Cabas (Fr.). A basket made of rushes, used in ancient Languedoc and Rousillon, for the purpose of conveying stores and ammunition.

Cabasset, Cabacet, or CapacÈte. A kind of helmet, lighter than the morion, terminating in a rounded top. It was also called CerveliÈre, because it only covered the upper part of the head.

Cabeira (Asia Minor). Here Mithridates, king of Pontus, was defeated by Lucullus, 71 B.C.

Cabell Court-house. See Barboursville.

Cabezon de la Sal. A town of Spain, in the province of Valladolid. It is celebrated as the scene of one of the first battles of the Peninsular campaign, in which the Spaniards were signally defeated by the French.

Caboched, or Cabossed. A heraldic term from the old French word caboche, “head.” When the head of an animal is borne without any part of the neck, and exhibited full in face, it is said to be caboched.

Cabrera. One of the Balearic Islands, 10 miles south of Majorca. Celebrated in the annals of war for the number of French prisoners who were there decimated by hunger, disease, and other physical and mental tortures.

Cabul, or Cabool. A city of Afghanistan, taken by Subuctajeen, grandfather of Mohammed, founder of the Gaznevide dynasty, and by NÂdir Shah in 1738. In 1809, the sovereign Shah Soojah was expelled by Futleh Khan; and in 1818, Cabul came into the hands of Dost Mohammed, a clever and ambitious chieftain. In 1839, the British restored Shah Soojah; but in November, 1841, a dreadful outbreak took place. The British civil officer, Sir William McNaughten, was massacred, and the British commenced a most disastrous retreat. Of about 3849 soldiers, and about 12,000 camp-followers, only one European, Dr. Dryden, and four or five natives escaped. In the same year (September 16), General, afterwards Sir George, Pollock retook the town, and rescued Lady Sale and many of the prisoners. After destroying many public buildings he left Cabul, October 12, 1842.

Cabule (Fr.). A machine of war, used during the 12th century to throw stones, etc.

Cache. A hidden reservoir of provision (to secure it from bears) in Arctic travel. Also, a deposit of dispatches, etc.

Cadence. A uniform time and pace in marching, indispensable to the correct movements of bodies of troops.

Cadency, Marks of. In heraldry, are marks on the shields of younger members of families, by which they are distinguished from the elder and from each other.

Cadet, Military (Fr. cadet, “younger,” “junior”). Is a youth studying for the military service in a school established for military training, such as the Military Academy at West Point, N. Y., the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, England, the Polytechnic School at Paris, etc. (See Military Academies.) There are also medical and engineer cadets, who are youths undergoing special instruction for the public service in the several professions implied by their names.

Cadetship. The rank or commission of a cadet; as, to get a cadetship.

Cadiz (anc. Gades). A fortified maritime city of Spain, in the province of the same name. The Carthaginians became masters of Cadiz during the first Punic war, but the Romans obtained possession of it in 206 B.C. It was taken and pillaged by the Earl of Essex in 1596, and was blockaded in 1656 by Admiral Blake, who captured two rich galleons. It was besieged by the French from February, 1810, until August, 1812. Captured by the Duc d’AngoulÊme, October 3, 1823, and held till 1828; declared a free port in 1829.

Cadore. A town of Venice, 22 miles northeast from Belluno. This place stands on the Piave, and is distinguished as the birthplace of Titian. In 1797 the French obtained a victory over the Austrians near this town.

Caen. A city of France, in Normandy. A place of importance before 912, when it became the capital of the possessions of the Normans, under whom it flourished. It was taken by the English in 1346 and 1417; but was finally recovered by the French, July 1, 1450. Here were buried William the Conqueror (1087) and his queen (1083).

Caernarvon. A town in North Wales. In the castle (founded in 1283 or 1284) Edward II. was born, April 25, 1284; and the town was chartered by Edward I. in the same year. The town suffered by the civil war of Charles, but was finally retained for the Parliament.

Caffa, Kaffa, or Theodosia. A town in European Russia, in the Crimea, at the end of a large bay on the northern shore of the Black Sea. In 1770 the Russians took this place by assault, and in 1774 it was ceded with the rest of the Crimea to the khan of Tartary, who made it his residence.

Caffraria, and Caffre War. See Kaffraria.

Cahors. A town of France, capital of the department of Lot. It is supposed to have been the capital of the Cadurca, before the conquest of Gaul. It was captured by assault in 1580, by Henry IV.

Caic. See Caique.

Caiffa. See Kaiffa.

Cai-fong. In China, capital of Honan, on the right bank of the Hoang-ho. It was besieged by 100,000 rebels in 1642. The commander of the relieving forces, in order to drown the enemy, broke down the embankments of the river. It is said all the besiegers and 300,000 of the citizens perished.

Cairo, or Grand Cairo. The modern capital of Egypt, partially built by the Saracens in 969; it is surrounded by stone walls which are surmounted with antique battlements; taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans, 1517; taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte; they entered the city July 23, 1798; captured by the British and Turks, when 6000 French capitulated, June 27, 1801; massacre of the Mamelukes, March 1, 1811.

Caisson. In gunnery, is a carriage used for conveying ammunition for a field battery. It is a four-wheeled carriage, consisting of two parts, one of which is a limber similar to that of a gun-carriage, and connected in a similar way by a wooden stock and lunette. On the axle-body of the rear part, and parallel to the stock, are placed three rails upon which are fastened two ammunition-boxes, one behind the other, and similar to the one on the limber; so that the caisson has three ammunition-boxes, which will seat nine cannoneers. The interior compartments of the ammunition-boxes vary according to the nature of the ammunition with which they are loaded. In the rear of the last box is placed a spare wheel-axle of iron, with a chain and toggle at the end of it. On the rear end of the middle rail is placed a carriage-hook similar to a pintle-hook, to which the lunette of a gun-carriage whose limber has become disabled may be attached, and the gun carried off the field. The caisson has the same turning capacity and mobility as the gun-carriage, so that it can follow the piece in all its manoeuvres, if necessary. It also carries a spare wheel, spare pole, etc. See Ordnance, Carriages for, The Caisson.

Cake-powder. See Gunpowder.

Caking. To prevent powder caking, the barrels should be taken outside the magazine and rolled on boards.

Calabozo. A town of Venezuela, South America; it was captured by Bolivar, 1820.

Calabria (anc. Messapia). A region of Southern Italy; it was conquered by the Romans 266 B.C. It formed part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths under Theodoric, 493; was reconquered (for the Eastern empire) by Belisarius, 536; subdued by the Lombards and joined the duchy of Benevento, 572. After various changes, it was conquered by Robert Guiscard, the Norman, 1058.

Calabuss. An early kind of light musket with a wheel-lock. Bourne mentions it in 1578.

Calagurris (now Calahorra, Spain). A town of the Vascones and a Roman municipium in Hispania Tarraconensis, near the Iberus (Ebro), memorable for its adherence to Sertorius and for its siege by Pompey and his generals (78 B.C.), in the course of which mothers killed and salted their children.

Calais. A fortified seaport town of France, department of Pas-de-Calais, on the Strait of Dover. The town and harbor are defended by a castle and several forts, and can be rendered inaccessible by land by flooding the adjacent ground, which is low and marshy. It was taken by Edward III. after a year’s siege in August, 1347; retaken by the Duke of Guise, January, 1558. It was taken by the Spaniards, April, 1596; restored, 1598. Louis XVIII. landed here in 1814, after his exile.

Calasiries, or Calosires. One of the two divisions (the other being the Hermotybii) of the warrior-caste of Egypt. Their greatest strength was 250,000 men, and their chief abode in the western part of the Delta. They formed the king’s body-guard.

Calatafimi. A town of Sicily, province of Trapani. Here, in May, 1860, Garibaldi defeated the royalist troops under Gen. Landi.

CalataÑazor. A small town of Spain in Old Castile. Here Al-Mansoor gained a great victory over the Christians in 1001.

Calatayud. A town of Spain, province of Saragossa. It was captured from the Moors by Alfonso of Aragon in 1118; taken from the descendants of Alfonso by the king of Castile in 1362.

Calatrava, The Order of. Was founded in 1158 by Sancho III. of Castile. For a long period the war against the Moors was carried on almost entirely by the knights of Calatrava. The knights bear a cross gules, fleur-de-lised with green, etc.

Calcans. The bucklers of the Turks were so called during the Middle Ages.

Calcinato. A town of Italy, on the river Chiese. The Duke of VendÔme here defeated the Austrians under Count de Reventlau in 1706.

Calcium-light. A brilliant light produced by projecting the oxyhydrogen flame upon a surface of lime. Called also the Drummond-light.

Calcutta. Capital of Bengal and British India; the first settlement of the English here was made in 1689. The town was attacked and taken by an army of 70,000 horse and foot and 400 elephants (146 of the British were crammed into the “Black-Hole prison,” a dungeon about 16 feet square, from whence 23 only came forth alive next day), June 20, 1756; it was retaken by Clive, January 2, 1757.

Caldiero. A village of Northern Italy. Here, just before the battle of Arcola, the French under Napoleon I. were repulsed by the Austrians under Alvinzi in 1796, and in 1805 were beaten under MassÉna by the Archduke Charles.

Caledonia. The name given by the Romans to that part of Britain north of the Wall of Antoninus, and afterwards applied to the whole of the country now known as Scotland. The inhabitants were called Caledonii until about the beginning of the 4th century, when they began to be spoken of as Picts and Scots. In 84 they were defeated under their chief Galgacus by the Roman general Agricola, and a great part of the country was overrun by the Romans, who formed many encampments there; but the country was never reduced to a Roman province.

Caliano. A town of the Tyrol, Austria, on the left bank of the Adige. Here the Venetians were defeated by the Austrians in 1487.

Caliber, or Calibre. From the Latin qua librÂ, “what pound,” applied first to the weight of a bullet, then to the diameter, which determined the diameter of the gun, now signifies the diameter of the bore of a cannon or any fire-arm, and is expressed in inches or fractional parts of an inch, as a 15-inch gun; a Springfield rifle, caliber .45. Cannon are sometimes also designated by the weight of metal which they throw, as a 24-pounder.

Caliber-rule. A gunner’s calipers; having two scales, to determine the weight of a ball from its diameter, and conversely.

Calicut (now Kolikod). A town in Southwestern India; the first Indian port visited by Vasco de Gama, May 20, 1498. It was seized by Hyder Ali, 1766, and taken by the English, 1790.

California (from the Spanish Caliente Fornalla, “hot furnace,” in allusion to the climate). Was discovered by Cortez in 1537; others say Cabrillo in 1542; and visited by Sir Francis Drake, who named it New Albion in 1579. The Spaniards established missionary and military stations in California, 1698; it became subject to Mexico in 1823; became independent in 1836; occupied by the army of the United States in 1846; ceded to the United States, 1848; admitted into the Union as a sovereign State, 1850.

CaligÆ. A kind of half-boots worn by the Roman soldiers. These soldiers were sometimes called Caligati.

Caliper-compass. An instrument by which the bore of cannon, small-arms, etc., is measured; said to have been invented by an artificer of Nuremberg, 1540.

Caliver. A hand-gun or arquebuse; probably the old name for the match-lock or carabine.

Call. A military musical term, signifies a signal given by a trumpet, bugle, or drum.

Callao. A fortified seaport of Peru. Lord Cochrane gallantly cut out the “Esmeralda,” a Spanish ship-of-war, from under the guns of the fort in 1821. Its roadstead (the best on the Peruvian coast) was the scene of a combat between the Spaniards and the Independents; the Colombians took it in 1826. The attempt of the Spanish admiral NuÑez to bombard Callao on May 2, 1866, was defeated by the Peruvians.

Calle, La. A seaport on the coast of Algeria. The French, who possessed it before the revolution of 1789, lost it during that epoch; again occupied it in 1815, but lost it in 1827. It has been in the possession of the French since the conquest of Algeria.

Callinger. One of the hill-forts of Bundelcund. From its position and size, Callinger must at one time have been a place of great strength. It was stormed by the British in 1812.

Calmar. See Kalmar.

Calones. A term applied to menials of the Roman armies; also slaves belonging to the Roman soldiers, who followed their masters to the wars.

Calore. A river in Italy; on its banks the Romans (composed of slaves), commanded by Tiberius (Gracchus), defeated the Carthaginian general Hanno in 215. After the battle each Roman (slave) who could present the head of an enemy slain by him was granted his freedom.

Calpee, or Kalpee. A city of India, in Bundelcund, on the right bank of the river Jumna. It was conquered by the British in 1803, and in May, 1858, was captured by Gen. Rose from the mutinous Sepoys, it being the headquarters of the Gwalior contingent.

Caltrop, or Crow’s-foot. An instrument with 4 iron points, so disposed that, three of them being on the ground, the other projects upward. They are scattered on the ground where an enemy’s cavalry are to pass, to impede their progress by endangering the horses’ feet.

Calumet. A kind of pipe used by the North American Indians for smoking tobacco, having the bowl usually of soft red stone, and the tube a long reed ornamented with feathers. The calumet is used as a symbol or instrument of peace. To accept the calumet is to agree to the terms of peace, and to refuse it is to reject them. The calumet is used to seal or ratify contracts and alliances, and to receive strangers kindly.

Calvi. A seaport on the island of Corsica, situated on a peninsula in the Gulf of Calvi. It is strongly fortified and has a good port. It was captured by the English in 1794, after a siege of 51 days.

Calvi. A decayed town of Naples. Here the French gained a victory over the Neapolitans, December 9, 1798.

Cam. A river in England. On its banks was fought a battle between the Saxons and Danes during the reign of Edward I.

Camail. Ancient armor, consisting of a guard for the throat made of chain-mail coming down from the helmet.

Cambrai, or Cambray. A fortified city of France, department of the North. It was fortified by the Romans; besieged and captured by Childebert in 535; taken by Edward III., king of England, in 1337; in 1544 by Charles V.; by the Spaniards in 1595; captured by the French and annexed, 1667; taken by Clairfait, the Austrian general, on September 10, 1798. The French were defeated at CÆsar’s camp, in the neighborhood, by the allied army under the Duke of York, April 24, 1794. Cambray was seized by the British under Sir Charles Colville, June 24, 1815. Several important treaties were entered into at this place.

Cambria. See Wales.

Cambridge. The Roman Camboricum and the Saxon Granta; a town of England, in Cambridgeshire. It was burned by the Danes in 870 and 1010. Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and sword, to be revenged of King William Rufus. During Wat Tyler’s and Jack Straw’s rebellion, the rebels entered the town, seized the University records and burned them in the market-place, 1381.

Cambuskenneth (Central Scotland). Here Wallace defeated the English under Warrenne and Cressingham, September 10, 1297.

Camden. A village in Kershaw Co., S. C. Gen. Gates was defeated here August 16, 1780, by Lord Cornwallis, and April 25, 1781, Gen. Greene was here defeated by Lord Rawdon. During the civil war this place was captured, February 24, 1865, by the Federal forces under Gen. Sherman, and the bridge over the Wateree, the railroad depot, and a considerable quantity of stores, etc., burned by the 15th Corps.

Camel. See Pack and Draught Animals.

Camelford. A town of England, in Cornwall. It was the scene of a famous battle between King Arthur and his nephew Modred in 543, in which the former was victorious. The West Saxons, under Egbert, had a battle with the Britons here in 823.

Cameron Highlanders. The designation given to the 79th Regiment of Infantry in the British service, in consequence of the corps having been raised by Allan Cameron of Erroch in 1793. This gallant regiment, which wears the Highland garb, performed distinguished services in the Peninsula and at Waterloo, and has been engaged in the principal warlike struggles of more recent times.

Camisado. A shirt formerly worn by soldiers over their uniform, in order to be able to recognize one another in the darkness, in a night attack.

Camisado. An attack by surprise at night, or at break of day, when the enemy is supposed to be in bed, by soldiers wearing the camisado.

Camouflet (Fr.). A small mine containing about 10 pounds of powder, sufficient to compress the earth all around it without disturbing the surface of the ground. It is sometimes formed in the wall or side of an enemy’s gallery, to blow in the earth and cut off the retreat of the miner.

Camp. From the Latin word campus, a “plain”; is the whole extent of ground covered by an army when under canvas. Its breadth should not exceed the line occupied by the troops when drawn out in order of battle. As a general rule, camps should be located in a position convenient to wood and water, with the front close and well covered, and the rear perfectly open.

Campaign. A connected series of military operations, forming a distinct stage or step in a war. Formerly, when troops kept the field only during the summer months, the term was used to include all that was done from the time an army took the field until it went again into winter quarters. In modern times, when no ordinary degree of cold is allowed to arrest military operations, the term is frequently used to include all steps taken to accomplish one immediate object.

Campaigner. One who has served in an army several campaigns; an old soldier; a veteran.

Camp and Garrison Equipage. All the tents, fittings, utensils, etc., carried with an army, applicable to the domestic rather than to the warlike wants of the soldier. The allowance of camp and garrison equipage to U.S. troops is prescribed in general orders from the War Department.

Campania (Southern Italy). Was occupied by Hannibal and various cities declared in his favor, 216 B.C.; conquered by the Romans, 213. Its capital was Capua (which see).

Camp-bedstead. A bedstead made to fold up within a narrow space, as used in war; a trestle bedstead.

Campbell’s Station. A post-village of Knox Co., Tenn. Here on November 16, 1863, Gen. Burnside, marching from Knoxville to meet the Confederate forces under Gen. Longstreet, was attacked by them, and after several hours’ fighting succeeded in repulsing them. Burnside then withdrew to the neighborhood of Knoxville and fortified his position.

Camp-boy. A boy that serves in camp.

Campeachy. A city of Central America, and the principal seaport of Yucatan. The country was discovered about 1517, and settled in 1540. This city was taken by the English in 1659; by the buccaneers in 1678, and by the freebooters of St. Domingo in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up the citadel.

Campestre. A kind of girdle or apron worn by Roman soldiers around their waists at certain exercises, where the rest of their bodies remained naked.

Camp-followers. The sutlers, traders, and dealers generally; also civilian employÉs, servants, and women who follow troops, and are amenable to the regulations and restrictions of the service.

Camp-guard. A camp-guard consists of one or two rows of sentinels placed around a camp, and relieved at regular intervals. The number of rows of sentinels, and the distance between each man, will depend upon the character of the ground and the degree of danger apprehended.

Campidoctores. Officers who drilled the Roman soldiery.

Camp, Intrenched. Is a position fortified by field-works, which may be selected by an army in the field, for important operations during a campaign or a war,—such as to secure itself while covering a siege, or in winter quarters to accommodate a corps of observation, while the active army is engaged elsewhere, or to defend a position near a fortified place.

Camp of Instruction. Is an encampment of troops in the field to habituate them to the duties and fatigues of war. They may be either temporary or permanent. Of the latter description are the camps at Aldershott, England, and the Curragh of Kildare, Ireland.

Campo Formio. A town of Northern Italy; here a treaty was concluded between France and Austria, the latter yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine Republic, October 17, 1797. By a secret article the emperor gained the Venetian dominions.

Campo Mayor. A stronghold which covers the district between the Guadiana and the Tagus, where the French, retreating from this place in March, 1811, were suddenly confronted by a large British force under Marshal Beresford, and a combat ensued which was disastrous to the French.

Campoos. Regiments of infantry in the service of the Mahratta confederates.

Campo Santo. A town of Northern Italy, situated on the Panaro. In 1743 a sanguinary battle was fought here between the Spanish and Austrian forces.

Camp Out, To. To rest for the night without a standing roof; whether under a light tent, a screen of boughs, or any makeshift that the neighborhood may afford.

Camprodon. A fortified town of Catalonia, Spain. This town was taken by the French in 1689, and again in 1794.

Camp-stool. A portable seat used on campaigns. It is usually made with crossed legs, so as to fold up, and with a full-sized seat of leather or canvas, or else of strips of dressed hide.

Canada, Dominion of. A country of North America which embraces all of the American possessions of Great Britain lying north of the United States. It was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, June 24, 1497; the French founded Quebec in 1608. The English general Wolfe captured Quebec in 1759, and the conquest of Canada was completed in 1760. The Americans under Montgomery invaded Canada, and surprised Montreal, November, 1775; expelled by Carleton, March, 1776; the Americans under Gen. Hull again invaded Canada; defeated at Brownstown, August 8, and surrendered August 16, 1812. The Americans took York April 27, Fort George May 27, 1814; they were defeated at Chippewa July 25, and peace was signed at Ghent, December 24, 1814. Several rebellions took place in Canada, but were speedily suppressed. Invasions of Canada by armed Fenians from the United States were attempted in 1866 and 1870, but were repelled without difficulty.

Cananore. A seaport town of British India, in the presidency of Madras; it is the chief military station of the British in Malabar. In 1501 a small fort was built here by the Portuguese, which was taken by the Dutch in 1664. These were subsequently driven out by Tippoo Saib, and in 1790 the British took possession.

Candahar, or Kandahar. A fortified city of Afghanistan; stands in a fertile plain, 200 miles southwest from Cabool. This city is supposed to have been founded by Alexander the Great. Candahar was held by Tartary, India, and Persia in turn. During all the disasters of the Afghan war, the British succeeded in holding possession of the city, 1839-42.

Candia (anc. Crete). An island in the Mediterranean Sea. It was conquered by the Romans, 68 B.C.; seized by the Saracens, 823; retaken by the Greeks, 960; sold to the Venetians, 1204; gained by the Turks after a 24 years’ siege, during which more than 200,000 men perished, 1669; ceded to the Egyptian pasha, 1830; restored to Turkey, 1840; in 1866 the Christian inhabitants revolted against the Turks, and demanded an annexation to the kingdom of Greece. This war excited much sympathy among Christian nations, but the Cretans were subdued in 1869.

