color is slightly tinged with yellow, and is very much heavier. It explodes with great violence, but is unfit for most military purposes on account of its liability to spontaneous explosion, its corroding residue, and the irregular character of its explosion. Baron von Lenk, of the Austrian service, however, succeeded to some extent in regulating the suddenness of the explosion by twisting it into ropes, and weaving it into cloth, but it never came much into favor for military purposes. As first made, the length of time necessary for its manufacture was about two or three months, but Mr. Abel, of the British war office, has by a series of experiments materially decreased the time necessary for its manufacture, and greatly increased the safety and certainty of the product. At Favesham the manufacture of a peculiar kind of gun-cotton, known as tonite, is conducted on a large scale. The process consists in intimately mixing the ordinary gun-cotton with about an equal weight of nitrate of baryta. This compound is then compressed into candle-shaped cartridges, formed with a recess at one end for the reception of a fulminate of mercury detonator. It contrasts favorably with soft, plastic dynamite from the fact of its being easily fastened to the safety-fuze. Among its advantages, said to be due to the use of the nitrate, are that it contains a great amount of oxygen in a very small volume, and that it is very ready under the detonator, while its great density makes it slow to the influence of ordinary combustion. It is 30 per cent. stronger than ordinary gun-cotton, and takes up but two-thirds of its space, or the same space as dynamite. The cartridges are generally made water-proof. The projectile force of gun-cotton, when used with moderate charges, is equal to about twice its weight of the best gunpowder. Its explosive force is in a high degree greater than that of gunpowder, and in this respect its nature assimilates much more to the fulminates than to gunpowder. It evolves little or no smoke, as the principal residue of its combustion is water and nitrous acid. Recently, by the mixture of nitre and cane-sugar its quickness in action has been reduced so as to make it available for use in small-arms. The nitrous acid, however, will soon corrode the barrel if the piece is not carefully wiped after firing. Other explosive substances analogous to gun-cotton may be prepared from many organic bodies of the cellulose kind, by immersing them in the same bath as for gun-cotton; among these may be mentioned paper, tow, sawdust, calico, and wood fibre.

Gundermuk. A village of Afghanistan, 28 miles west from Jellalabad. Here the remnant of the British force, consisting of 100 soldiers and 300 camp-followers, were massacred in 1842, while retreating from Cabul (Cabool), only one man escaping.

Gun-fire. The hour at which the morning or evening gun is fired.

Gun-lift. The gun-lift recently devised by Col. Laidley, of the U.S. Ordnance Corps, is a most complete and rapid means for moving and dismounting heavy guns. In it the hydraulic jack is placed upon a stand over the gun, whereby the building-up of the crib-work of blocks, which serves as a base for the jack to stand on, is dispensed with, and the position of the jack has not to be changed during the operation of raising or lowering a gun. The ordinary carpenter’s horse or trestle is taken as the basis of the hoisting apparatus. The cap of the trestle, having to sustain the weight of the gun suspended at a distance of more than 2 feet from the points of support, is a large, strong, and heavy piece of timber, and the legs of the trestle have to be strongly braced. The bolster, a strong piece of oak on top of the cap of the trestle, has two mortices cut in it, one for a hoisting-bar to pass through, and the other for the fulcrum-post to rest in. The fulcrum-post has a recess cut on the top to receive the end of a lever and keep it in place. The lever has a mortice through which the hoisting-bar, already mentioned, passes; the latter is perforated with a series of holes through which a pin passes, by which the end of the lever, under which the hydraulic jack works, can be fastened to the hoisting-bar. The hoisting-bar has a hook on its lower end to which the weight to be raised is fastened by means of a sling.

Gun-metal. An alloy of nine parts of copper and one part of tin, used for brass cannon, etc. (See Bronze). The name is also given to certain strong mixtures of cast iron.

Gunner. A soldier employed to manage and discharge great guns; an artilleryman. In the U.S. service there is with each piece a gunner, who gives all the executive commands in action. He is answerable that the men at the piece perform their duties correctly.

Gunner’s Calipers. Are made of sheet-brass, with steel points. The graduations show diameters of guns, shot, etc.