Candle Bombs. Pasteboard shells filled with pyrotechnic compositions which make a brilliant display upon explosion. They are used for signaling, and are made up with a powder charge attached to one side; a strand of quick-match leads to the charge when placed in the mortar. The mortars used are very light, being simply hollow cylinders of stout paper, sole-leather, or wood. They are made very light for ease of transportation.

Candy. A kingdom of Ceylon; it was taken by a British detachment, February 20, 1803, who capitulated June 23, following, anxious to evacuate the place on account of its unhealthiness; on the third day many were treacherously massacred at Columbo. The war was renewed in October, 1814; the king made prisoner by Gen. Brownrigg, February 19, 1815, and the sovereignty vested in Great Britain, March 2, 1815.

Canister. In the U.S. service, a round of canister consists of a hollow tin cylinder filled with cast iron or lead balls, which vary in size and number with the caliber and kind of piece; the cylinder is closed at the bottom by a thick cast-iron plate, and at the top by one of sheet-iron. The interstices between the balls are filled with dry sawdust, the object of which is to give more solidity to the mass, and to prevent the balls from crowding on one another when the piece is fired. In the English service this is called case-shot.

Canister-shot. One of the lead or iron balls in a round of canister.

CannÆ. A town of Naples, province of Terra di Bari. It is celebrated for the great victory gained there by Hannibal over the Romans, in the summer of 216 B.C. The loss of the Romans is stated by Livy at 45,000 infantry and 3000 cavalry.

Cannon. A military engine of which the general form is that of a hollow cylinder closed at one end, and variously mounted, used for throwing balls and other instruments of death by force of gunpowder. Cannons are made of iron, brass, bronze, and sometimes of steel rods welded together, and are of different sizes. They are classified, from their nature, guns, howitzers, and mortars; also from their use, as field, mountain, prairie, sea-coast, and siege; also as rifled and smooth-bore. See Ordnance.

The following are the most famous cannon of all ages, arranged according to the diameter of the bore:

1. The Tsar Pooschka, the great bronze gun of Moscow, cast in 1586; bore 36 inches, weight 86,240 pounds; threw a stone ball weighing 2000 pounds.

2. Mallet’s Mortar, English, 1857-58; built up of cast and wrought iron; bore 36 inches; cast-iron shell weighing 2986 pounds.

3. The Malik-I-Mydan, “Master of the Field,” the great bronze gun of Bejapoor, India; cast 1538; bore 28.5 inches; basalt ball, 1000 pounds.

4. The Bronze Gun of Mahomet II., A.D. 1464; bore 25 inches; granite ball, 672 pounds.

5. The Dulle-Griete of Ghent, wrought iron, A.D. 1430; bore 25 inches; stone ball, 700 pounds.

6. The Dhool-Dhanee, bronze gun of Agra, India; bore 23.2 inches; stone balls, 520 pounds.

7. Mons Meg of Edinburgh; wrought iron, A.D. 1455; bore 20 inches; stone ball, 400 pounds.

8. Rodman Gun, American, 1863; cast iron; bore 20 inches, weight 117,000 pounds; cast-iron solid shot weighing 1080 pounds.

The most powerful cannon the world has ever seen have been made within the present decade (1870-80). They are rifles.

The 100-ton Armstrong guns sold to Italy to arm the “Duilio” and “Dandolo”; bore 17 inches, weight of oblong shot of chilled iron 2000 pounds, charge of Fossano powder 552 pounds. Muzzle-loading.

The 80-ton Woolwich guns made to arm the “Inflexible”; bore 16 inches, weight of shot 1700 pounds, charge of cubical powder 440 pounds. Muzzle-loading.

The 72-ton Krupp guns; bore 15.75 inches, weight of steel shot 1700 pounds, charge of prismatic powder 452 pounds. Guns all steel. Breech-loading.

Cannonade. The act of discharging shot or shells from cannon for the purpose of destroying an army, or battering a town, ship, or fort; usually applied to an attack of some continuance.

Cannon-ball. A ball usually made of cast iron, to be thrown from cannon.

Cannon Baskets. The old English phrase for gabions.

Cannon-bullet. A cannon-ball.

Cannoneer. A man who manages cannon.

Cannoneering. The use of cannon.

Cannoneers’ Seats. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Nomenclature of Artillery Carriages.

Cannon-lock. A contrivance, like the lock of a gun, placed over the vent of a cannon to explode the charge.

Cannon-metal. An alloy of copper with about 9 per cent. of tin;—called also gun-metal.

Cannon-perer. An ancient piece of ordnance throwing stone shot.

Cannon-proof. Proof against cannon.

Cannon Royal. A 60-pounder of 8¹/₂ inches bore.

Cannonry. Cannon collectively; artillery.

Cannon-shot. A ball for cannon.

CanonniÈre (Fr.). This name was given formerly to a tent which served to shelter four canonniers, but later the term was applied to all infantry tents which contained seven or eight men.

CanonniÈre (Fr.). An appellation formerly given to a gun-proof tower; it also designated an opening in the walls of cities, forts, etc., through which the defenders of these places could fire on an enemy without being exposed.

Canonniers (Fr.). Artillerymen, gunners. In 1671, during the administration of Louvois in France, the name of canonniers was given to the first company of the regiment of the king’s fusileers; in April, 1693, this regiment was named artillerie royal, but the first company retained the name of canonniers.

Canonniers Gardes-cÔtes (Fr.). Were instituted in 1702, by Louis XIV. of France, for the service of coast batteries. They are similar to the Artillery Coast Brigade in the British service.

Canstadt, or Cannstadt. A town of WÜrtemberg, on the river Neckar. In the vicinity a battle was fought in 1796, between Gen. Moreau and the Archduke Charles of Austria.

Cantabri. A rude race of ancient mountaineers who lived in Cantabria, the northern part of Spain, near the Bay of Biscay. They made a brave resistance to the Romans in the Cantabrian war, 25-19 B.C. They are said to have been of Iberian origin.

Cantabrum. A large banner used during the time of the Roman emperors, and borne on festive occasions.

Canteen. A tin vessel used by soldiers to carry water on the march, or in the field. It is usually suspended by a strap from the shoulder. In the British service the canteen is made of wood. The name is also applied to the store authorized within the precincts of British barracks for the sale of liquors, small stores, etc. (See Post Trader.) A leather or wooden chest divided into compartments, and containing the table equipage of an officer when on active service, is also called a canteen.

Canterbury (the Durovernum of the Romans). A town in Kent, England. Its cathedral was sacked by the Danes, 1011, and burnt down, 1067; rebuilt, 1130; again burnt down, 1174, and again rebuilt. During the civil war in England, Cromwell’s dragoons used Canterbury Cathedral as a stable.

CantiniÈre (Fr.). Women who are authorized to establish themselves in the barracks or follow the troops in time of war, selling them liquors and provisions. The cantiniÈres, whether attached to regiments or barracks, are selected from the wives of non-commissioned officers or privates, and wear a uniform. See VivandiÈre.

Cantle. The hind-bow or protuberance of a saddle; also written cantel.

Canton. The only city in China with which Europeans were allowed to trade till the treaty of August 29, 1842. In 1856 a serious misunderstanding arose between Great Britain and China, on account of the Chinese having boarded the “Arrow,” a small vessel, lying in the Canton River, with a British colonial register. The Canton forts were taken, and Canton was bombarded by Sir Michael Seymour in 1856, and in the following year the Chinese fleet was entirely destroyed. In 1858 Canton was taken, and the forts at the mouth of the Pei-ho River were taken by the allied French and English forces.

Canton. One of the nine honorable ordinaries in heraldry. It occupies a corner of the shield either dexter or sinister, and is a third of the chief.

Cantonments. In the general operations of European armies are temporary resting-places. In cantonments the men are not under canvas, as in camps, but occupy during an armistice, or in intervals between active operations, adjacent towns and villages. In India cantonments are permanent places, being regular military towns, distinct and at some little distances from the principal cities.

CantonnÉ. In heraldry, when a cross is placed between four other objects it is said to be cantonnÉ.

Canusium (now Canosa). An important and very ancient city of Apulia, in Italy. It was probably founded by the Greeks. Here a battle took place between the Carthaginians under Hannibal, and the Romans under Marcellus, 209 B.C.; it lasted two days; the first day the Carthaginians were victorious, but on the second day the Romans gained the victory after committing great havoc among their adversaries. It was captured by the Romans, 318 B.C.

Canvas. A coarse hempen or linen cloth which is extensively used in the form of tents, etc.

Cap-a-pie (Fr.). “Head to foot.” In military language of the Middle Ages, this term was applied to a knight or soldier armed at all points, with armor for defense and weapons for attack.

Caparison. The bridle, saddle, and housing of a military horse.

Cape Breton. A large island of British North America, separated from Nova Scotia by the Gut of Canso. Said to have been discovered by Cabot, 1497; by the English in 1584; taken by the French in 1632, but was afterwards restored, and again taken in 1745, and retaken in 1748. The fortress of Louisburg was captured by the English, July 26, 1758, when the garrison were made prisoners, and 11 French ships were captured or destroyed. The island was ceded to England, February 10, 1763.

Cape Coast Castle. In Southwest Africa; it was settled by the Portuguese in 1610, but it soon fell to the Dutch; it was demolished by Admiral Holmes in 1661. All the British factories and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the Dutch admiral, Ruyter, in 1665. It was confirmed to the English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. See Ashantees.

Cape Colony. See Cape of Good Hope.

Capeline (Fr.). A helmet without a visor, nearly in the form of a round head; it was formerly worn by infantry.

Cape of Good Hope. In Southern Africa; long held by the Dutch; was captured by the British, September 16, 1795; restored to the Dutch at the general peace, but was again taken by the British, January 9, 1806; it still belongs to the British, though a severe desultory warfare has often been carried on with the native tribes.

Capital. In technical fortification, is an imaginary line bisecting the salient angle of a work.

Capitulation. The surrender of a fortress or army on stipulated conditions.

Caponiere. A covered passage across the ditch of a fortified place, for the purpose either of sheltering communication with outworks or of affording a flanking fire to the ditch in which it stands. If the caponiere is protected only on one side, it is single; if on both sides, and covered, it is double.

Capote. A heavy coat with a hood, worn by soldiers, sailors, and others.

Cappadocia. An ancient province of Asia Minor, now included in Asiatic Turkey. It was conquered by Cyrus the Great of Persia, and was ruled by independent kings after the time of Alexander the Great until 17, when Tiberius reduced it to a Roman province.

Cappel. A village of Switzerland. Here the reformer Ulric Zwinglius was slain in a conflict between the Catholics and the men of Zurich, in October, 1531.

Capri (anc. CapreÆ). An island near Naples, the sumptuous residence of Tiberius, memorable for the debaucheries he committed during the last seven years of his life. Capri was taken by Sir Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806; taken from the British, October 4, 1808, by a French force under Gen. Lamarque.

Caps. The head-dress or shako of such troops as are not supplied with helmets.

Forage Caps are the cloth undress head-covering of the officer or soldier.

Caps. In gunnery, are the leathern plugs, or bungs, used to prevent rain or rubbish from collecting in the bore of the guns and howitzers. There are also cannon caps for similar purposes, used for mortars.

Caps, Percussion-. Are small metal covers, inlaid with detonating powder, and placed on the nipple of a rifle or revolver. The hammer, striking on the outer surface of the cap, causes the powder to explode and ignite the charge.

Cap-square. A strong plate of iron which comes over the trunnion of a cannon, and keeps it to its place.

Capstan. A strong, massy column of timber, formed somewhat like a truncated cone, and having its upper extremity pierced to receive bars, or levers, for winding a rope round it, to move great weights, or to exert great power; used in moving heavy guns considerable distances; called also a crab.

Capsules. Copper caps for percussion-locks.

Captain. In a limited and technical sense, is the title of an officer who commands a troop of cavalry, a company of infantry, or a battery of artillery. He is the next in rank below a major, and in the U.S. army is responsible for the camp and garrison equipage, the arms, ammunition, and clothing of his company.

There is no position in the army that will give as much satisfaction in return for an honest, capable, and conscientious discharge of his duty as that of captain or commanding officer of a company. There is a reward in having done his full duty to his company, that no disappointment of distinction, no failure can deprive him of; his seniors may overlook him in giving credits, unfortunate circumstances may defeat his fondest hopes, and the crown of laurel may never rest upon his brow, but the reward that follows upon the faithful discharge of his duty to his company he cannot be deprived of by any disaster, neglect, or injustice.

He receives it whenever he looks upon his little command, and sees the harmony, comfort, and discipline that prevail; he feels it when he comes to part with his men in the due course of promotion, or as they individually take their discharge after a faithful service; he remembers it when, in after-years, no matter if rank and honors have in the mean time fallen upon him, he meets an old soldier who, with respect and affection, still calls him his captain.

He is a small sovereign, powerful and great within his little domain, but no imbecile monarch ever suffered more from intrigues, factions, and encroachments than an incapable company commander; no tyrant king must contend more with rebellions, insurrections, and defections than an arbitrary and unjust captain, and no wise and beneficent ruler ever derived more heartfelt homage, more faithful services, or more patriotic devotion than a just, competent, and faithful commander receives from his company. They will love him truly, they will obey him faithfully, and whilst there is life they will stand by him in the hour of battle.

The command of a company divides itself into two kinds of duty, requiring very different capacity, viz., Government and Administration. The former requires force of character, judgment, and discretion, and has often been well performed without much capacity for the latter. Administration requires a certain amount of knowledge absolutely indispensable to a discharge of a duty.

Government.—Under this head may be included instruction in tactics and discipline, the preservation of order and subordination, and the cultivation of a military spirit and pride in the profession among the men. It involves the appointing and reduction of non-commissioned officers, and the subject of rewards and punishments.

Administration.—Providing the clothing and subsistence, and keeping the accounts of soldiers in order, that they may be paid, and attending to the transportation of the men and their supplies, belong under this head. They involve the keeping of the records of the company, and the pay and clothing accounts of the men; the drawing and distributing of supplies, and the care and accountability of public and company property. The efficient administration of the affairs of a company greatly facilitates the discipline and government of the company, makes the men content and cheerful in the performance of their duties, and attaches them to their commander.

Captaincy. The rank, post, or commission of a captain.

Captaincy-general. The office, power, territory, or jurisdiction of a captain-general.

Captain-General. This was the proper appellation of a commander-in-chief till Marlborough’s time, if not later. The rank is sometimes still given on extraordinary occasions. It was born by the Marquis of Wellesley during his government in India, and is applied to the governor-general of the Canadas. In the United States, the governor of a State is captain-general of the militia. Captain-lieutenant, an officer, who with the rank of a captain, and pay of lieutenant, commands a company or troop.

Captainry. The power, or command, over a certain district; chieftainship; captainship.

Captainship. The condition, rank, post, or authority of a captain or chief commander. Also skill in military affairs; as, to show good captainship.

Captive. A prisoner taken by force or stratagem in war, by an enemy; made prisoner, especially in war; kept in bondage or confinement.

Captivity. The state of being a prisoner, or of being in the power of the enemy, by force or the fate of war.

Captor. One who takes, as a prisoner or a prize.

Capture. The act of taking or seizing by force; seizure; arrest; as, the capture of an enemy. The thing taken; a prize; prey taken by force, surprise, or stratagem.

Captured Property. As civilization has advanced during the last centuries, so has likewise steadily advanced, especially in war on land, the distinction between the private individual belonging to a hostile country and the hostile country itself, with its men in arms. The principle has been more and more acknowledged that the unarmed citizen is to be spared in person, property, and honor, as much as the exigencies of war will admit. A victorious army appropriates all public money, seizes all public movable property until further direction by its government, and sequesters for its own benefit or that of its government all the revenues of real property belonging to the hostile government or nation. The title to such real property remains in abeyance during military occupation, and until the conquest is made complete. As a general rule, the property belonging to churches, to hospitals, or other establishments of an exclusively charitable nature, to establishments of education, or foundations for the promotion of knowledge, whether public schools, universities, academies of learning, or observatories, museums of the fine arts, or of a scientific character,—such property is not to be considered public property; but it may be taxed or used when the public service may require it. Classical works of art, libraries, scientific collections, or precious instruments, such as astronomical telescopes, as well as hospitals, must be secured against all avoidable injury, even when they are contained in fortified places whilst besieged or bombarded. And if they can be removed without injury, the ruler of the conquering state or nation may order them to be seized and removed for the benefit of the said nation. The ultimate ownership is to be settled by the ensuing treaty of peace.

The United States acknowledge and protect, in hostile countries occupied by them, religion and morality; strictly private property; the persons of the inhabitants, especially those of women; and the sacredness of domestic relations. Offenses to the contrary are rigorously punished. This does not interfere with the right of the victorious invader to tax the people or their property, to levy forced loans, to billet soldiers, or to appropriate property, especially houses, land, boats or ships, and churches for temporary and military uses. Private property can be seized only by way of military necessity, except the owner forfeits his right to it by committing a crime or offense against the victorious power. All captures and booty belong, according to the modern law of war, primarily to the government of the captor. See Stores, Military.

Capua. A town of Naples, in the province of Terra di Lavoro; took the part of Hannibal when his army wintered here after the battle of CannÆ, 216 B.C., and, it is said, became enervated through luxury. In 211, when the Romans retook the city, they scourged and beheaded all the surviving senators; many of them having poisoned themselves after a banquet previous to the surrender of the city. During the Middle Ages, Capua was successively subjugated by the Greeks, Saracens, Normans, and Germans. It was restored to Naples in 1424, and was taken, November 2, 1860, by Garibaldi.

Capuchons (Fr.). A society formed in France from 1181 to 1183, for the suppression of the brigandage of the Routiers; they exterminated 7000 brigands in an engagement near Verdun.

Caracas (South America). Part of Venezuela, discovered by Columbus in 1498. It was reduced by arms, and assigned as property to the Welsers, German merchants, by Charles V.; but for their tyranny they were dispossessed in 1550, and a crown governor appointed. The province declared its independence, May 9, 1810.

Caracole (Sp. caracol). A French term used in horsemanship or the manÈge to denote a semi-round or half-turn. When cavalry advance to charge in battle they sometimes perform caracoles in order to perplex the enemy, and excite a doubt whether they will attack the flank or the front.

Caravaggio. A walled town of Italy, in the province of Bergamo. Here a battle was fought, September 15, 1448, between the Milanese and Venetians, in which the latter were defeated.

Carberry Hill. In Southern Scotland; here on June 15, 1567, Lord Hume and the confederate barons dispersed the royal army under Bothwell, and took Mary, queen of Scots, prisoner. Bothwell fled.

Carbine. A short light musket, used by cavalry. It is so called from a kind of light horse (Carabins), whose weapon it was. They were employed by Henry II. of France in 1559.

Carbineers, or Carabineers. Dragoons armed with carbines, who occasionally acted as infantry. All regiments of light-armed horse were formerly called carbineers; but since the establishment of hussars and lancers, they have, for the most part, lost that denomination.

Carbon. See Charcoal.

Carcass. In gunnery, is a spherical shell having three additional holes, of the same dimensions as the fuze-hole, pierced at equal distances apart in the upper hemisphere of the shell, and filled with a composition which burns with intense power from 8 to 10 minutes, and the flame issuing from the holes sets fire to everything combustible within its reach; it is used in bombardments, setting fire to shipping, etc., and is projected from cannon like a cannon-shell.

Carcassonne (anc. Carcaso). A city in the south of France, capital of the department of Aude. It was taken from the Visigoths by the Saracens in 724.

Carchera. A name given by the Corsicans to their cartridge-belts.

Cardiff. A seaport and county town of Wales, in Glamorganshire. Cardiff is an ancient place, and is surrounded by walls, in which were four gates. Its castle, once large and strongly fortified, was erected about the year 1079. Robert, duke of Normandy, was confined in it for 28 years after the battle of Tinchebria. This fortress was afterwards taken and partially destroyed by Cromwell.

Cardigan. A town in Cardiganshire, Wales. It was an important town about the Norman conquest, and the Normans were frequently defeated before mastering it. The town suffered much in the struggles between the Welsh and the Normans.

Cardinal Points. The four intersections of the horizon with the meridian, and the prime vertical circle, or north and south, east and west. In astrology, the cardinal points are the rising and setting of the sun, the zenith and nadir.

Caria. An ancient province in the extreme southwest of Asia Minor. It was conquered by Cyrus, 546 B.C.; by Dercyllidas, a LacedÆmonian, 397. Caria was absorbed in the Turkish empire.

Carignan. A small town about 12 miles from Sedan, department of Ardennes, Northeast France. At the plain Douzy, near this place and the encampment of Vaux, a part of MacMahon’s army, retreating before the Germans, turned round and made a stand, August 31, 1870. After a long and severe engagement, in which the positions were taken and retaken several times, the Germans turned the flank of their enemies, who were compelled to fall back upon Sedan, where they were finally overcome, September 1.

Caripi. A kind of cavalry in the Turkish army, which, to the number of 1000, are not slaves, nor bred up in the seraglio, like the rest, but are generally Moors, or renegade Christians, who have obtained the rank of horse-guards to the Grand Seignior.

Carisbrooke Castle. In the Isle of Wight, England; it is said to have been a British and Roman fortress; was taken in 530, by Cerdic, founder of the kingdom of the West Saxons. Here Charles I. was imprisoned in 1647.

Carizmians. Were fierce shepherds living near the Caspian Sea; having been expelled by the Tartars, they invaded Syria in 1243. The union of the sultans of Aleppo, Hems, and Damascus was insufficient to stem the torrent, and the Christian military orders were nearly exterminated in a single battle in 1244. In October they took Jerusalem. They were totally defeated in 1247.

Carlaverock Castle. In Southern Scotland; it was taken by Edward I. in July, 1300.

Carlisle. A frontier town of England, in the county of Cumberland, wherein for many ages a strong garrison was kept. Just below this town the famous Picts’ wall began, which crossed the whole island to Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great Roman highway. The castle was destroyed by the Danes, 875, restored in 1092 by William II.; was the prison of Mary, queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken by the Parliamentary forces, in 1645, and by the young Pretender, November 15, 1745; retaken by the Duke of Cumberland, December 30, same year. The cathedral was almost ruined by Cromwell in 1648.

Carlisle. Capital of Cumberland Co., Pa. This town was shelled by the Confederates, July, 1863.

Carlow. A town in Southeastern Ireland; the castle, erected by King John, surrendered after a desperate siege to Rory Oge O’Moore, in 1577; again to the Parliamentary forces in 1650. Here the royal troops routed the insurgents, May, 1798.

Carlowitz, or Karlowitz. A town of the Austrian empire, on the Danube. Here, in 1699, a treaty was concluded between Turkey and Austria; and here Prince EugÈne defeated the Turks in 1716.

Carlsruhe, or Karlsruhe. Capital of the grand duchy of Baden; built by the Margrave Charles William, 1715. It was occupied by the Prussians, June 25, 1849, who aided to suppress the revolution, and enabled the grand duke to return, August 18, 1849.

Carmagnola. A town of Piedmont, on the river Po. It was captured by Catinat troops in 1691; taken by the French Republican troops in 1795.

Carmel, Knights of the Order of Our Lady of Mount. A semi-religious order of knighthood instituted by Henry IV. of France, and incorporated with the order of the Knights of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem. The order consisted of 100 gentlemen, all French, who were to attend the king in his wars, and had considerable revenues assigned them.

Carnatic. A district of Southern Hindostan, extending along the whole coast of Coromandel. Hyder Ali entered the Carnatic with 80,000 troops in 1780, and was defeated by the British under Sir Eyre Coote, July 1 and August 27, 1781, and decisively overthrown, June 2, 1782. The Carnatic was overrun by Tippoo in 1790. The British have possessed entire authority over the Carnatic since 1801.

Carnifex Ferry. Over the Gauley River, West Virginia. A force of about 5000 Confederates under Gen. Floyd, who occupied a strong position here, became engaged with a Federal brigade of the troops under Gen. Rosecrans on the afternoon of September 10, 1861, when some severe fighting occurred until night put an end to the contest. The Federals intended to renew the attack in the morning with a stronger force, but during the night Gen. Floyd withdrew his troops across the river, burned the ferry-boats and the bridge which he had constructed, thus cutting off pursuit, but leaving his camp, baggage, small-arms, and munitions of war in the hands of the Federals.

Carolina, North. See North Carolina.

Carolina, South. See South Carolina.

Caroling. A custom of the ancients before going to war, which consisted of singing, etc.

Carpet Knight. A man who obtains knighthood on a pretense for services in which he never participated.

Carpi. In Northern Italy; here Prince EugÈne and the Imperialists defeated the French, July 9, 1701.

Carquois (Fr.). A quiver of iron, wood, leather, etc., which was worn slung over the right shoulder.

Carrago. A kind of fortification, consisting of a great number of wagons placed round an army. It was employed by barbarous nations, as, for instance, the Scythians and Goths.

Carreau, Quarreau, or Carre (Fr.). A bolt or dart, with a large steel head, for a cross-bow.

Carriage. A gun-carriage is designed to support its piece when fired, and also to transport cannon from one point to another. It consists of two cheeks, connected together and with a stock by assembling bolts. The front part supports the piece, and rests upon an axle-tree furnished with wheels, the rear end of the stock or trail resting on the ground. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Carriage, Casemate. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Sea-Coast Carriages.

Carriage, Field-. See Field-Carriage.

Carriage, Mountain. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Carriage, Prairie. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Carriage, Sea-coast. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Carriage, Siege. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Carrical, or Karical. A seaport town of Hindostan, on the coast of Coromandel. It was formerly strongly fortified, but is now thoroughly dismantled. It came into possession of the French in 1759; was taken by the English in 1803; and restored to the French in 1814.

Carrick. An old Gaelic term for a castle or fortress, as well as for a rock in the sea.

Carrickfergus. A seaport town in the county of Antrim, Ireland. Its castle is supposed to have been built by Hugh de Lacy in 1178. The town surrendered to the Duke of SchÖmberg, August 28, 1689. The castle surrendered to Thurot, a French naval officer, in 1760.

Carrick’s Ford. Over the Cheat River, Virginia. On July 13, 1861, a force of Confederates under Gen. Garnett, retreating from Laurel Hill, were pursued and here attacked by Union troops under Gen. Morris, and after a few attempts to make a stand, were completely routed, and Gen. Garnett killed.

Carroccio (Ital.). A very large four-wheeled carriage, which was used by the Crusaders during the Middle Ages. On its platform, which was large enough to hold 50 persons, was erected a tower surmounted with a cross and a standard, and to it was attached a bell, which indicated the passing of the carroccio. Before engaging in battle, an effigy of Christ of life size was placed on the platform and at its feet an altar; then a mass was held. A number of knights guarded it, and it was drawn by oxen richly caparisoned. Its invention is attributed to the people of Lombardy.

Carron. A village in Stirlingshire, Scotland, on a stream of the same name, falling into the river Forth. It is noted for its extensive iron-works. The carronade, a peculiar kind of gun, derives its name from this place.

Carrousel. A species of knightly exercise in imitation of the tournament, common in the courts of Europe till the beginning of the 18th century. It usually consisted in tests of skill in horsemanship, and in the use of the lance, sword, and pistol, the competitors being mostly dressed as were the knights of former times.

Cart. In a military sense, is a vehicle mounted on two wheels, and drawn by hand or by horses or oxen. See Hand-cart, Hand Sling-cart.

Cartagena. A city and fortified seaport of Spain, is in the province of Murcia, and on a bay of the Mediterranean. It was built by Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian general, 242 B.C.; taken by Scipio, 210. It was subsequently taken by the Goths, and did not begin to rise into importance again till the time of Philip II. It was taken by a British force under Sir John Leake in 1706; retaken by the Duke of Berwick, 1707.

Cartagena, or Carthagena. A fortified city of New Granada, South America. It was taken by the French in 1544, and subsequently by the English under Sir Francis Drake, in 1585, who plundered it and set it on fire; pillaged by the French in 1697; bombarded by Admiral Vernon in March, 1740; and unsuccessfully besieged by the English in 1741. In the contest with the mother-country, Cartagena was first besieged by Bolivar, and afterwards by Morillo, to whom it surrendered. It was subsequently reduced by the independent troops.

Carte, or Quarte. A movement of the sword in fencing, as tierce and carte. Also a movement of the rifle bayonet drill.

Carte-blanche. In a military sense, means a full and absolute power which is lodged in the hands of a general of an army, to act according to the best of his judgment, without waiting for superior instructions or orders. It likewise strictly means a blank paper, to be filled up with such conditions as the person to whom it is sent thinks proper.

Cartel. As a military term it is used to denote an agreement between two belligerents for the exchange of prisoners.

Cartel-ship. A vessel used in exchanging prisoners or carrying proposals to an enemy.

Carthage. An ancient and celebrated city in Africa, the renowned rival of Rome. It was founded by the Phoenicians, and was one of the latest settlements made by them on the African coast of the Mediterranean, about the middle of the 9th century B.C. No record of the early history of Carthage has been preserved. First alliance of Carthaginians and Romans, 509 B.C.; the Carthaginians in Sicily were defeated at Himera by Gelo, 480 B.C.; they took Agrigentum, 406 B.C., and were defeated by Agathocles, 310 B.C. The first Punic war began (which lasted twenty-three years) in 264 B.C., and ended in 241 B.C. Hamilcar Barcas was sent into Spain, and took with him his son, the famous Hannibal, 237 B.C. Hannibal conquered Spain as far as the Iberus, 219 B.C. The second Punic war began (which lasted seventeen years) in 218 B.C., and ended in 201 B.C. The third Punic war commenced 149 or 150 B.C.; Carthage taken and burned by order of the senate, 146 B.C. A colony settled at Carthage by C. Gracchus, 122 B.C.; its rebuilding planned by Julius CÆsar, 46 B.C., and executed by his successors; it was taken by Genseric the Vandal in 439; retaken by Belisarius, 533; taken and destroyed by Hassan, the Saracenic governor of Egypt, 698.

Carthage. The capital of Jasper Co., Mo., on Spring River. Near here, on July 5, 1861, an engagement took place between some of Gen. Lyon’s troops under Col. Sigel, and a superior force of Confederates under Gen. Rains and Col Parsons. The Union loss was 13 killed and 21 wounded.

Carthoun. The ancient cannon royal, carrying a 66-pound ball, with a point-blank range of 185 paces, and an extreme one of about 2000. It was 12 feet long and of 8¹/₂ inches diameter of bore.

Cartouch. A roll or case of paper, etc., holding a charge for a fire-arm.

Cartouch. In gunnery, a case of wood, about 3 inches thick at the bottom, bound about with marline, holding about 400 musket-balls, besides 8 or 10 iron balls of a pound each, to be discharged from a howitzer, for the defense of a pass, etc. It also implies an article made of leather, to sling over the shoulder of the gunner, who therein carries the ammunition from the tumbril for the service of the artillery, when at exercise in the field.

Cart-piece. An early battering cannon mounted on a peculiar cart.

Cartridge. For cannon, is the powder charge and its case. The case is a cylindrical bag of flannel, wildbore, or serge, in which the charge is placed. The mouth is closed by tying with twine, forming the choke, which is always turned towards the muzzle when the gun is charged. For chambered pieces the mouth of the cartridge-bag is closed with a cartridge-block to give it a proper form. For some services the cartridge is attached to the projectile, in others it is carried separately. See Ordnance, Ammunition for.

For small-arms, is the complete charge when the powder and lead are in the same case; if separate, it applies only to the powder and its case. A case containing powder only is called a blank cartridge. Cartridge-cases for military small-arms were formerly made of paper. In loading the gun the case was torn and the powder and ball put in separately. By using an inflammable paper the cartridge was afterwards used entire, especially in pistols and breech-loaders. Paper cases made very strong and reinforced by metallic heads are still much used in breech-loading shot-guns. Linen or cloth cases were also used at one period.

The introduction of breech-loaders into the military service has led to the universal adoption of metallic cartridges. The cases are cylinders of copper or brass, closed at the breech end, and holding both powder and bullet, the latter being retained in the case by a slight crimp. A small quantity of fulminate in the base inflames the powder upon being struck by the firing-pin. England is behind all other nations in the use of the Boxer cartridge, the case of which is made by a wrapping of thin sheet-brass. In the manufacture of metallic cartridges the United States leads the world. Millions were supplied the Turks in their late war with Russia by the Winchester Arms Company, of New Haven, Conn. Metallic cartridge are reloading and single fire. Reloading cartridges have an external primer, which can be renewed for successive loadings. The single fire have the fulminate inside the base, and cannot readily be reloaded. The copper cartridges for the U.S. service rifle, made at Frankford Arsenal, Pa., are of this latter class.

Cartridge-bag. See Cartridge.

Cartridge-bags. See Ordnance, Ammunition for, Ammunition for Field Service.

Cartridge-belt. A belt for carrying small-arm cartridges. A form extensively used in the Western United States, called the prairie-belt, has a number of leather or canvas loops sewed on the outside in which the cartridges are stuck.

Cartridge-block. See Ordnance, Ammunition for, Strapped Ammunition.

Cartridge, Bottle. A metallic cartridge, so called from its shape. It contains a larger charge than the ordinary cylindrical cartridge for the same caliber. The cartridge used in the Martini-Henry is of this shape.

Cartridge-box. A leathern case, with cells for cartridges, which are protected by a flap of leather. This box is suspended by a leathern strap, which passes over the left shoulder and under the right arm of the wearer, or is suspended from the waist-belt, as in the U.S. service.

Cartridge, Buck-and-ball. A cartridge containing a round musket-ball and 3 buckshot, formerly much used in smooth-bore muskets.

Cartridge, Buckshot. Containing a charge of buckshot. Formerly used in muskets, but now obsolete for military purposes.

Cartridge, Centre Primed. A metallic cartridge in which the fulminate is placed in the centre of the cartridge head or base.

Cartridge, Multi-ball. A metallic cartridge recently proposed by Capt. E. M. Wright, U.S. Ordnance Corps, in which two or more bullets or pieces of lead are substituted for the ordinary bullet, with the idea of doing more execution at short ranges.

Cartridge-paper. A stout paper formerly used in making military cartridges.

Cartridge, Reloading. See Cartridge.

Cartridge, Rim-fire. A metallic cartridge in which the fulminate is placed in the rim surrounding the head. This rim being struck at any point, explodes the powder. Formerly much used in pistols and magazine guns. These cartridges are not reloading.

Cartridge, Single-fire. See Cartridge.

Casale, or Casal. A town of Piedmont, the capital of a province of the same name, on the river Po. Here the French defeated the Spaniards in 1640. In May, 1859, an Austrian reconnoitring party, who had advanced from Vercelli, were here repulsed by the Sardinian Bersaglieri (riflemen).

Casal Nova. A village in Spain, where a corps of Lord Wellington’s army had an affair with the French troops under Marshal MassÉna, during their retreat from Portugal on March 14, 1811.

Cascabel. In gunnery, is the projection in rear of the breech, and is composed of the knob, the neck, and the fillet. It is used to facilitate the handling of the piece in mounting and dismounting it, and moving it when off its carriage.

Cascans. In fortification, are holes in the form of wells, serving as entrances to galleries, or giving vent to the enemy’s mines.

Case-hardening. The process of converting the surface of iron into steel. Formerly much used in making small-arms. The parts to be hardened, such as the hammer, tumbler, etc., were inclosed in an airtight iron box, filled with charcoal, bones, particles of horn, or other carbonizing substance. The box and its contents were then submitted to prolonged heat. The process is that of incomplete cementation (which see).

Casemate. Was originally a loop-holed gallery excavated in a bastion, from which the garrison could fire on an enemy who had obtained possession of the ditch without risk of loss to themselves. The term was afterwards applied to a bomb-proof vault in a fortress, which is designed for the protection of the garrison, without direct reference to the annoyance of the enemy. A casemated battery consists of such a vault or vaults, with openings for the guns.

Casemate Carriage. A gun-carriage used in casemates. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Casemate Gun. A gun mounted in a casemate.

Casemates Nouvelles (Fr.). Arched batteries which are constructed under all the openings of revetments or ramparts. The different forts of Cherbourg are defended by these casemates; the works erected around Dover Castle come likewise under this description; the works at Fort Columbus, N. Y., are erected on the same principle.

Casemate Truck. Consists of a stout frame of wood mounted upon three barbette traverse wheels. The front wheel is pivoted so as to change direction. It is used to move cannon and heavy weights through posterns and along casemate galleries.

Casernes. In fortification, are buildings for the soldiers of the garrison to live in; generally erected between the houses of fortified towns and the rampart. In a general acceptation, casernes signify barracks.

Case-shot. In the U.S. service, a case-shot is a hollow cast-iron projectile filled with musket-balls. The projectile has thinner walls than the ordinary shell. To fill it a tube is inserted in the fuze-hole, the balls are introduced, and melted sulphur or rosin is poured in to fill up the interstices and keep the balls in position. When this has solidified the tube is withdrawn, leaving a vacant space for a small bursting charge. This description answers for the two kinds used,—the spherical case for the 12-pounder smooth-bore and the oblong case for rifle guns. Case-shot should be burst in the air a short distance in front of the troops fired upon. Time-fuzes are, therefore, used with both; the Bormann-fuze for the former, and the paper fuze for the latter. In Europe this ammunition is called shrapnel, from the inventor. There the term case-shot is applied to what is called in the United States canister,—that is, a thin case filled with bullets, used for short range without fuzes, the case being disrupted in the gun.

Cashier. To dismiss from the service with ignominy. An officer thus dismissed is understood to be excluded from the service thereafter. A dismissed officer may be restored; a cashiered officer is deemed unworthy of the indulgence.

Cashmere. A province of Northern India; was subdued by the Mohammedans in the 16th century; by the Afghans in 1752; by the Sikhs in 1819; and ceded to the British in 1846, who gave it to the Maharajah Gholab-Singh, with a nominal sovereignty.

Casing. The cast-iron case of converted guns (which see).

Casks, Raft of. See Raft of Casks.

Casque, or Cask. A piece of defensive armor, to cover and protect the head and neck in battle; a helmet.

Cassano. A town of Lombardy, 16 miles from Milan, on the river Adda. In 1259, Eccelino Romana, chief of the Ghibelines, was here defeated and killed. In 1705 the French under the Duke of VendÔme gained a victory over the Imperialists, commanded by Prince EugÈne; and in 1799, Suwarrow inflicted a defeat on the French under Moreau.

Cassel. A city of Germany, 90 miles northeast from Frankfort-on-the-Main. It was the capital of Westphalia under Napoleon I.; besieged by the allies in 1761; taken by the allies November 1, 1762; captured by the Russians in September, 1813.

Cassel. A town of France, department of the North. On April 11, 1677, the Marshal de Luxemburg near here defeated the Prince of Orange, who lost 4000 dead and 3000 prisoners. The French occupied Cassel, June 19, 1707.

Casse-tÊte (Fr.). A mace or war-club, made of very hard wood, used formerly in savage warfare.

Cassine. A small house, especially in the open country; applied also to a house standing alone, where soldiers may lie hid, or may take a position.

Cas, St. A village on the coast of France, in the department CÔte du Nord. Here, in 1758, a landing of the British under Lord Cavendish was repulsed, and 100 years afterwards a column was inaugurated to commemorate the event.

Castalla. A town of Spain, 24 miles northwest of Alicante. The Spaniards under O’Donnell were here defeated by the French under Delort, August 21, 1812.

Casteggio. A town of Northern Italy, in the division of Alessandria. On June 9, 1800, the battle of Montebello was gained by the French under Lannes over the Austrians in the neighborhood of this place. On May 20, 1859, another engagement was fought here between the Austrians under Count Stadion and the French and Sardinian troops, in which the latter were victorious.

Castel-a-Mare. A seaport town of Sicily. Richelieu defeated the Spanish fleet here in 1648; and in 1799 a battle was fought between the French under Marshal Macdonald and the allied English and Neapolitans.

Castel Fidardo. Near Ancona, Central Italy. Near here Gen. LamoriciÈre and the papal army of 11,000 men were totally defeated by the Sardinian general Cialdini, September 18, 1860. LamoriciÈre with a few horsemen fled to Ancona, then besieged; on September 29 he and the garrison surrendered.

Castellan. A governor or constable of a castle.

Castellated. Adorned with turrets and battlements, like a castle.

Castellation. The act of fortifying a house and rendering it a castle. Now obsolete.

Castelnaudary. A town of France, department of Aude. It suffered greatly in the wars of the Middle Ages, and under its walls the Duke of Montmorency was made prisoner by the royal troops in 1632.

Castiglione. A fortified town of Lombardy, 22 miles northwest from Mantua. Here, in 1796, the French under Augereau gained a decisive victory over the Austrians. The French commander was afterwards made, on account of this battle, Duc de Castiglione. In 1859 the battle of Solferino also occurred in its neighborhood.

Castillejos. In Northern Africa; here, in January, 1860, was fought the first decisive action of the war between Spain and Morocco. Gen. Prim, after a vigorous resistance, repulsed the Moors under Muley Abbas, and advanced towards Tetuan.

Castillon. A town of France, in the department of Gironde. It is celebrated as the scene of the battle between the forces of Henry VI. of England and Charles VII. of France, in July, 1453, in which the English met with a signal defeat, their leader, the Earl of Shrewsbury, and his son being slain.

Casting. The rejection of horses deemed unfit for further cavalry use.

Casting Cannon. See Ordnance, Construction of.

Cast Iron. See Ordnance, Metals for.

Castle. A name given to a building constructed as a dwelling, as well as for the purpose of repelling attack. The name is especially given to buildings of this kind constructed in Europe in the Middle Ages, and which were generally surrounded by a moat, foss, or ditch.

Castlebar. A town of Ireland. French troops under Humbert landed at Killala, and, assisted by Irish insurgents here, compelled the king’s troops under Lake to retreat, August 27, 1798; but were compelled to surrender at Ballinamuck.

Castlecomer. A town of Ireland; in the rebellion of 1798 this town was attacked by the rebels, and nearly destroyed by fire.

Castle-guard. The guard which defends a castle.

Castles. In heraldry, castles are often given as charges in the shields of persons who have reduced them, or been the first to mount their walls in an assault.

Cast-metal Gun. See Ordnance, Cast-metal Cannon.

Castrametation. Is the art of laying out camps, and of placing the troops so that the different arms of the service shall afford support to each other in the best manner.

Cast Steel. See Ordnance, Metals for.

Casualties. In the military service, is a word which includes all losses in numerical strength of officers by death, dismissal, or resignation, and of enlisted men by death, desertion, or discharge; also all losses in fighting strength caused by wounds.

Casus Belli. A Latin phrase used with reference to any event, or complication between sovereign powers, which gives rise to a declaration of war.

Catafalco. In ancient military architecture, a scaffold of timber, decorated with sculpture, paintings, etc., for supporting the coffin of a deceased hero during the funeral solemnity.

Catalans. The inhabitants of Catalonia, Spain. Their language, costume, and habits are quite distinct from those of the rest of their countrymen. In energy, industry, and intelligence they greatly surpass the rest of the Spaniards. They were considered brave warriors.

Catalaunian Plain. The ancient name of the wide plain surrounding ChÂlons-sur-Marne, in the old province of Campagne, France, celebrated as the field of battle where the West Goths, and the forces under the Roman general Aetius, gained a great victory over Attila in 451. A wild tradition tells that three days after the great fight, the ghosts of the fallen myriads appeared on the plain, and renewed the conflict.

Catalonia. An old province of Western Spain, was settled by the Goths and Alani about 409; conquered by the Saracens, 712; recovered by Pepin and Charlemagne; united with Aragon in 1137. It formed part of the Spanish marches and the territory of the Count of Barcelona.