Gunner’s Elevating Arc. See Elevating Arc.

Gunner’s Level, or Gunner’s Perpendicular. Is an instrument made of sheet-brass; the lower part is cut in the form of a crescent, the points of which are made of steel; a small spirit-level is fastened to one side of the plate, parallel to the line joining the points of the crescent, and a slider is fastened to the same side of the plate, perpendicular to the axis of the piece. This instrument is used to mark the points of sight on pieces. By means of the bubble the feet or points of the crescent are placed on a horizontal line on the base-ring or base-line, the slider pushed down until the point rests on the base-ring or line, and its position marked with chalk.

Gunner’s Pincers. Are made of iron with steel jaws, which have on the end of one a claw for drawing nails, etc.

Gunner’s Plummet. A simple line and bob for pointing mortars.

Gunner’s Quadrant. Is a graduated quarter of a circle of sheet-brass of 6 inches radius, attached to a brass rule 22 inches long. It has an arm carrying a spirit-level at its middle and a vernier at its movable end. To get a required elevation, the vernier is fixed at the indicated degree, the brass rule is then inserted in the bore parallel to the axis of the piece; the gun is then elevated or depressed until the level is horizontal. There is also a graduated quadrant of wood, of 6 inches radius, attached to a rule 23.5 inches long. It has a plumb-line and bob, which are carried, when not in use, in a hole in the end of the rule, covered by a brass plate.

Gunnery. The art of using fire-arms; but the term is commonly understood as being restricted to the use or application to the purposes of war of the larger pieces of ordnance, as cannon, mortars, and howitzers. In its practical branch gunnery includes a just knowledge of the construction of the several pieces of artillery, and of the strength, tenacity, and resisting power of the materials of which they are formed; of the method of mounting them upon strong, efficient, well-proportioned, and conveniently constructed carriages; of the proportions due to the strength of the powder and projectiles they should carry; of the force and effect, and also of the manufacture of gunpowder; and, generally, of all such mechanical arrangements and appliances as may facilitate the movements and working of the guns, etc., when prepared for action. But gunnery takes a yet far more extensive range; for it may be said to be based upon nearly every branch of the mathematical and physical sciences, and may be itself considered as a science requiring the most intricate combinations of human knowledge and mechanical ingenuity fully to comprehend and perfect. It particularly requires an acquaintance with all experiments which may have been made to ascertain the impetus of projection, the momentum of bodies in motion, and the range and time of flight of projectiles with given charges of gunpowder,—with the effect of the resistance of the atmosphere upon projectiles propelled with different velocities, and the laws of gravitation as affecting falling bodies; and with the various causes, mechanical and otherwise, of the usual deflection of projectiles in their course, when fired from a gun. See Projectiles and Velocity.

Gunning. The act of hunting or shooting game with a gun.

Gun-pendulum. A contrivance for obtaining initial velocities of projectiles. The gun is suspended from a frame-work with its axis horizontal. The velocity of the shot is deduced from the arc described in the recoil. The apparatus is now nearly obsolete.

Gun-platform. See Platform.

Gunpowder. A well-known explosive mixture, whose principal employment is in the discharge, for war or sport, of projectiles from fire-arms, and for mining purposes. The ingredients in gunpowder are saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur. Slightly different proportions are employed in different countries. In the United States the proportions are 75 to 76 saltpetre, 14 to 15 charcoal, and 10 sulphur. Charcoal is the combustible ingredient; saltpetre furnishes the oxygen necessary to support a rapid combustion and to change the whole mass into gas, and sulphur adds consistency to the mixture and intensity to the flame, besides rendering the powder less liable to absorb moisture; increases the volume of gas by preventing the formation of a solid potassium carbonate, and by increasing the temperature.

In the manufacture of ordinary powder, the operations usually employed are pulverizing the ingredients, incorporation, compression, granulation, glazing, drying, and dusting.

The ingredients are pulverized by placing each separately in barrels which contain bronze or zinc balls, and which are revolved rapidly for several hours.