Catania (anc. Catana). A town near Mount Etna, Sicily. The ancient city was founded by the Phoenicians or Greeks, and was nearly as old as Rome. It was taken by the Athenian general Nicias about 413 B.C., and was an important city under the Romans. In August, 1802, the town was held by Garibaldi and his volunteers, in opposition to the Italian government. He was captured on August 29.

Cataphract. The old Roman term for a horseman in complete armor.

Cataphracta. In the ancient military art, a piece of heavy defensive armor, formed of cloth or leather, fortified with iron scales or links, wherewith sometimes only the breast, sometimes the whole body, and sometimes the horse too, was covered.

Catapult (Lat. catapulta). An engine of war used by the ancients, somewhat resembling a cross-bow. In the catapult a string or rope, suddenly freed from great tension, gave a powerful impulse to an arrow placed in a groove. There were great catapults, fixed upon a scaffold with wheels, which were used in sieges, and small ones, carried in the hand, which were employed in the field.

Cataract. A portcullis.

Catawba Indians. A tribe of aborigines who formerly inhabited the Carolinas. A remnant still exists on a reservation on the Catawba River. See Indians and their Agencies.

Cateau Cambresis. In Northern France, where on April 2 and 3, 1559, peace was concluded between Henry II. of France, Philip II. of Spain, and Elizabeth of England. France ceded Savoy, Corsica, and nearly 200 forts in Italy and the Low Countries to Philip.

Caterva. In ancient military writings, a term used in speaking of the Gaulish or Celtiberian armies, denoting a body of 6000 armed men. The word is also used to denote a party of soldiers in disarray; in opposition to cohort or turma, which signify in good order.

Cat-o’-nine-tails. An instrument of punishment formerly used to flog offenders in the army, consisting of nine pieces of line or cord fastened to a piece of thick rope, and having three knots at intervals.

Cattaro. A fortified town of Dalmatia, Austria, at the bottom of the Gulf of Cattaro. This town was captured by the British in 1813, and till 1814 belonged successively to Austria and France.

Catti. An ancient German tribe, attacked but not subdued by the Romans; absorbed by the Franks in the 3d century.

Caudine Forks. Two narrow mountain-gorges or defiles near the town of Caudium, in ancient Samnium. They are celebrated in connection with a humiliating disaster which the Roman army suffered in 321 B.C.

Caution. An explanation given previous to the word of command, by which soldiers are called to attention, that they may execute any given movement with unanimity and correctness.

Cavalcade. In military history, implies a pompous procession of horsemen, equipages, etc., by way of parade, to grace a triumph, public entry, or the like.

Cavalier. Originally meant any horse-soldier, but in English history is the name given to the party which adhered to King Charles I., in opposition to the Roundheads, or friends of the Parliament.

Cavalier. In fortification, is a defense-work constructed on the terre-plein, or level ground of a bastion. It rises to a height varying from 8 to 12 feet above the rampart, and has a parapet about 6 feet high. Its uses are to command any rising ground held by the enemy within cannon-shot, and to guard the curtain, or plain wall between two bastions, from being enfiladed. A cavalier battery—used in siege operations—is a battery of which the terre-plein, or platform of earth on which the gun stands, is above the ordinary level of the ground.

Cavalot. An obsolete cannon carrying a ball weighing one pound.

Cavalry. That part of a military force which consists of troops that serve on horseback. In European armies cavalry are generally classed as heavy, medium, and light,—cuirassiers and dragoons, lancers, hussars, etc. In the U.S. service all mounted soldiers are simply called cavalry.

Caveating. In fencing, implies a motion whereby a person in an instant brings his sword, which was presented to one side of his adversary, to the opposite side.

Cavesson. A sort of nose-band of leather or iron, which is put on the nose of a horse, to assist in breaking or training him.

Cavin. In military affairs, implies a natural hollow, sufficiently capacious to lodge a body of troops, and facilitate their approach to a place. If it be within musket-shot, it is a place of arms ready made, and serves for opening the trenches, free from the enemy’s shot.

Cavriana. A village of Northern Italy. The tower of this place formed one of the principal positions of the centre of the Austrian army, from which it was driven by the Franco-Sardinian forces, under Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel, at the battle of Solferino, June 24, 1859.

Cawnpoor, or Cawnpore. A town of Hindostan, on the right bank of the Ganges. It is an important British military station. It was garrisoned during the mutiny in June, 1857, by native troops under Sir Hugh Wheeler; these troops broke out into revolt. Nana Sahib, who had long lived on friendly terms with the British, joined the rebels; he took Cawnpoor, June 26, after a three weeks’ siege, and in spite of a treaty, massacred great numbers of the British, without respect to age or sex, in the most cruel manner. Gen. Havelock defeated Nana Sahib July 16, at Futtehpore, and retook Cawnpoor, July 17. Sir Colin Campbell defeated the rebels here on December 6, following.

Cayenne. French Guiana, South America; settled by the French, 1604-35. It afterwards came successively into the hands of the English (1654), French, and Dutch. The last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, January 12, 1809, but was restored to the French in 1814.

Cedar Creek. In Northern Virginia. While encamped on this creek on the morning of October 19, 1864, the army of Gen. Sheridan was suddenly attacked before daylight by the Confederate troops under Gen. Early, its left flank turned, and the whole line driven back in confusion about 4 miles, with the loss of 24 pieces of artillery. Gen. Sheridan, who was at Winchester on his return from Washington, on hearing of this disaster, hastened to the scene of action, reformed his corps, and awaited the attack of the enemy, which was made and handsomely repulsed about 1 P.M. About 3 P.M. Sheridan attacked the enemy and completely routed him, recovering his own artillery and capturing 30 pieces besides, thus converting into a brilliant victory what threatened to be a great disaster. About 2000 prisoners and 300 wagons and ambulances fell into Sheridan’s hands, and many of his own men who had been taken prisoners in the morning were recovered.

Cedar Mountain. A sugar-loaf eminence about 2 miles west of Mitchell’s Station, Culpeper Co., Va. On August 9, 1862, a sanguinary conflict took place here between the Confederate forces under Gens. Jackson and Ewell, and part of Gen. Pope’s army under Gen. Banks, night putting an end to the contest. The Federals being largely outnumbered, suffered severely, and fell back about a mile, but without disorder. Their loss was about 1500, 300 of whom were taken prisoners. A considerable quantity of ammunition, stores, etc., also fell into the hands of the Confederates.

Celeres. The life-guards which attended Romulus in the infancy of Rome, were so called. They were laid aside by Numa Pompilius. Celeres were properly distinguished from other troops, by being lightly armed and acting always on foot.

Cells. Places of solitary confinement in which soldiers are placed, as punishment for serious crimes.

Celtiberi, or Celtiberians. An ancient and warlike people of Spain, who are renowned in history for their long and obstinate resistance to the Romans. In the second Punic war, after giving important aid to the Carthaginians, they were induced by the generosity of Scipio to accept the alliance of Rome. They revolted against Rome in 181 B.C., but were appeased by Gracchus in 179. War was renewed in 153, and continued with varying success until after the capture of Numantia, 134 B.C. In spite of this great blow the Celtiberi again renewed the war under Sertorius, and it was only after his fall that they began to adopt the Roman language, dress, and manners.

Cement. Hydraulic cements are much used in building permanent fortifications. The cement used by the Romans in their great sea-walls, aqueducts, etc., which are still standing as monuments of their civil engineering, was pozzuolana, a volcanic earth from near BaiÆ, Italy. It is still an article of export from Italy. The most noted modern cement is Portland, made artificially in England by burning a mixture of the chalk and clay from the valley of the Medway.

Cementation. In metallurgy, is the process of converting metals by absorption under great heat. Specially applied to the conversion of iron into steel by causing it to absorb carbon. The iron bars are imbedded in charcoal and exposed to prolonged heat in a closed furnace. The qualities of the resulting steel vary with the degree and duration of the heating. The bars, when removed, are called blistered steel from their appearance. See Ordnance, Metals for, Blistered Steel.

Cenotaph. The empty tomb of a hero, or monument erected in honor of a person, without the body of the deceased being interred in or near it.

Centesimation. In ancient military history, a mild kind of military punishment, in cases of desertion, mutiny, and the like, when only every one hundredth man was executed.

Central America. Includes the republics of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica (which see). They declared their independence September 21, 1821, and separated from the Mexican Confederation July 21, 1823. The states made a treaty of union between themselves March 21, 1847. There has been among them since much anarchy and bloodshed.

Centre. A point equally distant from the extremities of a line, figure, or body; the middle point or place of anything.

Centre of an Army. The body of troops occupying the place in the line between the wings. See Target.

Centre of Gravity. The point of a body about which all its parts are balanced. This is a matter of great importance in cannon, both for mechanical manoeuvres and for ordinary handling. In all large guns in the United States, and in many in Europe, the axis of the trunnions passes through the centre of gravity of the gun. Such guns have no preponderance, and need no support in firing except the trunnions. This innovation was introduced by the genius of Rodman, and brought many advantages in the handling of heavy guns. In projectiles, the centre of gravity, or inertia, is also a thing of moment. Spherical projectiles in which this point does not coincide with the centre of figure are said to be eccentric, and are subject to certain deviations (see Projectiles); deviation of the relative position of these points influences the flight also of rifle projectiles.

Centre of the Bastion. In fortification, is the intersection made by the two demi-gorges.

Centrifugal Gun. A form of machine gun in which balls are thrown from a chambered disk rotating with great speed.

Centrobaric Method. The method ordinarily used to determine by calculation the centre of gravity of a projected gun. The principle used is that the volume generated by any surface in revolving about a fixed axis is measured by the product of the surface into the path described by its centre of gravity. The moments of the weights of the several parts are referred to an axis usually taken tangent to the knob of the cascabel. The sum of these moments, divided by the weight of the piece, gives the distance of the centre of gravity from the assumed axis. In homogeneous guns, the volumes of the several parts can be used instead of the weights.

Centurion. A military officer among the ancient Romans, who commanded a (centum) hundred men.

Century. In an ancient military sense, meant a hundred soldiers, who were employed in working the battering-ram.

Cephalonia. One of the Ionian Islands; was taken from the Ætolians by the Romans 189 B.C., and given to the Athenians by Hadrian in 135. It was conquered by the Normans in 1146, afterwards passed into the possession of the Venetians, and was taken by the English in 1819.

Cephisus. A river in Attica, near which Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was defeated and slain by the Catalans in 1311.

CercelÉe, or RecercelÉe. In heraldry, is a cross circling or curling at the ends, like a ram’s horn.

Cercle (Grand-cercle), Fr. A form observed under the old government of France, by which it was directed that every evening at a specific hour the sergeants and corporals of brigade should assemble to receive orders, the former standing in front of the latter. Subsequent to the grand cercle, a smaller one was made in each regiment, when general or regimental orders were again repeated to the sergeants of each regiment, and from them communicated to the officers of the several companies.

Ceremonies, Stated Military. Exercises, such as parades, reviews, inspections, escorts of the color, escorts of honor, funeral honors, guard-mounting, etc.

Cerignola. A town of South Italy, in the province of Capitanata. Here, in 1503, the French were defeated by the Spaniards, and the Duke of Nemours, who commanded the former, was slain.

Cerro Gordo. A celebrated mountain-pass in Mexico, about 60 miles northwest of Vera Cruz. Here an army of about 12,000 Mexicans under Santa Anna was totally defeated by about 8000 U.S. troops under Gen. Scott, April 18, 1847. The Mexicans lost about 1000 killed and wounded, besides 3000 prisoners; the American loss was 431 killed and wounded.

Certificate of Disability. See Disability.

Certificate of Merit. See Merit, Certificate of.

Cessation of Arms. An armistice or truce, agreed to by the commanders of armies, to give them time for a capitulation, or for other purposes.

Ceuta. A fortified seaport of Morocco, opposite Gibraltar. The castle stands on the highest point of the ancient Abyla, one of the pillars of Hercules, terminating a peninsula. This was a Mauritanian town under the Romans, and in 1415 was taken from the Moors by the Portuguese. In 1580 it passed into the possession of the Spanish, in whose hands it afterwards remained.

Ceylon (anc. Taprobane). An island in the Indian Ocean. It was invaded by the Portuguese Almeyda, 1505, but it was known to the Romans in the time of Claudius, 41. The Dutch landed in Ceylon in 1602; they captured the capital, Colombo, in 1503. Intercourse with the British began in 1713. A large portion of the country was taken by them in 1782, but was restored in 1783. The Dutch settlements were seized by the British, 1795. Ceylon was ceded to the British by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred or imprisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sovereignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815.

ChÆronea (Boeotia). Here Greece was ruined by Philip, 32,000 Macedonians defeating 30,000 Thebans, Athenians, etc., August 6 or 7, 338 B.C. Here Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, was defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians were slain, 86 B.C.

Chain. A chain made of a kind of wire, divided into links of an equal length, is made use of by military engineers for setting out works on the ground, because cord lines are apt to shrink and give way.

Chain-ball. See Projectile.

Chain-mail. A kind of armor made of interlaced rings, both flexible and strong; much used in the 12th and 13th centuries.

Chain-shot. See Projectile.

Chair. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Nomenclature of Artillery Carriage.

Chalcedon. In Asia Minor, opposite Byzantium, colonized by Magarians about 684 B.C. It was taken by Darius, 505 B.C.; by the Romans, 74; plundered by the Goths, 259 A.D.; taken by Chosroes the Persian, 609; by Orchan the Turk in 1338.

Chalcis. An ancient Greek city, of great antiquity, the capital of the island of Euboea. It rose to great eminence, but finally became a tributary of Athens, from whose sway it revolted several times, being as often, however, subdued, and held until the downfall of the Athenian empire at the close of the Peloponnesian war. In later times it was successively occupied by the Macedonians, Antiochus, Mithridates, and the Romans. It joined the AchÆans in the last war against the Romans, and the town was in consequence destroyed by Mummius. The modern city of Egripo, or Negropont, built on its site, for a time in possession of the Venetians, was taken by the Turks in 1470.

Chalgrove. In Oxfordshire, England. At a skirmish here with Prince Rupert, June 18, 1643, John Hampden, of the Parliament party, was mortally wounded. A column was erected to his memory, June 18, 1843.

Challenge. The act of a sentinel in questioning or demanding the countersign from those who appear at his post.

Challenge. See Appendix, Articles of War, 26, 27, and 28.

Challenge of Members of Courts-martial. When a member shall be challenged by a prisoner, he must state his cause of challenge, of which the court shall, after due deliberation, determine the relevancy or validity, and decide accordingly; and no challenge to more than one member at a time shall be received by the court.

ChÂlons-sur-Marne. A town of France, in the department of Marne. Here the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, the last of the pretenders to the throne termed the Thirty Tyrants, 274; and here in 451 Aetius defeated Attila the Hun, compelling him to retire into Pannonia.

Chamade. A signal made for parley by beat of drum.

Chamber. Of a mine, that place where the powder is deposited.

Chamber. In howitzers, and mortars of the old model, was the smallest part of the bore, and contained the charge of powder. In the howitzers the chamber was cylindrical, and was united with the large cylinder of the bore by a conical surface; the angles of intersection of the conical surface with the cylinders of the bore and chamber were rounded (in profile) by arcs of circles. In the 8-inch howitzer, the chamber was united with the cylinder of the bore by spherical surface, in order that the shell might, when necessary, be inserted without a sabot. The chamber is omitted in all cannon of the late models, the cylinder of the bore terminating at the bottom in a semi-ellipsoid. The old chambers were subcaliber. The first use of a chamber larger than the bore occurred, it is believed, in a gun invented by an American named Ferris. The gun had a great range. One of the most important improvements in recent ordnance consists in the use of this chamber. The English, who deserve the credit of first appreciating it, now use it in all their largest guns. See Ordnance, History of.

Chambersburg. The capital of Franklin Co., Pa. This place was the scene of several exciting incidents during the civil war. It was occupied by a party of Confederate cavalry under Gen. Stuart in 1862, by a part of Gen. Ewell’s forces in June, 1863, and next month almost totally destroyed by fire by a party of Confederate cavalry under Gen. McCausland.

Chamfron, or Chamfrain. The frontlet of a barbed or armed horse, usually having a spike between the eyes.

Champ de Mars. An open square in front of the Military School, Paris, which was used for the great meetings of the French people, reviews, etc.

Champigny. A town of France, department of the Seine, 8 miles east-southeast of Paris. On November 30, 1870, a force of 120,000 French under Gens. Trochu and Ducrot, who made a sortie from Paris, were met near here by the Germans, and some severe fighting ensued, with great loss on both sides, the French holding the taken possessions until the contest was renewed, December 2, when the French were compelled to retreat.

Champion Hills. In Hinds Co., Miss., west of Jackson. Here the Confederate forces under Gen. Pemberton were defeated by the Union troops under Gen. Grant, May 16, 1863.

Champlain, Lake. An extensive body of water forming part of the boundary between the States of Vermont and New York, and extending northward a few miles beyond the Canada line. It was the scene of engagements between the Americans and British during the war of independence. On its waters also, in 1814, Commodore Macdonough gained a victory over the British fleet.

Chancellorsville. A small village of Spottsylvania Co., Va., near the Rappahannock River, about 65 miles north by west from Richmond. This place was the scene of several sanguinary conflicts between the Federal army of the Potomac under Gen. Hooker and the Confederates under Gen. Lee. On April 28, 1863, the Federal army crossed the Rappahannock; on May 2, Gen. “Stonewall” Jackson furiously attacked and routed the right wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party firing on him by mistake. Gen. Stuart took his command, and after a severe conflict on May 3 and 4, with great loss to both parties, the Federals were compelled to recross the Rappahannock. The struggle was compared to that at Hougoumont during the battle of Waterloo.

Chandelier. In military engineering, a wooden frame, which was filled with fascines, to form a traverse in sapping.

Chanderee, or Chandhaire. A town of India in the province of Malwa. Its fortress, formerly deemed impregnable, consists of a strong rampart of sandstone flanked by circular towers, and is situated on a high hill. During the native wars, being a place of importance, it was frequently besieged.

Chandernagore. The principal settlement of the French in Bengal, which is encompassed by the British district of Hooghly. In 1757 this settlement was taken by the British, but restored in 1763. In 1793 it was again taken by the British, but restored to the French a second time in 1816.

Chandore. A fortified town of British India, 130 miles northwest from Bombay. In 1804 and 1818 this place capitulated to the British.

Chantier (Fr.). A square piece of wood, which is used for the purpose of raising anything. It serves to place barrels of gunpowder in a proper manner, and frequently to try pieces of ordnance instead of frames.

Chantilly. A post-village of Fairfax Co., Va. Here, on September 1, 1862, the Confederate troops of Gen. Lee attacked a part of Gen. Pope’s army, under Gens. Reno, Stevens, and Kearney, and a severe conflict ensued, lasting into the night, and resulting in the death of Gens. Stevens and Kearney.

Chape. The metallic part put on the end of a scabbard, to prevent the point of the sword or bayonet from piercing through it.

Chapeau. In a military sense, a hat, cap, or other head-covering.

Chapeau Bras. A military hat which can be flattened and put under the arm.

Chaperon. A hood or cape worn by Knights of the Garter.

Chaplain. A clergyman with a military commission, giving him the spiritual charge of soldiers. There are 30 post and 4 regimental chaplains in the U.S. army.

Chaplain-General. In the British service, the officer at the head of the chaplain’s department.

Chaplet. In heraldry, is always composed of four roses, the other parts being leaves.

Chappe (Fr.). A barrel containing another barrel, which holds gunpowder. It likewise means a composition of earth, horse-dung, and wad, that covers the mouth of a cannon or mortar.

Chapultepec. A strong fortress of Mexico, situated about 2 miles southwest of the metropolis. It consists of an eminence rising to the height of about 150 feet, with a strong castle on top. During the Mexican war it was deemed necessary by Gen. Scott, for strategic reasons, to capture this last outward defense of the capital prior to the attack on the city itself. This was gallantly effected on September 13, 1847, and next day the city was entered by the American forces, thus virtually ending the war. Preparations for the assault were commenced on the night of September 11, and before the evening of the 12th, owing to the skillful arrangement of Gen. Scott’s artillery, the exterior defenses began to give way. Next day was determined on for the attack. The American forces were so placed that the assault could be made simultaneously from different sides at a preconcerted signal, which would be the temporary cessation of the cannonade from their batteries. It was given, and the attacking forces advanced, Gen. Quitman’s division from the south, and Gen. Pillow from the wooded slope on the west, Gen. Smith’s brigade supporting Quitman, Pillow supported by the division of Gen. Worth, and the batteries throwing shells into the fort over the heads of their friends. Under a heavy fire of musketry the attacking forces advance, and step by step they gain every disputed point, scaling-ladders are brought into requisition, an entrance effected, and the defeated Mexicans, dislodged and retreating, are pursued to the very gates of their capital. The American loss during the three days was 833 killed and wounded.

Charcoal. One of the ingredients of gunpowder. It is made by distilling small sticks of wood in closed retorts. Willow, alder, poplar, and dogwood are some of the woods used. In distilling the heat should be kept below redness. Charcoal should be light in weight, and have a velvety fracture. It inflames at about 460° Fahr. Its composition and properties vary with the nature of the wood and mode of distillation employed.

Charcoal obtained from light wood is the best for gunpowder, as it is more combustible and easy to pulverize, and contains less earthy matters. Willow and poplar are used for this purpose in the United States and black elder in Europe. The wood must be sound and should not be more than 3 or 4 years old, and about 1 inch in diameter; branches larger than this should be split up. It is cut in the spring when the sap runs freely, and is immediately stripped of its bark. The smaller branches are used for fine sporting powder.

The operation of charring may be performed in pits, but the method now almost universally used in making charcoal for gunpowder is that of distillation. For this purpose the wood is placed in an iron vessel, generally of a cylindrical form, to which a cover is luted; an opening with a pipe is made to conduct off the gaseous products, and the wood is thus exposed to the heat of a furnace. The progress of distillation is judged of by the color of the flame and smoke, and sometimes by test-sticks, which are introduced through tubes prepared for the purpose.

Properties.—The charcoal thus obtained should retain a certain degree of elasticity, and should have a brown color, the wood not being entirely decomposed. As it readily absorbs one-twentieth of its weight of moisture, which diminishes its inflammability, it should be made only in proportion as it is required for use. Wood generally contains 52 per cent. of carbon, but distillation furnishes not more than 30 to 40 per cent. of charcoal.

As it is desirable to have charcoal for gunpowder very combustible, it must be prepared at a low temperature, and must be light.

Accidents.—When recently prepared charcoal is pulverized and laid in heaps, it is liable to absorb oxygen with such rapidity as to cause spontaneous combustion. This has been the cause of serious accidents at powder-mills, and hence it is important not to pulverize charcoal until it has been exposed to the air for several days. When charcoal has not absorbed moisture, and is mixed with oxidizing substances, it may be inflamed by violent shocks or by friction. This is the principal cause of the accidents which occur in the preparation of explosive mixtures which contain charcoal. See Gunpowder.

Chard. A town of England, in Somersetshire. Here the royalists were defeated in the civil wars between Charles I. and the Parliament.

Charenton. A town of France, in the department of the Seine. It stands on the Marne, over which there is a bridge, which was frequently the scene of bloody conflicts between the citizens and the soldiers during the French revolutions. It now forms a portion of the fortifications of Paris.

Charge. The act of rushing on the enemy with a view to come to close fighting. It is also sometimes applied to the temporary command of a detachment, troop, company, or battery. A charge likewise means the statement of the crime for which an officer or soldier is brought before a court-martial.

Charge. The quantity of powder with which a piece of artillery is loaded. The charge corresponding to the maximum velocity in the projectile is called the maximum charge. The longer the gun the greater the maximum charge. In the early days of artillery, when powder was used in the form of dust, a very large charge was necessary. After the introduction of grained powder it was reduced gradually to about one-fourth the weight of the shot. At the time of the recent departures in ordnance, the charge for smooth-bore guns was from one-fifth to one-eighth the weight of the projectile; for howitzers, from one-eighth to one-twentieth; for mortars the charge varied with the range, the largest being about one-ninth. For rifle guns the disproportion was greater than for smooth-bores, the average being about one-tenth. In small-arms, the charge for the old smooth-bore musket was about one-third the weight of the ball. When the rifle was introduced, this proportion was retained till the oblong bullet began to be used, when the charge was relatively much diminished, till it fell to about one-tenth. The tendency lately has been to increase it. In some of the best-known rifles of the present day the charge is about one-fifth,—a majority use more than one-sixth. The same tendency is still more observable in heavy ordnance. The largest Krupp, Woolwich, and Armstrong guns use a charge greater than one-fourth the weight of the projectile.

Charge. The position of a weapon fitted for attack; as, to bring a weapon to the charge.

Charge. In heraldry, the figures represented on a shield are called charges, and a shield with figures upon it is said to be charged. The charges in a shield ought to be few in number, and strongly marked, both as regards their character and the mode of their representation. The family shield belonging to the head of the house almost always is simpler,—i.e., has fewer charges than the shields of collaterals, or even of junior members.

Charger (Fr. cheval de bataille). A horse kept by an officer for military purposes.

Chariot. In antiquity, a war car or vehicle.

Charleroi. A strongly fortified town of Belgium, in Hainaut. This place was fortified by Vauban. Several great battles have been fought near this town, especially in 1690 and 1794. Charleroi was besieged by the Prince of Orange, 1672 and 1677; but he was soon obliged to retire. Near here, at Ligny, Napoleon attacked the Prussian line, making it fall back upon Wavres, June 16, 1815.

Charleston. A port of entry and the chief city of South Carolina, founded in 1672. On Sullivan’s Island, about 7 miles below, communicating with the harbor, a garrison of about 400 Americans under Col. Moultrie sustained an assault from 9 British ships of war, and gallantly repulsed them, on June 28, 1776. The city was afterwards besieged, and after a gallant resistance of nearly six weeks surrendered to the British, May 12, 1780, being held by them till 1782. In the civil war (1861-65) it was here the first gun was fired, which resulted in the reduction of the famous Fort Sumter. In the latter part of the war it was bombarded and besieged by the Federal troops. Its evacuation by the Confederates and its occupation by the Federals followed, February 18, 1865.

Chase. In gunnery, is the conical part of the gun in front of the reinforce.

Chase-ring. In gunnery, is a band at the front end of the chase.

Chassepot. A species of rifle. See Small-arms.

Chasseurs. A French word signifying “hunters,” applied in various forms to light troops in the French service, organized at different times, either as infantry or cavalry, as chasseurs À pied, de Montague, de Vincennes, for infantry, and chasseurs À cheval, d’Afrique, Algeriens, etc., for cavalry. They have organizations in other armies also corresponding to these, such as the jÄgers in the Austrian army, and the cacciatore dei Alpi of the Garibaldian troops in the Italian war of 1859-60.

Chassis. A traversing frame or movable railway, along which the carriage of a heavy gun in barbette, or casemate, moves backward and forward in action. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Sea-coast Carriages.

Chastleton. A parish of England, in Oxfordshire, 5 miles from Chipping Norton. Here, in 1016, Canute defeated Edmund Ironside.

ChÂteaudun. An old city in Northwest France, the residence of the heroic Dunois, who died in 1468. Here were massacred July 20, 1183, about 7000 BrabanÇons, fanatic mercenaries who had been hired to exterminate the Albigenses by the Cardinal Henry, abbot of Clairvaux, in 1181. They had become the scourge of the country, and the “Capuchons” were organized for their destruction. ChÂteaudun was captured by the Germans after a severe conflict of about 9 hours, October 18, 1870. Barracks had been erected in the town, and the Garde Mobile fought bravely. The town was re-occupied by the French, November 6.

ChÂteau Thierry. A town of France, in the department of Aisne. It is built on the slope of a hill, capped by the ruins of a castle, which is said to have been erected by Charles Martel in 730. In 1814 this place was the scene of several conflicts between the allied army and the French troops.

Chatham. A town of England, in the county of Kent, on the Medway. It is a principal station of the royal navy. There is a fine station and military arsenal close to Chatham, containing vast magazines and warehouses, in which there are all kinds of stores, and where all the operations necessary for building and fitting out ships of war are carried on. There are also extensive barracks for infantry, royal marines, artillery, and engineers. Chatham is defended by forts on the heights, by which it is partly surrounded. There are also very extensive fortifications about Chatham, called the Lines, which are defended by ramparts, palisades, and a broad, deep ditch. On June 10, 1667, the Dutch fleet under Admiral Ruyter sailed up to Chatham and burnt several men-of-war. The entrance into the Medway is now defended by Sheerness and other forts.

Chatillon-sur-Seine. A town of France, department of CÔte-d’Or, 43 miles north-northwest of Dijon, on the Seine. Here a congress was held by the four great powers allied against France, at which Caulaincourt attended for Napoleon, February 5, 1814; the negotiations for peace were broken off on March 19, following.

Chattanooga. A village of Hamilton Co., Tenn. During the civil war it was the scene of many exciting incidents between the contending forces. It was attacked by Gen. Negley in June, 1862; occupied by Gen. Rosecrans, July, 1863, and in the same year were fought in its vicinity a succession of the most momentous battles of that eventful epoch, commencing September 23, 1863, with Gen. Grant’s attack on Gen. Bragg. The movements were under direction of Gens. Sherman and Thomas, and resulted, after three days’ severe fighting around Chattanooga, Missionary Ridge, and Lookout Mountain, in the total defeat of the Confederates, and their pursuit back into Georgia.

Chaumont, Treaty of. Entered into between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, and signed by these powers respectively March 1, 1814. This treaty was succeeded by the celebrated treaty of Paris, April 11, following, by which Napoleon renounced his sovereignty over France.

Chausses. In the armor of the Middle Ages, were defense-pieces for the legs. Some were made of padded and quilted cloth, with metal studs; some of chain-metal, some of riveted plates, and some of banded mail. It was not unusual to fasten them by lacing behind the leg.

Chauvinisme (Fr.). An exaggerated idea of the qualities of a leader, as Chauvin, a character in a French play (from whom the name is derived), is represented to have had of his leader, Bonaparte.

Checky. In heraldry, when the field of any charge is composed of small squares of different tinctures, it is said to be checky.

Cheeks. In the construction of artillery-carriages, are the parts between which the piece is placed and upon which the trunnions are supported. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Nomenclature of Artillery Carriage.

Chelone, or Tortoise. In military antiquity, the form of battle adopted by the Greeks in besieging fortified towns. It served to protect the besiegers in their approach to the walls. This invention was formed by the soldiers placing their shields over their heads, in a sloping position, similar to the tiles of a house. The first rank stood erect, the second stooped a little, the third still more, and the last rank knelt. They were thus protected from the missile weapons of the foe, as they advanced or stood under the walls of an enemy. The chelone was similar to the testudo of the Romans. See Testudo.

Chelsea. A parish of England, in Middlesex, on the Thames. Chelsea Hospital is the great national asylum for decayed and maimed soldiers, and one of the noblest institutions of the kind in Europe. The institution was founded by Charles II. in 1682. Connected with the hospital is the Military Asylum, a noble establishment, founded in 1801, for the education and maintenance of the children of soldiers. See Asylum.

Chemin-des-Rondes (Fr.). A beam from 4 to 12 feet wide, at the foot of the exterior slope in a permanent fortification. It is sometimes covered in front by a hedge, or low wall, or small parapet of earth.

Chemise. In mediÆval fortification, an additional escarp or counter-guard wall, covering the lower part of the escarp.

Cherasco. A town of Piedmont, situated on the Tanaro. A peace was concluded here between Louis XIII. of France and the Duke of Savoy, in 1631. On April 26, 1796, the place was taken by the French, and here, three days after, the “Armistice of Cherasco” was concluded between the Sardinian commissioners and Napoleon, by which the latter obtained the right of free passage for his troops through the Sardinian states; and the treaty that followed gave to the French republic Savoy, Nice, and the possessions of Piedmont to the westward of the highest ridge of the Alps.

Cheraw. A village of Chesterfield Co., S. C. It was a Confederate depot of supplies during the civil war, and was captured with all its stores by Gen. Sherman, March 3, 1865.

Cherbourg. A fortified seaport town and important naval station of France, department of Manche, on the English Channel. Edward III. of England unsuccessfully laid siege to Cherbourg in 1346, but in 1418 it was given up to the British. The French regained it in 1450, but the English again took it in 1758.

Cheriton Down. In the county of Hants, England. Here Sir William Waller defeated the royalists under Lord Hopton, May 29, 1644.

Cherokee Indians. A tribe of aborigines who formerly occupied the southern portion of the Appalachian Mountains, and a large tract of country on both sides of the range. In 1838 they were removed by the U.S. government to the west of the Mississippi, into what is now Indian Territory, and the portion of the tribe that now remains have a civilized government and a written language. For numbers, etc., see Indians and their Agencies.

Cherusci. One of the most celebrated of all the German tribes at the time of CÆsar. Being excited to hostilities by the tyranny and rapacity of the Romans, they entered into a confederation with the neighboring tribes, and, under their leader Arminius, defeated a Roman army at Teutoburg Forest, in A.D. 9. Germanicus, a Roman general, afterwards tried to avenge this disgrace to their honor by subduing them, but was unsuccessful. Owing to their own internal dissensions they were subsequently subdued by the Chatti, another German tribe.

Chesses. Are the platforms which form the flooring of military bridges. They consist of two or more planks, ledged together at the edges by dowels or pegs.

Chest, Ammunition-. See Ordnance, Carriages for, The Caisson.

Chest, Military. Is a technical name for money and negotiable securities carried by an army, and intended to defray its current expenses. In the British military system this department is managed by the commissariat; in the United States, by the paymaster-general and commissary-general.

Chester. A city of England, in the county of Cheshire. The British Caerleon and the Roman Deva, the station of the Twentieth Legion, Valeria Victrix, quitted by them about 477. The city was first built by Edelfleda about 908. Chester was ravaged by the Danes in 980; taken after three months’ siege for the Parliament in 1645. A projected attack of Fenians on Chester Castle was defeated by the vigilance of the authorities and the arrival of the military, February 11-12, 1867.

Cheval-de-frise. A piece of timber traversed with wooden spikes, pointed with iron, 5 or 6 feet long, used to defend a passage, stop a breach, or make a retrenchment to stop cavalry.

Chevalet (Fr.). A sort of bell-tent, formerly used in the French service, when an army encamped. It resembled in some degrees the wigwam of an Indian.

Chevalier (Fr.). A horseman; a knight. A member of certain orders of knighthood. In heraldry, a horseman armed at all points.

Chevet (Fr.). A small wedge which is used in raising a mortar. It is placed between the frame and swell of the mortar.

Cheviot Hills. A mountain-range extending along the border between Scotland and England; the scene of many conflicts between the Scotch and English.

Chevrette. An engine for raising guns or mortars into their carriages.

Chevron. The arrow-headed stripes on the arm, by which the rank of a non-commissioned officer is indicated.

Chevron. In heraldry, is an ordinary representing the rafters of a house, and supposed to betoken the accomplishment of some memorable work, or the completion of some business of importance, generally the foundation of his own family by the bearer.

Cheyenne Indians. A tribe of aborigines dwelling east of the Rocky Mountains, and divided into three bands. For numbers, etc., see Indians and their Agencies.

Chiari. A town of Northern Italy, near the Oglio. In 1701, Marshal Villeroi was near this town defeated by Prince EugÈne.

Chicane. To dispute every foot of ground, by taking advantage of natural inequalities, etc.

Chickahominy. A river in Eastern Virginia, which, rising about 16 miles northwest of Richmond, flows southeastwardly into the James. Along the margins of the river was the scene of Gen. McClellan’s operations in 1862.

Chickamauga. A village of Hamilton Co., Tenn. During the civil war a continuous series of combats were fought here, between the forces of Gens. Rosecrans and Bragg, but without decisive results, September 19-20, 1863.

Chickasaw Indians. A warlike tribe of aborigines which formerly occupied Alabama and a portion of Mississippi. They removed into the Indian Territory in 1837. See Indians and their Agencies.

Chief. The head or leader of any band or community; a commander.

Chief. In heraldry, an ordinary formed by a horizontal line occupying the upper part of the escutcheon. Any object borne in the upper or chief part of the shield is said to be in chief, though the chief be not divided off from the rest of the field as a separate portion.

Chief of Staff. In the U.S. service a chief of staff with the rank of brigadier-general was provided by law for the lieutenant-general commanding the army. The senior staff-officer of a general is sometimes designated as the chief of staff. See Officers, Staff-, and Staff.

Chieftain. A captain, leader, or commander; a chief; the head of a troop, army, or clan.

Chieftaincy. Chieftainship. The rank, office, or quality of a chieftain.

Chili. An independent republic of South America, bordering on the Pacific Ocean. It was invaded by Almagro in 1535, he being sent by Pizarro to subdue the country. In the 16th and 17th centuries violent contests raged between the Spaniards and Indians, both parties suffering severely. The country continued a vice-royalty of Spain till 1810, when a revolution commenced which terminated in its independence in 1817.

Chilled Iron. Cast iron hardened by pouring it into iron molds. Much used in manufacturing armor-piercing projectiles. The celebrated Palliser shot is of this kind.

Chilled Shot. See Projectiles.

Chillianwallah, Battle of. In India, between the Sikh forces in considerable strength and the British commanded by Lord (afterwards Viscount) Gough, fought January 13, 1849. The Sikhs were completely routed, but the loss of the British was very severe. On February 21, Lord Gough attacked the Sikh army under Shere Singh in its position at Goujerat, with complete success, and the whole of the enemy’s camp fell into the hands of the British.

China. The “Celestial Empire,” in Eastern Asia, for which the Chinese annals claim an antiquity of from 80,000 to 100,000 years B.C., is allowed to have commenced about 2500 B.C.; by others to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of the Bible, 2240 B.C. We are told that the Chinese were acute astronomers in the reign of Yao, 2357 B.C. Towards the close of the 7th century B.C. the history of China becomes more distinct. Thirty-two dynasties have reigned, including the present. See important cities of China throughout this work.

China, Great Wall of. One of the most remarkable structures known in history, supposed to have been erected about 220 B.C. by the first emperor of the Tsin dynasty as a protection against the invasions of the Tartars. It traverses the northern boundary of China, and extends about 1250 miles. Including a parapet of 5 feet, the total height is 20 feet, thickness of base 25 feet, and at the top 15 feet. Towers or bastions occur at intervals of about 100 yards. Earth inclosed in brick-work forms the mass of the wall, but for more than one-half its length it is little else than a heap of gravel and rubbish.

Chinese Fire. A pyrotechnic composition, consisting of 16 parts of gunpowder, 8 of nitre, 3 of charcoal, 3 of sulphur, and 3 of iron-borings.

Ching-Hai. A fortified seaport town of China. At this place, in October, 1841, the Chinese were signally defeated by the British.

Ching-Kiang-Foo. A fortified city of China, on the Yang-tse-Kiang River. It was taken by the British, after a determined resistance on the part of the Mantchoo garrison, July 21, 1842.

Chinook. An artificial language or jargon originated by the Hudson Bay Company for communicating with different tribes of Indians. It consists of about a hundred words, some coined, some French, and some of Indian origin. It is still extensively used as a sort of court language by the different tribes along the Pacific coast, from California to Behrings Strait.

Chinook Indians. A collection of races of Indian tribes inhabiting the Lower Columbia in Washington Territory and Oregon.

Chippewa. A village of Canada West, memorable for the victory gained by the Americans, 1900 strong, under Gen. Brown, over 2100 British troops under Gens. Rial and Drummond, July 4, 1814.

Chippewa Indians, or Ojibways. A tribe of aborigines who inhabit portions of Michigan, Wisconsin, and the basin of Lake Superior. In the early settlement of the country they were allies of the French, and waged inveterate warfare against the Sioux. In 1855 they ceded their lands to the United States, and are now placed on reservations. See Indians and their Agencies.

Chivalry (Fr. Chevalerie, from chevalier, “knight,” or “horseman”). The system of knighthood, together with the privileges, duties, and manners of knights. The qualifications or character of knights, as valor, dexterity in arms, courtesy, etc.

Chlorate of Potassa. Chlorate of potassa is formed by passing a current of chlorine, in excess, through lime-water, and then treating the mixture with the chloride of potassium or by the carbonate or sulphate of potassa. The chlorate of potassa and chloride of calcium are formed,—the former crystallizes, the latter remains in solution. It is soluble in water, but not sensibly so in alcohol. It is a more powerful oxidizing agent than nitre, and, when mixed with a combustible body, easily explodes by shock or friction. It is inflamed by simple contact with sulphuric acid, and thus affords a simple means of exploding mines.

Chlorates. Oxidizing agents used in explosives (which see). Chlorate of potassa is the salt ordinarily used.

Chocks. See Implements.

Choctaw Indians. A tribe of aborigines which formerly lived in Mississippi, along the Yazoo River. They are now settled in Indian Territory, and are partially civilized. See Indians and their Agencies.

Choczim, or Chotyn. A fortified town of Bessarabia, Southern Russia, on the Dniester. Here the Turks were defeated by the Poles in 1621, and again in 1673; the Turks were again defeated at this place by the Russians in 1739.

Choke. The tied end of a cartridge; also the constriction of a rocket-case, etc.

Choker. An implement used by engineers to compress and test the circumference of a fascine. It consists of two strong pieces of wood about 4 feet long joined by a chain. Two rings inserted in the chain mark the length of the circumference required.

Chokey. An East Indian guard-house and prison.

Cholet. A town of France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire. Here, during the Vendean war, two actions were fought in 1793, in both of which the royalists were defeated. In the first they lost their brave general, Bonchamps; and the second drove them across the Loire, thus virtually deciding the war against them.

Chosroes. See Khosroo.

Chotyn. See Choczim.

Chouans. The name which a band of peasants received who fought for the monarchy against the convention in Maine and Normandy in 1793. They received their name from their leader, Jean Cattereau, nicknamed “Chouan,” and were with great difficulty subdued, their final submission not taking place till 1803.

Christian Charity, Knights of the Order of. Was the name of an order instituted by King Henry III. of France for the support of maimed officers and soldiers who had done good service in the wars. Henry IV. placed it under the charge of the marshals and colonels of France, and by means of it many of those who had served their country faithfully were enabled to spend the latter portion of their lives in peace and above want. The order formed the germ of that noble hospital, the Invalides, which was founded by Louis XIV., and which served as a model for the English hospitals of Greenwich and Chelsea. On the founding of the hospital the order was superseded.

Christiansand. A fortified seaport of Norway, and capital of a government of the same name. This place was founded in 1641 by Christian IV., and was taken by the British in 1807.

Christ, Order of. When the Templars were expelled from France, and their property confiscated by Philippe le Bel, they were received into Portugal, and their order revived there in 1317 under this title. Noble descent and three years’ military service against the infidel were required for admission.

Chrome Steel. See Ordnance, Metals for.

Chronograph. See Chronoscope.

Chronoscope. An instrument for measuring minute intervals of time. The term is specially applied by military men to instruments for obtaining initial velocities. The gun-pendulum and ballistic-pendulum were formerly used for this purpose, but are now nearly obsolete. All modern chronoscopes use electricity as a transmitting agent. The general method of applying it is to have the current-bearing wires pass through two targets placed in the path of the projectile. These wires are cut by the projectile, and the interval between the successive ruptures is recorded by a delicate time-keeper. Knowing the distance between the targets, the velocity is obtained by dividing this space, expressed in feet, by the number of seconds in the interval. Chronoscopes differ in the kind of time-keeper employed. One of the largest classes of chronoscopes use the pendulum.