Incorporation or thorough mixing is effected partially by the use of a rolling barrel, and completed in the rolling-mill. This consists of two cast-iron cylinders rolling round a horizontal axis in a circular trough with a cast-iron bottom. The cylinders are very heavy, and give a grinding motion, which is very effective in bringing about a thorough mixture of the three ingredients. A wooden scraper follows the rollers and keeps the composition in the middle of the trough. The charge in the trough is moistened with 2 or 3 per cent. of water before the rollers are started. A little water is added from time to time as required. This is the most important operation in the manufacture of powder. The time required is about one hour for each 50 pounds of composition. When finished the composition is called mill-cake.

Compressing.—This is next taken to the press-house, slightly moistened and arranged between brass plates, and then subjected to hydraulic pressure of about 70 tons (English tons) per square foot. Each layer is thus reduced to a hard cake.

Granulation.—The cake is broken up into grains by means of toothed rollers revolving in opposite directions, the cake being passed between them. The different-sized grains are separated by sieves between the different sets of rollers.

Glazing is effected by moistening the grains and revolving them in a rolling barrel.

Drying is done on sheets in a room heated to 140°-160°.

Dusting.—The dust is removed by revolving the powder in rolling barrels covered with coarse canvas. The dust is caught by an outside case.

There are five kinds of grain powder used in the U.S. service, distinguished as mammoth, cannon, mortar, musket, and rifle powder, all made in the same manner, of the same proportion of materials, and differing only in the size of the grain. Mammoth is employed for the heaviest sea-coast guns; cannon for smaller sea-coast guns; mortar for mortars and field- and siege-pieces; musket for rifle-muskets; and rifle for pistols. In addition to the above we have the following:

Meal powder, a fine dust containing the ingredients of ordinary gunpowder, but in which the relative proportions of these ingredients vary, according to the rate of burning desired, and the object for which the powder is to be used. Used principally in pyrotechny, and in mortar fire to communicate the flame from the charge to the shell. Also “German” or “American” “White Gunpowder,” more powerful than ordinary gunpowder, but more expensive; acts upon iron, and is very little used in gunnery.

Pebble powder, an irregular large-grain powder, very similar to American “Mammoth,” which preceded it, was made in England, 1865, by breaking ordinary press-cake with copper hammers.

Fossano powder, made in Italy, 1871, granulated by hand, is a slow-burning powder, used in large guns, notably in the 100-ton guns, one of which was recently burst, 1880, by a charge of 552 pounds of this powder. Lately the grains of this powder have been given a regular form.

Among regular grain powders made without molding are cubical, an English powder, extensively used in all their large guns, the largest being 2 inches on the edge. This is made by passing the cake between fluted rollers, which cut it into strips, and then these strips endways between a second set of rollers.

Schaghticoke, made at Hart’s Falls, N. Y., is a cubical powder made very much like the English,—the lines of fracture are, however, simply scratched on the cake (both sides), which is afterwards broken in the ordinary way.

Molded Powder.—The ingredients are the same as those of ordinary gunpowder, but each grain is separately molded.

Gen. Rodman was the first to propose the manufacture of these powders in his perforated cake, 1860; the object being to cause the powder to burn on an increasing surface, thus lessening the strain on the gun in the first moments of combustion. His powder after a few experiments was allowed to fall into disuse in the United States, but the invention was carried to Europe and developed with a smaller grain into prismatic powder, used in Europe, and especially in Germany and Russia, and particularly adapted to breech-loading cannon; the grain is a hexagonal prism in form and contains six cylindrical orifices passing entirely through it parallel to the axis, and symmetrically arranged with respect to it. The cartridge is so made that the cylindrical orifices pass through the entire length.

Hexagonal Powder.—This is the powder principally used in the United States; the grains have the shape which would be given by joining the larger bases of two frustrums of equal six-sided pyramids, and vary in size according to the piece in which the powder is to be used. This powder is believed in the United States to give the best results, and can be adapted to cannon of any caliber.