The electro-ballistic machine of Col. Benton (U.S. Ordnance Department) may be taken as a type of this class. It consists of two pendulums having equal times of vibration suspended from the same horizontal axis. When the pendulums are deflected, one to the right the other to the left, through angles of 90°, pieces of soft iron attached to them come in contact with electro-magnets, which serve to hold them up. Each of these magnets is excited by a current passing through one of the targets. When the targets are ruptured the pendulums fall, and in passing each other record the point of meeting by operating a delicate bent lever attached to one of them, which leaves a dot of ink on the arc in front of which the pendulums vibrate. The interval of time between the rupture of the two targets is obtained from a table of arcs and corresponding times. Col. Benton has also invented an instrument called velocimeter, in which he uses threads instead of electro-magnets to hold up the pendulums. The threads pass through the targets, and when they are cut the pendulums fall as before. This method has found considerable favor where great accuracy is not required.

Schultz’s chronoscope uses as a time-keeper a tuning-fork, which, in its vibrations, traces a waved line upon a revolving cylinder. The rupture of each of the targets is recorded by an electric spark deposited on the cylinder near the waved line. The number of waves between the spark spots gives the interval of time when the period of vibration or tarage of the fork is known. The vibration of the fork is sustained by electro-magnets, which alternately attract and release the branches, an interrupter being placed in the circuit. When the current passing through the targets is broken an induced current is generated, which deposits the spark on the cylinder in leaping a short break in the circuit. When the first target is broken, by an ingenious contrivance the current is made through the second target before the shot reaches it. The tarage of the fork is obtained by placing a second’s pendulum in the target current, which ruptures the current in each vibration, and produces a series of spark spots on the cylinder. The number of waves between successive spots gives the number of vibrations to the second.

Boulanger’s chronograph is the simplest of all chronoscopes. It uses a rod held up vertically by a magnet, which is excited by a current through the first target. The current through the second target, when broken, releases a spring knife-blade, which, moving sideways, marks the rod in its fall. The interval of time is obtained from the distance through which the rod has fallen, as shown by the position of the mark. The end of the scale is marked when both currents are simultaneously broken.

Chrystler’s, or Chrysler’s Field, Battle of. The name of an engagement which took place at Chrystler’s farm, on the St. Lawrence River, November 11, 1813, between the American forces under Gen. Boyd and the British troops under Lieut.-Col. Morrison, in which neither party gained a victory, but the advantage was with the British.

Chunar, Treaty of. Concluded between the nabob of Oude and Governor Hastings, by which the nabob was relieved of his debts to the East India Company, on condition of his seizing the property of the begums, his mother and grandmother, and delivering it up to the English, September 19, 1781.

Churubusco. A village or hamlet of Mexico, on the Rio de Churubusco, about 6 miles south of the city of Mexico. This place was the scene of a battle between the American forces under Gen. Winfield Scott, marching on the city of Mexico, and the Mexicans, defending the approaches to their capital, under President Santa Anna. The battle of Contreras was fought on the same day. The Americans were victorious in both battles, taking 3000 prisoners, and capturing 37 pieces of ordnance. The entire Mexican army was dispersed, their ancient capital captured, and an honorable peace ensued.

Chusan. One of a group of islands off the east coast of China. This island, called the “key of China,” was taken by the British in 1840 and 1841, and held by them until the terms of their treaty with China were fulfilled by the latter power.

Cimbres. A chain of mountains in Mexico. On April 28, 1862, the advance-guard of the French, commanded by Gen. Count de Lorencez, encountered and defeated in a defile of this chain a Mexican force 6000 strong under Gen. Saragosa, who had fortified themselves and placed 18 pieces of artillery in position.

Cimbri. A warlike tribe of ancient Europe, which, in conjunction with the Teutones and others, invaded the south of Europe, and successively defeated six Roman armies, until in the end they were conquered by Caius Marius, 101 B.C. They had previously devastated Gaul and Spain, and are said to have lost from 100,000 to 140,000 men in the battle with Marius.

Cimeter. A short sword with a convex edge or recurvated point, used by the Persians and Turks.

Cimier (Fr.). A heavy ornament which the ancient knights or chevaliers in France and in other countries were accustomed to wear upon their helmets; small figures were afterwards substituted in their stead.

Cincinnati, Order of. A society which was founded in the United States by officers of the Revolutionary army in 1783. Its object was to keep alive the feelings of friendship and patriotism engendered by common toils and perils, and to assist those who were in need through the vicissitudes of the war. In 1787, Washington was elected president of the order.

Cinquain. In ancient military history, was an order of battle, to draw up 5 battalions, so that they might make 3 lines, that is, a van, main body, and reserve.

Cintra. In Portugal. Here was signed an agreement on August 22, 1808, between the French and English, the day after the battle of Vimeira. As it contained the basis of the convention signed on August 30, following, it has been termed the convention of Cintra. By it Junot and his army were permitted to evacuate Portugal free, in British ships. The convention was publicly condemned, and in consequence a court of inquiry was held at Chelsea, which exonerated the British commanders. Wellington and Napoleon both justified Sir Hew Dalrymple.

Cipher. A preconcerted enigmatical system of communication. Much used in war when dispatches are liable to interception by the enemy,—both for written communication and for signaling.

Circassia. A country in Asia on the north side of the Caucasus. The Circassians are said to be descended from the Albanians. They were unsubdued, even by Timour. Circassia was surrendered to Russia by Turkey by the treaty of Adrianople, 1830. The Circassians under their great leader Schamyl resisted the authority of Russia. They were defeated by Orbelliani in June, November, and December, 1857. Orbelliani subdued much of the country, and expelled the inhabitants, April, 1858. Schamyl, their leader, was captured and treated with much respect, September 7, 1859. The last of the Circassian strongholds captured and the war declared at an end, June 8, 1864.

Circitores. So were named, in the Roman armies, the men who inspected the sentinels.

Circuit-closer. A device for closing an electrical circuit. In torpedo warfare the term is applied to an apparatus used to explode submarine mines.

Circumferenter. An instrument used by engineers for measuring angles.

Circumvallation. Works made by besiegers around a besieged place facing outwards, to protect their camp against attacks from a hostile army operating in the rear. It usually consists of a chain of redoubts, either isolated or connected by a parapet.

Cisalpine. This—that is, the south—side of the Alps.

Citadel. A fort of 4 or 5 bastions in or near a town. It serves two purposes, enabling the garrison of a town to keep the inhabitants in subjection, and in case of siege forming a place of retreat for the defenders, thus enabling them to hold out after the rest of the town has been captured. It must fully command the fortifications of the city, and have a large space around it clear of buildings.

Citate. A place close to the Danube, where the Russian general Gortschakoff, intending to storm Kalafat, threw up redoubts, which were stormed by the Turks under Omar Pasha, January 6, 1854. The fighting continued on the 7th, 8th, and 9th, when the Russians were compelled to retire to their former position at Krajowa, having lost 1500 killed and 2000 wounded.

City Point. A village of Prince George Co., Va., on the James River, at the mouth of the Appomattox. During the civil war, Gen. Grant fixed his headquarters at this point in 1864, and during his subsequent operations against Richmond it was the base of supplies for his army.

Ciudad Real. A town of Spain, capital of a province of the same name, about 100 miles south of Madrid. The French under Sebastian here defeated the Spaniards in March, 1809.

Ciudad Rodrigo. A fortified town of Spain, in the province of Salamanca. It was occupied by the Portuguese in 1706, and during the Peninsular war was the object of frequent contention between the French and the allies. In June, 1810, the French under MassÉna invested the town, and, after a gallant defense by the Spaniards, it was forced to surrender, July 10. In January, 1812, after a siege of 11 days, the place was assaulted, and after a bloody struggle the British succeeded in capturing the town. This storming was one of the most brilliant events in English military annals.

Civic Crown. Among the ancient Romans, was a crown given to any soldier who had saved the life of a citizen. It was composed only of oaken boughs, but accounted more honorable than any other.

CiviÈre (Fr.). A small hand-barrow, which is carried by two men, and is much used by the artillery.

Civil Authority. See Appendix, Articles of War, 59.

Civil War. See War, Civil.

Civilized Warfare. See War, also Honors of War.

Civita Castellana. A town of Italy, 24 miles north from Rome. In its neighborhood an engagement took place between the Neapolitans under Mack and the French under Macdonald, on December 4, 1798.

Civita Vecchia. The principal seaport of the Papal States, in Italy, built on a bay of the Mediterranean. It was frequently sacked in the different wars. In April, 1849, a French force of 6000 men, under Gen. Oudinot, landed here on its way to Rome, where the republic had been proclaimed, and a triumvirate appointed. The French troops overthrew the republic and restored the pope to Rome, from which he had fled in 1848.

Civitella del Tronto. A fortified town of Italy, in the province of Abruzzo Ultra. Here the Neapolitan garrison surrendered to the Piedmontese general Mezzacapo on March 20, 1861.

Clarigation. In Roman antiquity, a ceremony which always preceded a formal declaration of war. The chief of the heralds went to the territory of the enemy, where, after some solemn prefatory indication, he, with a loud voice, intimated that he declared war against them for certain reasons specified, such as injury done to the Roman allies, or the like.

Claymore (Gaelic, signifying great glaive, or sword). Properly a great two-handed sword, used by the Highlanders only.

Clayonages (Fr.). A species of hurdle, with which the timber-work of a gallery is covered. It is likewise used in saps.

Clermont. A town of France, department of Oise, 16 miles by rail south-southeast of Beauvais. It was burned by the English in 1359; besieged by Marshal de Boussac in 1430; captured by the English in 1434; taken by Henry IV. in 1595, and occupied by the Prince de CondÉ in 1615.

Clermont-Ferrand. A city of France, capital of the department Puy-de-DÔme. It was captured by the Vandals in 408; besieged without success by the Visigoths in 473. It was taken by Thierry in 506; sacked by Pepin in 761; captured by the Normans in 853. The great council in which the crusades originated was held here in 1095.

Clice (Fr.). A long and curved Turkish sabre.

Clide (Fr.). A machine of war, used during the Middle Ages to throw rocks on besieging parties.

Clifton Moor (England). Here the Scotch insurgents were defeated by the royal troops in 1745.

Clipeus. A large shield worn by the ancient Greeks and Romans, which was originally of a circular form, made of wicker-work or wood covered over with ox-hides several folds deep, and bound round the edge with metal.

Clontarf. A place near Dublin, Ireland, the site of a battle fought on Good Friday, April 23, 1014, between the Irish and Danes, the former headed by Brian Boroihme, monarch of Ireland, who defeated the invaders, after a long and bloody engagement. Brian was wounded, and soon afterwards died. His son Murchard also fell, with many of the nobility; 11,000 Danes are said to have perished in the battle.

Close Column. A column of troops in which the subdivisions are at less than full distance,—that is, less than the length of one of the subdivisions.

Clostercamp. A village of Rhenish Prussia. Here the French gained a victory on October 15-16, 1760.

Closterseven (Hanover), Convention of. Was entered into September 8, 1757, between the Duke of Cumberland, third son of George II., and the Duke of Richelieu, commander of the French armies. By its humiliating stipulations, 38,000 Hanoverians laid down their arms, and were dispersed. The duke immediately afterwards resigned all his military commands, and the convention was soon broken by both parties.

Clothing. The President of the United States is authorized to prescribe the kind and quality of clothing to be issued annually to the troops of the United States. The manner of issuing and accounting for clothing shall be established by general regulations of the War Department. The clothing of the British army is determined by a permanent board, composed of the commander-in-chief and a certain number of general officers, who act under the authority of the sovereign.

Club, To. To throw into confusion, to deform through ignorance or inadvertence. To club a battalion, to throw it into confusion. This happens through a temporary inability in the commanding officer to restore any given body of men to their natural front in line or column, after some manoeuvre has been performed.

Coa. A river in Portugal, province of Beira. The spur which separates the Coa from the Agueda incloses the plateau of Fuentes d’Onore, famous for the battle of 1811, which was fought by MassÉna with the English. See Fuentes d’Onore.

Coat-armor. Coats of arms; armorial ensigns.

Coat of Arms. A habit formerly worn by knights over their armor. It was a short-sleeved coat or tunic reaching to the waist, and embroidered with their armorial ensigns and various devices. Any representation of the armorial devices upon such a habit; an armorial device.

Coat of Mail. A piece of armor covering the upper portion of the body, consisting of a net-work of iron rings.

Coblentz. A fortified town of Rhenish Prussia, situated at the conflux of the Rhine and Moselle, opposite the great Prussian fortress of Ehrenbreitstein. In 1794 this place was taken by Napoleon I., and made the capital of the department of the Rhine and Moselle.

Cocherel. Near Evreux, Northwest France. Here Bertrand and Du Guesclin defeated the king of Navarre, and took prisoner the Captal de Buch, May 16, 1364.

Cochin. A city of Hindostan, presidency of Madras. It was held by the Portuguese in 1503; by the Dutch in 1663; was taken by the British in 1796, and ceded to them in 1814.

Cockade (Fr. cocarde). The word signified originally a cocked-hat, or a hat with the broad flap looped up on one side, and then applied to the knot of ribbon with which the loop is ornamented. The word is now, however, restricted to signify an appendage worn on the hat of military and naval officers.

Cock-feather. In archery, the feather which stood up on the arrow, when it was rightly placed upon the string, perpendicularly upon the cock or notch.

Code. A compilation or collection of laws made by public authority, as the Code NapolÉon.

Code. A list of signal symbols. See Signaling.

Codogno. A town of Italy, in the province of Milan, between the Adda and the Po. Here the Austrians were defeated by the Spaniards in 1746, and by the French in 1796.

Coehorn. So named from the military engineer, Baron Van Coehorn, who invented it. It is a small howitzer, or mortar, generally 4³/₅ inches caliber. These implements of war, being easily moved and adjusted, and taking little powder, are found very useful in sieges, if grouped in great numbers.

Coehorn Beds. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Mortar Beds.

Coeverden, Coevorden, or Koevorde. A fortified town of Holland; it was captured by the French in 1795.

Coffer. In fortification, a hollow lodgment, sunk in the bottom of a dry ditch, from 6 to 7 feet deep, and from 16 to 18 feet broad. Its length corresponds with the whole breadth of the said ditch, from side to side. The besieged generally make use of these coffers to repulse the besiegers when they attempt to pass the ditch; they are distinguished only by their length from caponniÈres. They are covered with joists, hurdles, and earth, raised 2 feet above the bottom of the ditch, so as to serve the purposes of a loop-holed parapet.

Cohort. A division of the ancient Roman armies, consisting of about 600 men, divided into centuries. It was the tenth part of a legion, and its number, consequently, was under the same fluctuation as that of the legions. In the time of the empire the cohort often amounted to 1000 men.

Coif. Was originally an iron skull-cap, worn by knights under their helmets; it was introduced before 1259. It is now especially applied in Great Britain to a cap worn by sergeants-at-law.

Coimbra. An ancient city of Portugal, capital of the province of Beira. It appears to have been originally built by the Goths; from them it passed to the Moors, from whom it was finally conquered in 1064 by Fernando the Great, aided by the gallant Cid. It was taken by the troops under the British colonel Kent, October 7, 1810.

Coin (Fr. coin d’artilleur). In gunnery, a kind of wedge to lay under the breech of a gun, in order to raise or depress the metal. Written also quoin.

Colberg, or Kolberg. A strongly fortified seaport of Prussian Pomerania. It stands on a hill, surrounded with swamps which can be laid under water, and is chiefly remarkable for the protracted sieges it has undergone. In 1102, Duke Boleslaus, of Poland, besieged it in vain. It endured long sieges in the Thirty Years’ War and in the Seven Years’ War, and again in 1807, when it was most gallantly defended against the French.

Colchester. The chief town in the county of Essex, England. It was taken from the Danes in 921 by Edward the Elder, who founded the castle. It was ravaged by the plague in 1348, in 1360, and again in 1665. In 1648 it was taken by Lord Goring for Charles I., but was retaken by Fairfax after a siege of 11 weeks, when the castle was dismantled.

Cold Harbor. A village of Hanover Co., Va., about 10 miles northeast of Richmond. During the civil war a series of desperate struggles took place in and around this place (May 28-June 3, 1864) between the forces of Gens. Grant and Lee, resulting in a loss of probably 13,000 men on the Federal side.

Coldstream. A border-town of Scotland, in Berwickshire, on the left bank of the Tweed. Near this place is the famous ford where the English and Scottish armies formerly crossed the Tweed. Here Gen. Monk raised the regiment still known as the Coldstream Guards.

Coldstream Guards. A regiment in the Foot Guards, or Household Brigade, is the oldest corps in the British army except the First Foot. It was raised at Coldstream in 1660, by Gen. Monk, and was first called Monk’s regiment, but when Parliament consented to give a brigade of guards to Charles II., this corps, under its present name, was included in it.

College of Arms. See Herald’s College.

Collet (Fr.). In gunnery, that part of a cannon which is between the astragal and the muzzle.

Colmar. A city of France, capital of the department of Haut-Rhin. This city had an active share in the civil wars under Rodolph of Hapsburg and Adolphe of Nassau; it was captured by the Swedes in 1632; by the French in 1635 and 1673. It was ceded to France by the peace of Ryswick in 1697. Occupied by the Bavarians on January 3, 1814.

Colocotroni. See Kolocotroni.

Cologne. A fortified city of Prussia, the capital of the province of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the Rhine. It is a fortress of the first rank. It was taken by the French in 1795, and assigned to Prussia in 1814.

Colombia, United States of. A republic of South America, known by this name since 1861, but formerly called New Granada. It united with Venezuela in 1819, and established one central government for the purpose of resisting Spain, but in 1829 was separated from it, and soon after another republic—that of Ecuador—was formed from it, three republics being thus formed out of what was formerly but one.

Colombo. A fortified seaport town and capital of Ceylon; it was fortified in 1638 by the Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch in 1666; the latter surrendered it to the British, February 15, 1796. The British troops were murdered here in cold blood by the Adigar of Candy, June 6, 1803.

Colonel. The title of the highest officer of a regiment, ranking next below a brigadier-general, and above a lieutenant-colonel. The rank of captain in the navy corresponds with this title.

Colonel, Lieutenant-. The rank next below that of colonel.

Colonia do Santissimo Sacramento (i.e., Colony of the Most Holy Sacrament). A fortified maritime town of South America, in Uruguay, opposite Buenos Ayres. On August 31, 1845, it was taken by the English and French fleets.

Colonial Corps. Are certain regiments forming part of the regular army of the British empire, and paid for out of the imperial revenues. The native troops of India are paid from the Indian revenues.

Colorado. One of the United States, bounded on the north by Dakota and Nebraska, on the east by Nebraska and Kansas, on the south by New Mexico, and on the west by Utah. In 1857 an exploring party started through its territory, but were driven back by hostile Indians. The country is now, however, being rapidly settled, owing to its great fertility and the presence of auriferous deposits.

Color-bearer. The bearer of the colors.

Color-Guard, The. In the U.S. infantry, consists of the color-bearer and a guard of 7 corporals in each regiment. They must all be good soldiers. The color-guard is attached to the right centre company in the line, and its post on the field is one of honor as well as danger.

Colorno. A fortified castle in Italy, on the banks of the Po; it was captured by the Marquis de Maillebois, from the Austrians under the Prince of WÜrtemberg, in 1734.

Colors. A military term applied to banners or flags carried by each regiment of infantry. The banners of the cavalry are called standards. Each U.S. regiment has two colors, one national and one regimental.

Colors. In heraldry, the colors generally used are red, blue, black, green, and purple, which are called gules, azure, sable, vert or sinople, and purpure. Colors and metals, when engraved, are generally indicated by dots and lines: or, gold, by dots; argent, silver, is left plain; gules, red, is indicated by perpendicular lines from top to bottom; azure, blue, by horizontal lines from side to side; sable, black, by horizontal and perpendicular lines crossing each other; vert, green, by diagonal lines from right to left; and purpure, purple, by diagonal lines from left to right.

Color-Sergeant. Is the sergeant detailed to carry the regimental colors. He is usually selected for military deportment and soldierly bearing, and when carrying the colors is escorted by a guard of 7 corporals. In the British service he has a distinct rank, but in the U.S. service he ranks no higher than other sergeants.

Colt’s Pistol. The most celebrated of modern revolvers. Invented by an American, Col. Samuel Colt; first patented in 1835, and perfected about 1845. It has kept pace with the times, and is still one of the first of its kind.

Columbia. The capital of South Carolina, situated on the left bank of the Congaree River. It was taken by Gen. Sherman’s army, February 17, 1865, and was then much injured by fire.

Columbiad Gun. See Ordnance, Construction of.

Column. Signifies, in military evolutions, a mass of soldiers several ranks in depth as opposed to line. There may be columns of brigades, of regiments, of divisions, or of companies, presenting a front of limited width, but a depth depending on the number of elements in the column. In a battalion the formation is called open column when the distance between the elements of the column is such as to admit of their wheeling into line; when the distance is only a few yards it is termed close column; when intermediate between these two, it is “column at half distance.” Battalions are drawn up in column with either the right or left in front, or the battalions may be doubled upon their centres. To pass from column into line is to “deploy”; to pass from line to column is to “ploy.” Sometimes the name column is given to a small army, especially when engaged in active operations. In drawing up troops for action, as a general rule, the French prefer the column, the Americans and English the formation in line.

Column, Military. Among the Romans, a column on which was engraven a list of the forces in the Roman army, ranged by legions in their proper order. They had another kind of military column called columna bellica, standing before the temple of Janus, at the foot of which the consul declared war by throwing a javelin towards the enemy’s country.

Column, Triumphal. A column erected among the ancients in honor of a hero, and decorated with various kinds of crowns, corresponding to the number of his achievements in battle. Each crown had its particular name, as vallaris, which was filled with spikes, in memory of his having faced a palisade; muralis, adorned with little turrets or battlements, for having mounted an assault; navalis, of prows and beaks of vessels, for having vanquished at sea; obsidionalis, or graminalis, of grass, for having raised a siege; ovans, of myrtle, which expressed an ovation, or minor triumph; and triumphalis, of laurel, for a grand triumph.

Comanche Indians, or Comanches. An extremely warlike and predatory tribe of Mexico and Texas. They have a reservation in Indian Territory with some Kiowas and Apaches. See Indians and their Agencies.

Combat. An engagement of no great magnitude, or one in which the parties engaged are not armies.

Combustion. The phenomena attending intense chemical actions which are accompanied by heat and light. Usually restricted to the burning of bodies by their union with oxygen. It is difficult to draw the line where combustion ends and explosion begins.

Combustion, Velocity of. Is the space passed over by the surface of combustion in a second of time, measured in a direction perpendicular to its surface. It has been determined that the velocity of combustion of dry French war-powder is 0.48 inch, and of English powder, which American powder closely resembles, is 0.4 inch.

Comes. Was with the Romans an officer with territorial jurisdiction in the provinces, and especially on the frontiers.

Comigne (Fr.). A shell of extreme magnitude, which takes its name from the person who originally invented it.

Comines, or Commines. A town of France, situated on the Lys, opposite the Belgian town of the same name. Near here Oliver de Clisson defeated the Flemings in 1382.

Command. In fortification, the height of the top of a parapet above the ground or another work.

Command. A body of troops, or any naval or military force or post, under the command of a particular officer. The word command, when applied to ground is synonymous with overlook; and any place thus commanded by heights within range of cannon is difficult to defend, if the enemy have been able to seize the heights.

Command. The 62d Article of War (new, 122) states who shall command when different corps of the army happen to join or do duty together, but as the wording of this article has been interpreted differently by different officers, it is thought best to give a decision rendered by President Fillmore on October 25, 1851, in General Orders from the War Department. The 62d Article of War provides that “If upon marches, guards, or in quarters, different corps of the army shall happen to join, or to do duty together, the officer highest in rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, by commission there, on duty, or in quarters, shall command the whole and give orders for what is needful to the service, unless otherwise specially directed by the President of the United States, according to the nature of the case.” The interpretation of this act has long been a subject of controversy. The difficulty arises from the vague and uncertain meaning of the words “line of the army,” which neither in the English service nor in our own have a well-defined and invariable meaning. By some they are understood to designate the regular army as distinguished from the militia; by others as meant to discriminate between officers by ordinary commissions and those by brevet; and finally, by others, to designate an officer not belonging to the staff.

The President states that “He has maturely considered the question, and finds himself compelled to differ from some for whose opinions he entertains a very high respect. His opinion is, that although these words may sometimes be used in a different sense (to be determined by the context and subject-matter), in the 62d Article of War they are used to designate those officers of the army who do not belong to the staff, in contradistinction to those who do, and that the article intended, in the case contemplated by it, to confer the command exclusively on the former.” In the discussion which took place in 1828 relating to ordinary rank and rank by brevet, the then Secretary of War (Gen. Porter) says, “Rank in the line of the army or lineal rank, as understood by the President, is applicable to the existing organization of that portion only of the army which is intended for field operations or the exertion of physical force against an enemy. It is commonly used in contradistinction to the staff,” etc. He then goes on to show that in the 62d Article it has another meaning,—House Document 58, 20th Congress, 2d session, page 13. In the same discussion, Mr. Drayton, as chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs of the House of Representatives, expresses the same opinion. He says, “Rank in the line of the army is conceived to be rank in a military body specially organized for the exertion of physical force, or in other words, for combating an enemy; and an officer in such a body has a direct and paramount command over the troops which compose it. The expressions ‘rank in the line of the army,’ ‘rank in the line,’ ‘lineal rank,’ are generally used in contradistinction to staff appointments.” He adds, “and to rank which confers upon officers only an occasional right to command, including brevet officers,” etc. Thus we see that these gentlemen admit that these words, in their proper and usual signification, are employed to distinguish the combatant from the staff or non-combatant portions of the army.

If we look at the policy of the law, we can discover no reasons of expediency which compel us to depart from the plain and ordinary import of the terms; on the contrary, we may suppose strong reasons why it may have been deemed proper, in the case referred to by the article, to exclude officers of the staff from command. In the first place, the command of troops might frequently interfere with their appropriate duties, and thereby occasion serious embarrassment to the service. In the next place, the officers of some of the staff corps are not qualified by their habits of education for the command of troops, and although others are so qualified, it arises from the fact that (by laws passed long subsequently to the article in question) the officers of the corps to which they belong are required to be appointed from the “line of the army.” Lastly, officers of the staff corps seldom have troops of their own corps serving under their command, and if the words “officers of the line” are understood to apply to them, the effect would often be to give them command over the officers and men of all the other corps when not a man of their own was present, an anomaly always to be avoided, where it is possible to do so. Whatever doubts may be entertained on this subject in regard to the officers of other staff corps, none can exist in regard to those of the Medical Department and the Pay Department. The law of 1847 expressly excludes them from command. Now the officers of these corps are not a distinct and independent body, but are a part of the army, and as they cannot command, it follows that when on duty they must be commanded.

Commandant. An officer who has the command of a garrison, fort, castle, regiment, company, etc.; called also commander.

Commander-in-Chief. The title given to the officer who has supreme command of the land or naval forces of a nation. The President is ex officio commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States.

Commands. In the military service there are two kinds, the preparatory command, such as forward, which indicates the movement that is to be executed, and the command of execution, such as MARCH, or HALT, or in the manual of arms, the part of the command which causes the execution. The tone of command is animated, distinct, and of a loudness proportioned to the number of men under instruction.

Each preparatory command is pronounced in an ascending tone of voice, but always in such a manner that the command of execution may be more energetic and elevated.

The command of execution is pronounced in a tone firm and brief. The trumpet ought to be used for giving commands whenever it can be done to advantage.

Commilitones. This word had with the Romans the same significance as the English words comrade soldiers.

Commissariat. A name given to the organized system whereby armies are provided with food and daily necessaries. In the old Roman armies the duty of supplying troops was performed by the quÆstors, who filled the place of the commissary officers of our own times. In the U.S. service this department is under charge of an officer of the rank of brigadier-general, called the commissary-general of subsistence.

Commissary. In general means any one to whom the power or authority of another is committed; used in military affairs in relation to officers who have charge of the subsistence of troops, musters, etc.

Commissary of Muster. See Muster.

Commissary Sergeants. In the U.S. service, are sergeants who are selected from the line of the army, by the Secretary of War; they must be steady and reliable men, and their duties are to assist the commissary officer in receiving, storing, preserving, issuing, selling, and accounting for the subsistence supplies at their posts, according to the regulations for the subsistence departments.

Commission. A writing, generally in the form of a warrant or letters-patent, authorizing the performance of duties, or exercise of powers belonging to another. Instruments bearing this title are issued by the Executive to officers in the army or navy, who, on confirmation of their appointment, are known as commissioned officers. The practice of buying and selling all commissions under the rank of colonel, which formerly prevailed in the British army, was abolished in 1871.

Commissioned. One having a commission; furnished with a commission; empowered or authorized to act; as, a commissioned officer.

Common Time. In marching, the length of the direct step in common time is 28 inches, and the cadence is at the rate of 90 steps per minute.

Communication, Line of. A fantastical name applied by Belidor to mines with immense charges, which he proposed to use for the destruction of countermines, and which were used successfully in the attack of Schweidnitz, under Frederick II.

Commutation. Is the conversion of allowances, such as fuel, forage, and quarters, into their money value.

Comorn. A royal free town of Hungary, 48 miles from Buda. Its citadel is considered one of the strongest in Europe. Its works and intrenchments extend about 7 miles along the banks of the rivers (Waag and Danube), and it requires for its defense at least 15,000 men and 400 pieces of artillery. It has the reputation of being impregnable, and justified it in the Hungarian war, for the Austrians besieged it from October, 1848, to September, 1849, and only became masters of it at last in virtue of a capitulation.

Compagnies de Discipline (Fr.). “Companies of discipline.” These companies were created by Napoleon I. in 1802; the basis of their actual organization was laid by a royal order, dated April 1, 1818. This order fixes the number of companies at 10, 6 of fusileers and 4 of pioneers, the former to be composed of soldiers of the army who were guilty of indiscipline, and the latter to be formed of men of the former who were deemed incorrigible. The number of companies is now reduced to 7, who are stationed in Algeria. There are also 4 companies similarly organized which are stationed in the French colonies.

Compagnies d’Ordonnance (Fr.). The name of a corps of cavalry, which was organized in France by Charles VII. in 1439; it numbered 16 companies, and the entire strength was 9600 men. This was the first regular cavalry organized in France.

Company (Fr. compagnie). In military organization, is a body of men commanded by a captain, and forming an aliquot part of a regiment or battalion. In the British service a full company consists of about 100 men, and a regiment of infantry generally comprises 10 or 12 companies, or if there is more than 1 battalion, each has this number of companies. The captain of each company is assisted by 2 subalterns. In the U.S. army each regiment of infantry is divided into 10 companies, and each company has a captain and 2 lieutenants. The artillery and cavalry regiments are divided into 12 companies each, and the former has a captain and 4 lieutenants to each company. See Organization.

Company Column. The successive improvements that have been made in fire-arms during the last hundred years have been followed by a gradual diminution of the depth of tactical formations, until to-day the “open order,” or the formation as skirmishers, is the only one adopted under the fire of the enemy. In the most recent development of the “open order” the company, composed of 250 men, is recognized as the “fighting unit,” while the battalion, composed of 4 companies, is regarded as the “tactical unit,”—that is, the smallest body of men that can be safely employed independently.

The adoption of breech-loaders has not changed the principles of strategy and grand tactics, nor has it diminished the number of lines in which armies are drawn up to give and receive battle. It has simply demonstrated the impossibility of attacking positions in battalion columns, and, as a consequence, has necessitated a division of the troops into smaller fractions, which, under fire, can be moved with the greatest rapidity and least exposure, thereby insuring the least loss of life. Hence the formation of troops in “company column” in the German and other European armies.

In the German army, the company is formed in three ranks; the tallest men are in the front rank; the most adroit and best shots are selected for the third rank, because the special duties of this rank require these qualities; the distance between ranks is 2 feet. The company is divided into divisions (or platoons). If the divisions consist of 20 or more files, they are divided into subdivisions (or half platoons); the subdivisions are again divided into sections of not less than 4, nor more than 6 files. If the company be of full strength, it will have a front of 72 files; each division will contain 36 files; each subdivision 18 files; and each section 6 files. The battalion consists of 4 companies.

The “company column” is formed in the following manner: The battalion being in line, at the command to “form company column,” the third rank of each even division of the right wing faces about, marches 12 paces to the rear, halts, and faces to the front; the first and second ranks of the uneven divisions face to the left, and place themselves 6 paces in rear of the first and second ranks of the even divisions; the third rank of the uneven subdivisions faces to the left, and, filing in front of the third rank of the even division, forms with it a third division in double rank. The movement is executed in the uncadenced step. The column when formed consists practically of 3 platoons in double rank. In the left wing the movement is similarly executed; the even subdivisions ploying in rear of the uneven subdivisions. The third division of each column is called the “shooting division.”

In the French army the company is formed in 2 ranks, and is normally divided into 4 sections, the first two of which constitute the first platoon, the last two the second platoon. The “company column” is always formed on the second section from the right, which stands fast; the distance between sections is 6 paces.

The “company column” in Italy, Austria, and Russia, as in France, varies very slightly from the German.

With a battalion of 8 or 10 companies, subdivisions may be dispensed with, and, so long as this organization is retained in England and America, the “company column” will not therefore become a necessity. Should the regimental system of 3 battalions, of 4 companies each, be adopted, all of the advantages claimed for the “company column” can be secured by adopting the double column of fours for each company.—Armies of Asia and Europe, Upton.

Compass, Prismatic. A pocket instrument for measuring horizontal angles by means of the magnetic meridian. It is much employed in the military service for sketching the general features of a country, and in reconnoissances. It consists of a small glass-covered box containing a magnetized needle attached to a graduated card. A sight-vane with a fine wire stretched longitudinally in the slot is hinged to one side of the box. On the opposite side is a prism. To use it the sight-vane is turned up to the perpendicular. The eye is applied to the prism, and the wire directed on the object. The division in the card coinciding with the reflection of the wire gives the angle with the meridian.

Compassionate Allowances. In the British service, are grants of allowances which are made to the legitimate children of deceased officers of the land forces in all cases in which the widow of the officer would be entitled to be placed on the pension-list, provided it be shown that they are deserving objects of the sovereign’s bounty, and are in distressed circumstances.

CompiÈgne. A town of France, department of Oise. It was besieged by the English in 1430, who failed to capture it owing to the brave defense made by its governor, Flavia. Joan of Arc, who came to the assistance of this town, was taken prisoner by the English besiegers. The emperor Napoleon III. and the king of Prussia met here on October 6, 1861.

Complement of the Curtain. That part in the interior side of a fortification which makes the demi-gorge.

Complement of the Line of Defense. The remainder of the line of defense after the angle of the flank is taken away.

Compliment. The military mark of respect shown by a body of troops to official personages, to an officer, or to another body of troops.

Compositions, Pyrotechnic. See Pyrotechny.

Compound Armor. See Armor Plates.

Compression Strain. See Ordnance, Strains upon.

Compulsion, or Inevitable Necessity. Is a constraint upon the will whereby an officer is urged to that which his judgment disapproves, and which, it is to be presumed, his will (if left to itself) would reject. As punishments are, therefore, only inflicted for the abuse of that free will which God has given to man, it is highly just and equitable that an officer should be excused for those acts which are done through unavoidable force and compulsion.

Comrade. A soldier who acts as the friend of another soldier, rendering him friendly services, etc. Each soldier generally has one special friend who is recognized as his comrade. The term comrade is also extended so as to include all the members of a particular corps, branch of the service, or the army generally.

Concarneau. A maritime town of France, department of FinistÈre; it was taken by Du Guesclin in 1373, and by the Leaguers in 1576. The town is defended by a fort and surrounded by ancient walls.

Concave Order of Battle. See Order of Battle, Concave.

Concepcion. A port of Chili, capital of a province of the same name. In 1554, 1555, and 1603, it was taken and burnt by the Araucanians. A portion of it was again devastated by the Araucanians in 1823.

Concord. A town of Middlesex Co., Mass., 11 miles from Boston. Here, on April 19, 1775, one of the first conflicts took place between the Americans and the British troops. A monument is erected at this place to commemorate the event.

Concrete. A coarse building mortar, containing broken stone, gravel, etc., used much in fortifications.

CondÉ. A town of France, in the department of the North. It is strongly fortified and has a military arsenal. In 1793 this town was taken by the Austrians.

Condemned Property. In the military service, property must be condemned by an inspector before it can rightfully be destroyed.

Condottieri. A name given in the 14th century to the leaders of certain bands of military adventurers in Italy, who, for booty, offered their services to any party in any contest, and often practiced warfare on their own account purely for the sake of plunder. The Compagnies Grandes in France at about the same period were somewhat similar to the condottieri, and were so powerful at one time that in 1361 they routed the king’s forces at Brignais, and slew Jacques de Bourbon, constable of France.

Conduct Unbecoming an Officer and a Gentleman. See Ungentlemanlike or Unofficerlike, and Appendix, Articles of War, 60 and 61.

Confederate Projectiles. See Projectile.

Confederate States of America, or Southern Confederacy. The efforts of the Southern States for the extension of slavery, and the zeal of the Northern States for its abolition, with the consequent political dissensions, led to the great secession of 1860-61. On November 4, 1860, Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, was elected President of the United States. Hitherto, a President in the interest of the South had been elected. On December 20, South Carolina seceded from the Union; and Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina seceded early in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated President of the Southern Confederacy at Montgomery, Ala., February 18, 1861. For important events of the civil war which ensued, see the different States of America throughout this work, and the names of battles, etc., which were fought during this war. On the 20th day of August, 1866, the President (Andrew Johnson) proclaimed the insurrection at an end, and that peace, order, tranquillity, and civil authority existed throughout the whole of the United States.

Confederation of the Rhine. The league of the German states, formed by Napoleon Bonaparte, July 12, 1806, when he abolished the Holy Roman Empire, and the emperor of Germany became emperor of Austria. In December it consisted of France, Bavaria, WÜrtemberg, Saxony, and Westphalia; 7 grand duchies, 6 duchies, and 20 principalities. The princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of war, and established a diet at Frankfort. This league terminated with the career of Bonaparte in 1814. It was replaced by the Germanic Confederation, and it, in its turn, was replaced by the North German Confederation.

Confiscation. The appropriation to the public use of private property. A right which is conferred under certain circumstances by the laws of war. See Contraband of War.

Conflans (near Paris), Treaty of. Between Louis XI. of France and the Dukes of Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, October 5, 1465. By its provisions Normandy was ceded to the Duke of Berry, and an end was put to the “War of the Public Good.” It was confirmed by the treaty of Peronne, 1468.

Congreve Rocket. See Rocket.

Coni, or Cuneo. The capital of a province of the same name in Piedmont. It was once a fortified place, and had to undergo several sieges. After being taken and retaken, the victory of Marengo gave it into the hands of the French, who demolished the fortifications and turned them into promenades.

Connecticut. One of the original States of the American Confederation, and the most southwestern of the New England States. The country was early explored by the Dutch, but the first permanent settlements were made by English emigrants in 1634. In 1637 the settlers were much annoyed by Indians, who were shortly afterwards subdued, however, in engagements at Mystic and Fairfield, and never after gave any serious trouble. The State took an active part in the cause of American independence, and also in the late war for the Union, and throughout both these eventful contests she sustained eminent distinction as well for the wisdom of her statesmen as for the bravery and patriotism of her soldiers.

Conquer. To gain or acquire by force; to take possession of by violent means; to gain dominion over; to subdue; to reduce, etc. To gain the victory; to overcome.

Conqueror. One who conquers; one who subdues and brings into subjection or possession by force or by influence.

Conquest. The act of conquering or acquiring by force; the act of overcoming or subduing opposition by force; subjugation; victory.

Conquisitores. So were called the recruiting officers of the Romans.

Consarbruck. A village of Rhenish Prussia where the French were defeated by the Duc de Lorraine, August 11, 1675.

Conscription. A system of enrolling men for military service, which is in vogue in France and some other foreign countries. Voluntary enlistments being so very few, the compulsory system of keeping up the armies is deemed indispensable. An account is kept of all the youths who reach the age of 20 in one year, and out of these the number required for the army is drawn by lot.

Consigne (Fr.). Parole or countersign.

Constable. The title in the Middle Ages of the highest military officer in France under the king. The term comes from the low Latin phrase comes stabuli, count of the stables.

Constable of the Tower. In England, is a general officer who has the chief superintendence of the Tower, and is lord-lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets. He holds his appointment by letters-patent from the sovereign, and is not removable at pleasure.

Constantine, or Constantina. A fortified city of Algeria, capital of a province of its own name. It stands on the site of the ancient Cirta, celebrated as the bulwark of Numidia. It is built upon a high rock, formed into a species of peninsula by the Rummel. It was besieged by the French in 1836, but held out till October, 1837, when it was taken by assault.

Constantinople. A celebrated city of Turkey in Europe, the capital of the Ottoman empire. It was formerly called Byzantium, but having been rebuilt by the emperor Constantine in 328, it received his name. No city in the world has been subjected to as many numerous and celebrated sieges, yet it was only taken twice,—by the Crusaders in 1204 (held by them till 1261), and by the Turks under Mohammed II., May 29, 1453,—an event which completed the extinction of the Roman empire in the East.

Contest. In a military sense, to struggle to defend; as, the troops contested every inch of ground. Earnest struggle for superiority, defense, or the like; strife in arms.

Continental. A term adopted by the Americans in the Revolutionary war in contradistinction to British.

Contingent. This term is applied to the quota of troops furnished to the common army by each member of a confederation of states; the proportion of troops or money furnished by each party to an alliance.

Contingent. In the British service, the sum paid monthly to each captain of a troop, company, or battery, to defray the expense of stationery, the care of arms, and other minor demands. A contingent account is also the account, sent in by a staff-officer, of money expended for miscellaneous purposes.

Contours. Are the lines in which a site or ground surface is cut by horizontal planes, usually taken at equidistances.

Contraband of War. Are such articles as a belligerent has by the law of nations the right of preventing a neutral from furnishing to his enemy. Articles contraband of war are, in general, arms and munitions of war and those out of which munitions of war are made. Contraband articles are subject to confiscation; but very arbitrary interpretations have been affixed to the term by powerful states, when able to enforce them by arms. Thus, provisions are held contraband of war when it is the object to reduce the enemy by famine. But with respect to these and other articles not in their nature contraband, it seems to be the practice that the belligerent should purchase them from the neutral for a reasonable equivalent, instead of confiscating.

Contramure. In fortification, is a wall built before another partition-wall to strengthen it, so that it may receive no damage from the adjacent buildings.

Contravallation. In fortification, is an intrenchment formed in the same manner as the line of circumvallation, to defend the besiegers against the enterprises of the garrison. An army forming a siege lies between the line of circumvallation and contravallation. The trench of this line is towards the town, at the foot of the parapet, and is never made but when the garrison is numerous enough to harass and interrupt the besiegers by sallies. This line is constructed in the rear of the camp, and by the same rule as the line of circumvallation, with this difference, that, as it is only intended to resist a body of troops much inferior to a force which might attack the circumvallation, its parapet is not made so thick, nor the ditch so wide and deep.