History of Gunpowder.—The origin of gunpowder as an explosive, and its application to the projection of missiles of war, are lost in the mists of obscurity. Its use in Europe can be traced only to the middle or early part of the 14th century. It is believed by many that certain experiments by Schwartz, a German monk, led to its introduction in war, but the better theory seems to be that the knowledge was obtained from the Saracens. It is probable that the invention arose in Central Asia in the regions where saltpetre occurs as an effervescence of the soil. The Chinese appropriated the discovery at a very early period, and fireworks were common in that country when Europe was roamed by the primitive savage. When Ghengis Khan invaded China, B.C. 1219, fire-arms of a primitive form appear to have been used. Passages in old writers seem also to show that when Alexander invaded India, 327 B.C., he encountered tribes that used similar weapons. The people of India doubtless obtained their knowledge from China. Wars and migrations of tribes gradually disseminated a knowledge of gunpowder over Asia and Northern Africa. The use of gunpowder is mentioned in Arabic writings in the 13th century. The Moors used it in Spain in 1312. In 1331 the king of Granada employed it in sieges. It is said to have been used by the English in the battles of CrÉcy, 1316. The Venetians employed it in 1380 against the Genoese. From that time to the present fire-arms have gradually supplanted other weapons.

For a long time after its introduction gunpowder was used in the form of dust or “meal powder.” Granulation was attempted to get rid of the difficulties in handling the dust, but the grained form proved too strong for the arms used, and “meal powder” continued in general use till improvements in the weapons about the close of the 16th century admitted of the other form. The granulation was at first very crude. This was remedied in time by the introduction of machinery or corning-mills in the manufacture. Though different-sized grains were at first used in large and small guns the principles involved were not studied, and afterwards one uniform size—large musket powder—was employed in all fire-arms. This step backwards may have been caused by the impurity of the ingredients and bad manufacture, which made the large grains too weak. In the early part of the present century a classification of grains was revived under the two general names of musket and cannon powder. The invention of the mercury densimeter rendered practicable an accurate determination of the specific gravity of powder and its relation to quickness of burning, but the importance of size and form of grain was first appreciated by Gen. Rodman, who, in 1859, began experiments which led at once to the introduction of mammoth powder for large guns, and later to the invention of perforated cake. The introduction of the powerful ordnance now existing in Europe has been rendered possible by improvements in this direction based upon the principles first formulated by Rodman. The latest idea on the subject is “compensating powder” (proposed by Lieut. C. A. L. Totten, of the 4th U.S. Artillery), a spherical grain of gunpowder inclosing a smaller sphere of gun-cotton. This powder remains to be made and experimented with, but it opens a field of research which must lead to valuable results.

Gunpowder, Absolute Force of. See Absolute Force of Gunpowder.

Gunpowder Pile-driver. A pile-driver operated by the explosive force of gunpowder. The hammer is arranged as usual to slide in vertical guides. It has a piston on its lower end, which enters a cylindrical hole in the pile-cap. In this hole the cartridge is placed, and is exploded through the compression of the air by the piston of the hammer, when the latter falls. The explosion drives down the pile and raises the hammer at the same blow. The powder ordinarily used is a mixture of chlorate of potash and bituminous coal.

Gunpowder Plot. A conspiracy entered into by a few Roman Catholics to destroy the king, lords, and commons on the meeting of Parliament on November 5, 1605. On the evening of the 4th, the famous Guy Fawkes, who was to be the leader and agent of the conspirators, was detected under the vaults of the House of Lords preparing the train for being fired the next day; and on the morning of the 5th, a little after midnight, he was arrested, examined, and tortured. He confessed his own guilt, but would not discover his associates. However, all of them were either killed on being captured, or died on the scaffold, except one. The memory of this plot has survived in England, and the name of Guy Fawkes is detested.

Gunpowder-mill. See Mill, Gunpowder-.

Gunreach. The reach or distance to which a gun will shoot; gunshot.

GÜns. A town of Hungary, situated on the river of the same name, about 57 miles south-southeast of Vienna. It is famous for its noble defense of its fortifications for twenty-eight days against the Turks under Solyman in 1532, thus enabling the emperor Charles V. time to assemble a force strong enough to oppose them.

Gunshot. The distance of the point-blank range of a cannon-shot. The distance to which shot can be thrown from a gun so as to be effective; the reach or range of a gun.

Gunshot. Made by the shot of a gun; as, a gunshot wound.

Gun-sling. See Sling.

Gunsmith. A maker of small-arms; one whose occupation is to make or repair small fire-arms; an armorer.

Gunsmithery. The business of a gunsmith; the art of making small fire-arms.

Gunster. A gunner. This term is now rare.

Gunstick. A stick to ram down the charge of a musket, etc.; a rammer or ramrod. This term is now rare.

Gunstock. The stock or wood in which the barrel of a gun is fixed.

Gunstone. A stone used for the shot of cannon. Before the invention of iron balls, stones were used for shot, but are now altogether superseded.

Gunter’s Chain (from Edmund Gunter, the inventor). The chain commonly used by military engineers for measuring land. It is 4 rods, or 66 feet long, and is divided into 100 links.

Gunter’s Line. A logarithmic line on Gunter’s scale, used for performing the multiplication and division of numbers mechanically by the dividers;—called also line of lines, and line of numbers; also a sliding scale corresponding to logarithms, for performing these operations by inspection, without dividers;—called also Gunter’s sliding rule. This is used by military engineers.

Gunter’s Scales. A wooden rule 2 feet long, on one side of which are marked scales of equal parts, of chords, sines, tangents, rhombs, etc., and on the other side, of logarithms of these various parts, by means of which many problems in surveying and navigation may be solved mechanically, by the aid of the dividers alone. This instrument is used by military engineers.

Gurges, or Gorges. A charge in heraldry meant to represent a whirlpool. It takes up the whole field, and when borne proper is azure and argent.

Gurries. Mud forts made in India are so called. These forts are sometimes surrounded with ditches.

Gurwal. A state of Northern Hindostan, under the protection of the British government, at the foot of the Himalaya Mountains. Gurwal was subdued by the Nepaulese about the year 1803, when Purdumin Shah, the rajah, at the head of 12,000 men, was defeated and slain at Gurudwara. The country was conquered by the British in 1814, and partly restored to the rajah’s son.

Gusset. Was at first a piece of chain, and afterwards of plate-armor, intended as a protection to the vulnerable point where the defenses of the arm and breast left a gap. In heraldry it is one of the abatements, or marks of disgrace for unknightly conduct. It is represented by a straight line extending diagonally from the dexter or sinister chief point one-third across the shield, and then descending perpendicularly to the base.

Guy. A rope used to swing any weight, or to keep steady any heavy body, and prevent it from swinging, while being hoisted or lowered.

Guzerat. A state in India, founded by Mahmoud the Gaznevide, about 1020; was conquered by Akbar in 1572; and became subject to the Mahrattas, 1732 or 1752. At the battle of Guzerat, February 21, 1849, Lord Gough totally defeated the Sikhs, and captured the city of Guzerat.

Gwalior. Capital of the state of the same name, in Central India. Its nucleus is a completely isolated rock of about 300 feet in height, perpendicular, either naturally or artificially, on all sides; and as it measures 1¹/₂ miles by 800 yards, it can accommodate a garrison of 15,000 men. It is thus virtually impregnable against any native force. The spot is understood to have been occupied as a stronghold for more than a thousand years.

Gyongyos. A town of Hungary, 43 miles northeast from Pesth. The Austrians were defeated here by the Hungarians in 1849.

Gytheum, or Gythium (now PalÆopolis, near Marathonisi). An ancient town on the east coast of Laconia, founded by the AchÆans, near the head of the Laconian Bay, southwest of the mouth of the river Eurotas. It served as the harbor of Sparta, and was important in a military point of view. In the Persian war, the LacedÆmonian fleet was stationed at Gytheum, and here the Athenians under Tolmides burned the LacedÆmonian arsenal, 455 B.C. After the battle of Leuctra (370) it was taken by Epaminondas. In 195 it was taken by Flamininus, and made independent of Nabis, tyrant of Sparta, whereupon it joined the AchÆan league.

Gyves. Fetters; old word for handcuffs.