Contre-forts (Fr.). Brick-work which is added to the revetment of a rampart on the side of the terre-plein, and which is equal to its height. Contre forts are used to support the body of earth with which the rampart is formed. They are likewise used in the revetments of counterscarps, in gorges and demi-gorges, etc. Contre-forts likewise form a part of the construction of powder-magazines, which are bomb-proof.

Contreras. A celebrated battle-field of Mexico, about 14 miles south of the capital. Here, on August 19 and 20, 1847, the American forces under Gen. Scott defeated and totally routed, with loss of all his artillery, the Mexican general Valencia.

Contribution. In a military sense, is an imposition or tax levied on the people of a conquered town or country.

Control Department. In the British service, is the department which performs all the administrative duties of the army, in fact, all duties neither combatant, educational, nor scientific. It has a sub-department which performs all work connected with supply and transport, and to which is attached the “Army Service Corps,” a body of men officered by the control department, and employed as butchers, bakers, military train, dispensers, hospital attendants, and those engaged in non-combatant duties generally.

Controller. In the British service, the highest grade in the control department. The officers holding it—three in number—rank with major-generals. A deputy controller belongs to the second grade in the control department. Officers holding it rank with lieutenant-colonels.

Convalescent. A soldier who though discharged from hospital is not sufficiently recovered to do duty.

Convention. In a military sense, is an agreement made between hostile armies for some well-defined purpose, such as the evacuation of a fort, territory, etc. One of the most celebrated conventions of modern times was that of Cintra (1808), between the French and the English generals.

Conversion. A change of front, as of a body of troops attacked in the flank.

Conversion, Bridge by. See Pontons.

Converted Guns. A term applied to cast-iron guns lined with wrought iron or steel tube. See Ordnance, Palliser and Parsons Guns.

Convex Order of Battle. See Order of Battle, Convex.

Convoy. In the military service, is a train of wagons laden with provisions or warlike stores, or a detachment of troops appointed to guard such a train.

Cooling of Cannon. See Ordnance, Construction of.

Coptic Legion. In 1799 the French army in Egypt not receiving any reinforcements, grew weaker every day through loss in combat and disease, when Gen. Kleber, who commanded after the departure of Napoleon, formed a corps of Copts, or native Christians, about 600 strong, which was known by this name. They were armed the same as the French troops.

Cordon. In military operations, is a line of sentries inclosing or guarding any particular space of ground, to prevent the passage of persons other than those belonging to the army. The word also applies in fortifications to a row of stones made round on the outside, and placed between the termination of the slope of the wall, so as not to be offensive to the eye.

CÓrdova. A city of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, founded about 152 B.C.; taken by the Goths in 572, and made the capital of an Arab kingdom in 756. It was rescued from the Arabs by Ferdinand III. of Castile in 1236; was taken by the French under Dupont and disgracefully ravaged, June 8, 1808; surrendered to Joseph Bonaparte, January, 1810, and abandoned by the French in 1813.

Corduroy Road. A roadway formed of logs laid side by side across it, as in marshy places; so called from its rough or ribbed surface, resembling corduroy. See Cordway.

Cordway. This way or road is made over extensive marsh tracks, and is constructed as follows, from the description of material usually abounding in such places: Trees and poles of almost any description will be found to answer. Cut as many as is thought requisite. Divide them into three classes,—ground-poles, cross-poles, and stringers. The ground-poles should be the largest and heaviest. The cross-poles are comparatively short lengths, and lie across the ground-poles with their ends projecting some distance beyond. They are laid closely together, and then secured and bound down by the stringers which lie on them. A tree-nail driven in here and there serves to keep all in place by nipping the cross-poles tightly. The ends of the ground-poles and stringers may be either scarfed and tree-nailed, or laid side by side and tied with withers or strips of suitable bark. This road is quickly made and found very useful in transporting the supplies of an army over a wet, marshy country.

Core. When cannon are cast hollow, after the plan of Rodman, a core is used to make the bore. It consists of a hollow cast-iron pipe, fluted on the outside, called the core-barrel. This is wrapped with rope and the molding sand is plastered over the rope. A water-pipe entering the core-barrel and reaching nearly to the bottom, and another leaving it near the top, are used to maintain a circulation of water through it, thus cooling the casting from the interior.

Corea, or Korea. Is an extensive peninsular country in Northeastern Asia, whose limits are not accurately known. It is bounded east by the Sea of Japan, south by the Strait of Corea, and west by the Whang-hai, or Yellow Sea. Corea was first subjected by the Tartars, but in about 1120 B.C. the Chinese appear to have gained possession of the country The Japanese conquered and held it between the years 1692 and 1698, when it again fell under the sway of China, and still pays a small annual tribute to the emperor.

Corfu. The capital and principal town of the Ionian Islands. It was first occupied by the PhÆcians, and then by the Liburnians; but the accounts of it are somewhat mythical until its settlement by the Corinthians about 734 B.C., and through its commerce it soon after acquired a considerable importance. It soon quarreled with the mother-country, and after many vicissitudes of fortune passed under the dominion of the Romans about 229 B.C. The town is defended by two fortresses, and garrisoned by British troops since 1864, though belonging to the kingdom of Greece.

Corinth. An ancient and celebrated city of Greece, the capital of a department of the same name, situated on the Isthmus of Corinth. It was totally destroyed by L. Mummius, the Roman consul, and burnt to the ground, 146 B.C. It remained in ruins for a century, and was rebuilt in the year 46 by Julius CÆsar, after which it again arose to be a populous and prosperous city. After the taking of Constantinople it fell into the hands of the Turks, from whom it was retaken in 1687 by its former possessors, the Venetians. In 1715 it was again possessed by the Turks, who held it till 1823, when it was taken by the Greeks.

Corinth. A village in the northeast of Mississippi, about 90 miles east of Memphis. It was evacuated by the Confederates under Beauregard, May 29, 1862, and next day occupied by the Federal forces under Gen. Halleck. The Confederates, under Gens. Van Dorn, Price, and others, attempted to take this place, but they were thoroughly defeated after several desperate struggles by Gen. Rosecrans, October 3-5, 1862. The Confederate loss in prisoners alone was nearly 3000.

Corinthian War. Began 395 B.C.; received this name because it was carried on mostly in the neighborhood of Corinth; waged by a confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives against the LacedÆmonians. It was closed by the peace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C.

Corium. Leather body-armor, formed of overlapping leaves or scales, worn by Roman soldiers, and those of other nations. Its use was continued in England till the reign of Edward I.

Cork. A city of Ireland, capital of the county of the same name; built in the 6th century, it was garrisoned by Henry II., 1172; taken by Cromwell in 1649. The Earl of Marlborough besieged and took this city from King James’s army, 1690.

Cornet (Ital. cornetta, a “small flag”). Is the lowest grade of commissioned officers in the cavalry, equivalent to ensign in the infantry, his duty being to bear the standard. In the U.S. army there are no cornets.

Cornet. In the military history of the ancients, an instrument much in the nature of a trumpet: when the cornet only sounded, the ensigns were to march alone without the soldiers; whereas, when the trumpet only sounded, the soldiers were to move forward without the ensigns. A troop of horse was so called.

Cornette-blanche (Fr.). An ornament which in ancient times served to distinguish French officers who were high in command. It was worn by them on the top of their helmets. It likewise meant a royal standard, and was substituted in the room of the royal pennon. The cornette-blanche was only unfurled when the king joined the army; and the persons who served under it were princes, noblemen, marshals of France, and old captains, whose orders came direct from the king.

Coroneia. An ancient town of Boeotia. The Athenians were here defeated by the Boeotians, and their leader, Tolmides, slain, 447 B.C. The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians having entered into a league, offensive and defensive, against Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the terror of his arms from his many victories, even into Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Coroneia and achieved a great victory over them, 394 B.C.

Corporal. In the military service, is a non-commissioned officer next in rank below a sergeant. He is distinguished by two chevrons worn on the arm.

Corporal, Lance. A private soldier who acts as corporal. He wears one chevron, but has no increase of pay.

Corporal-Major. In the British service, a troop corporal-major is the non-commissioned officer of the highest rank in a troop of the Household Cavalry; his position and authority are the same as those of a color-sergeant of infantry. A regimental corporal-major is the non-commissioned officer of the highest rank in each of the three regiments of Household Cavalry, and corresponds to a sergeant-major of infantry.

Corporal’s Guard. Used to indicate a detachment of several men under arms. May be applied to a squad equal to that usually placed under the charge of a corporal for drill, police, guard duty, etc. Generally made use of in a derisive manner.

Corps. A body of men; especially a body of troops; an organized part or division of an army.

Corps d’ArmÉe. In the military organization of large armies two or more divisions form a corps d’armÉe, or army corps, which is complete in itself as an army, with everything needed for service. In European states, where large standing armies are kept, this custom of dividing them into corps, each under an officer of very high rank, and quartering them in different provinces, is followed even in times of peace.

Correspondence, Official. Is correspondence carried on officially between military officers and various departments of the service, such as orders, reports, letters, indorsements, etc. All official correspondence between the heads of the different departments of the staff of any command and its commander must pass through the adjutant-general, assistant adjutant-general, or adjutant of the command, as the case may be. Communications to or from a commander and those under his command must pass through the adjutant-general, assistant adjutant-general, or adjutant on duty with it; excepting only such communications between a disbursing officer and the chief of his particular branch of the staff as relate exclusively to the ordinary routine of business in their own department. All communications, whether from an inferior to a superior, or vice versa, are, as a general rule, to be passed through the intermediate commanders. The same rule governs in verbal applications: for example, a lieutenant seeking an indulgence must apply through his captain, the captain through the adjutant, and so on. All correspondence relating to or involving the personnel of the army when forwarded to the Secretary of War for his orders, must be forwarded through the adjutant-general for the consideration of the general of the army.

Corridor. The covered way lying round the whole compass of the fortifications of a place.

Corselet. A little cuirass, or piece of armor to cover the front of the body, worn formerly by pikemen.

Corsica. An island in the Mediterranean, held by the French. This island has been successively occupied by the Carthaginians, Romans, Goths, Saracens, Franks, the popes, and Genoese; and lastly by the French, in whose possession it now remains, and to whom it was ceded by the Genoese in 1768. This island was held by the British from June, 1794, to Oct. 22, 1796.

Cortege. The official staff, civil or military.

Corus, Corupedion, or Cyropedium. A plain in Phrygia, Asia Minor, where the aged Lysimachus was defeated by Seleucus, and slain, 281 B.C. These two were the only survivors of Alexander the Great’s generals.

Corygaum. An insignificant village in the presidency of Bombay; historically interesting in connection with the final subjugation of the Peishwa of the Mahrattas. On Jan. 1, 1818, it was defended for nine hours by a mere handful of men under Capt. Staunton, against a native force numbering at least 3000 infantry and about 20,000 cavalry, the struggle terminating in the repulse of the assailants after terrible slaughter.

Cossacks (Russ., Kasacks). A military organization of irregulars in the Russian service. They contribute much to the military strength of Russia; but several insurrections, of which the most alarming was that of 1773, have taken place since they became subjects to the Russian government.

Cossova. A plain in Servia. Here Amurath I. totally defeated the Christian army (Servians, Hungarians, etc.), September, 1389; but was himself killed by an expiring soldier. At this place, in 1448, John Huniades was defeated by a Turkish army four times larger than his own.

Costa Rica. The most southern state of Central America; bounded north by Nicaragua, northeast by the Caribbean Sea, south by New Granada, and south and west by the Pacific. The government of Costa Rica was established in 1832, and is accounted as the best and most liberal in Central America.

Coston’s Lights. Colored pyrotechnical compositions used for night signaling. Sometimes used in the form of a pistol cartridge.

Cotice, or Cost. In heraldry, one of the diminutives of the bend. It is a fourth part of the bend, and is usually borne in couples, with a head between.

Couchant. In heraldry, a beast lying down, with his head up, is couchant. If the head is down, he is dormant.

Coulmiers. A village 10 miles west of Orleans, Central France. Here the Bavarians under Gen. Von der Tann were defeated by the French army of the Loire under Gen. d’Aurelle de Paladines, who took about 2000 prisoners, Nov. 9, 1870, and regained Orleans.

Council of War. A conference of officers in military or naval warfare, on some matter in which the commander wishes to fortify his judgment by an appeal to that of others. The commandant of a garrison generally solicits the opinion of a council of war before surrendering to besiegers.

Counter-approach. A trench by which the besieged proceeds to meet the approaches of the besiegers. It is generally zigzag.

Counter-arch. A vertical arch connecting the top of the counter-forts.

Counter-battery. A battery which returns the fire of an opposing battery.

Counter-changed. In heraldry, when several metals and colors are intermixed, one being set against the other, they are said to be counter-changed.

Counter-forts. Interior buttresses constructed for the purpose of strengthening masonry revetments.

Counter-guards. Sometimes called couvre-faces, are works constructed in permanent fortifications to cover a bastion or demi-lune. They consist of two faces forming a salient angle.

Counterhurters. In gunnery, are pieces of iron bolted to the rails on which the gun-carriage moves to check it in front and rear. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Sea-coast Carriages.

Countermand. To revoke, as a former command; to direct or order in opposition to an order previously given, thereby annulling it, or prohibiting its execution.

Countermarch. A change of direction of a company or battalion in column from front to rear, by a flank movement, retaining the same ground.

Countermine. A gallery underground so constructed as to facilitate the formation of mines, by means of which those of the enemy may be reached and destroyed.

Countermine. To oppose by means of a countermine; to frustrate the designs of, by sinking a well and gallery in the earth, in search of an enemy’s mine.

Counter-parole. A word given in any time of alarm, as a signal.

Counterpoise Carriage. A gun-carriage which, applied to a gun mounted in barbette, allows it to recoil behind the parapet or other shelter, and by means of a counterpoise brings it, or assists in bringing it, again into battery after it has been loaded. Among the best known of these carriages are Moncrieff’s and King’s,—the former invented by Capt. Moncrieff, of the British army, and the latter by Capt. W. R. King, of the U.S. Engineers. In Moncrieff’s carriage the counterpoise is a heavy weight between the cheeks of the top carriage. In King’s the weight is in a well under the pintle-block, and is attached to the carriage by a wire cable.

Counter-round. A body of officers, whose duty it is to visit and inspect the rounds and sentinels.

Counterscarp. In fortification, is the vertical or nearly vertical side of the ditch nearest to the besiegers, and opposite to the scarp or escarp. It is generally faced or revetted in permanent works, to render the descent into the ditch difficult.

Counterscarp Galleries. Galleries under the counterscarp at the salients, for the purpose of flanking the ditch.

Countersign. In military discipline or manoeuvres, is a watch-word given by the commanding officer of an army or garrison daily, in order that a friend may be distinguished from an enemy. The countersign is given to sentinels, and others who are immediately concerned. It is given in garrison to prevent unauthorized persons from passing the guards. The countersign is usually the name of a battle.

Counter-swallowtail. In fortification, is a kind of an outwork very much resembling a single tenaille.

Counter-trenches. Are trenches made against the besiegers, which consequently have their parapets turned against the enemy’s approaches, and are enfiladed from several parts of the place on purpose to render them useless to the enemy, if they should chance to become masters of them; but they should not be enfiladed or commanded by any height in the enemy’s possession.

Counter-vair. A heraldic fur. It differs from vair by having its cups or bells of the same tinctures placed base against base, and point against point. The tinctures are or and azure.

Coup de Grace. A finishing or decisive stroke.

Coup de Main. A sudden and vigorous attack, for the purpose of instantaneously capturing a position.

Coup d’Œil. The gift of rapidly grasping and turning to the best account the contingencies of war, and the features of the country which is its scene.

Couped (Fr. coupÉ). A term in heraldry, used to describe the head or any limb of an animal cut off from the trunk, and smooth. When crosses, bends, bars, etc., are cut so as not to touch the sides of the escutcheon, they are also said to be couped.

Coupe-gorge (Fr.). Literally means cut-throat. It is used in a military sense to signify any spot or position which affords an enemy so many advantages that the troops who occupy it must either surrender or be cut to pieces.

Coupures. In fortification, are passages cut through the glacis, of about 12 or 15 feet broad, in the re-entering angle of the covert way, to facilitate the sallies of the besieged. They are sometimes made through the lower curtain, to let boats into a little haven built in the re-entrant angle of the counterscarp of the outworks.

CourÇon (Fr.). A long piece of iron which is used in the artillery and serves to constrain or tighten cannon.

Courier. In a military sense, means a messenger sent post or express to carry dispatches of battles gained, lost, etc., or any other occurrences that happened in war.

Courland. A duchy of Livonia, subjected to Poland in 1582, conquered by Charles XII. of Sweden in 1701; Ernest Biren, duke, 1737; his son, Peter, 1769; annexed to Russia, March, 1795.

Couronement, or Couronnement. In fortification, implies the most exterior part of a work when besieged.

Courtel. A military implement which served both for a knife and a dagger.

Court-martial. In the army, a tribunal for the examination and punishment of offenders against martial law or against good order and discipline. Under the present construction of law, members of courts-martial become judges and jurors. In ancient feudal times the lords had arbitrary power over vassals who held their lands by tenure of military service, and punished them as they saw fit, and courts of chivalry took cognizance of offenses committed by the nobles. With the decline of feudalism the system of military despotism became obnoxious to the English people, and although the necessity for a standing army was admitted in time of peace, it could only exist with the consent of Parliament. The first military act passed after the accession of William to the throne of England is believed to have laid the foundation of the present system of courts-martial, which has also been adopted to a certain extent in the American service. Parliament having been notified that a body of English and Scotch troops who were ordered to Holland had mutinied, that body passed, on April 3, 1689, an act for punishing mutiny, desertion, etc., which has been renewed annually by Parliament to the present day. It authorized the king to grant commissions to certain officers to hold courts-martial for the trial of crimes committed by officers and soldiers. Similar acts were at different times passed in relation to offenses committed in the navy. A court-martial is a court of limited and special jurisdiction called into existence by force of express statute for a special purpose, and to perform a particular duty; and when the object of its creation is accomplished it ceases to exist. The law presumes nothing in its favor. He who seeks to enforce its sentences, or to justify its conduct under them, must set forth affirmatively and clearly all the facts which are necessary to show that it was legally constituted, and that the subject was within its jurisdiction. And if in its proceedings or sentence it transcends the limits of its jurisdiction, the members of the court and its officer who executes its sentence are trespassers, and as such are answerable to the party injured in damages in the courts of common law. Courts are classed into general, garrison, summary, regimental, and field-officers’, according as the authority convening, the nature of the offenses to be inquired into, the punishment to be awarded, or other circumstances may determine. See Appendix, Articles of War, 72 to 114; also Trial.

Court of Honor. Is a military court authorized by the regulations of the Prussian service, convened for the purpose of sustaining the honor of the service and of individuals, and of punishing officers who may be found guilty of conduct deviating even in the least from the principles which actuate military men as men of honor. The court of honor of a regiment consists of all commissioned officers in it, except the prosecutor, the defendant, near relations, officers appearing as witnesses in the case, officers on leave, detached service, under arrest, or awaiting trial before any court; and has for its regular business management a council of honor, consisting of the senior captain, senior first lieutenant, and senior second lieutenant. The court has jurisdiction over all acts or omissions (not provided for by any fixed laws) which are unofficerlike or ungentlemanly in their nature, particularly such as contracting debts, improper choice of society, excessive use of intoxicating liquors, gambling, quarrels, carelessness or neglect of duty, and scandal. With the exception of general officers, all officers of the standing army, the reserve, the landwehr, and those of the retired list are subject to the laws of the court of honor. The court to investigate the conduct of a field-officer is made up of the field-officers of the division to which the officer belongs.

Court of Inquiry. In the military service of the United States, is a legally constituted court which may be ordered by the President or by any commanding officer to examine into the nature of any transaction of, or accusation or imputation against, any officer or soldier upon a demand by the officer or soldier whose conduct is to be inquired into. It may consist of one, two, or three officers, and a judge-advocate or other suitable person as recorder, all of whom are sworn. It has the same powers as a court-martial to summon witnesses and to examine them on oath. Courts of inquiry cannot award punishment, but must report to the officer by whose order they were assembled. (See Appendix, Articles of War, 115 to 121; also Inquiry, Board of.) In the British service courts of inquiry are not regulated by any statute or standing regulation, but depend on the will of the sovereign, or of the superior officer convoking the court, both as to the officers who may compose it, and as to every particular of its constitution. It is not a judicial body, but is rather a council, having no power to compel the attendance of witnesses not of the army or navy, nor to administer oaths.

Courtrai. A fortified town of Belgium, on the river Lys. Here Robert, count of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings in 1297, was defeated and slain by them, July 11, 1302. The conflict was named the “Battle of the Spurs,” from the number of gilt spurs collected.

Coussinet À Mousquetaire (Fr.). A bag formerly worn by a French soldier on his left side beneath the cross-belt. It hung on a hook near the butt of his musket. It likewise signifies a wedge used to support the mortar in its frame.

Coutere. A piece of armor which covered the elbow.

Coutras. In Southwestern France. Here Henry of Navarre totally defeated the Duc de Joyeuse and the Royalists, October 20, 1587.

Cover. Natural or artificial protection from the fire of the enemy, the former being afforded by hills, woods, banks, walls, etc., the latter by fortifications constructed for the purpose. To cover is, in military language, to stand exactly behind another man.

Covering. Standing exactly in front or in rear of another man or an object.

Covering-fascines. Are those made of stout picket stuff, not less than 1 inch thick, without any mixture of small brush-wood. They may be used in place of planks for the superstructure of wooden bridges; and may also be used, if no stout planks or spars are to be had, for the roofs of field powder-magazines. They may be made of the usual diameter of 9 inches. Their length will depend upon the special purpose for which they are intended. The withes should be particularly good.

Covert Way, or Covered Way. Is a road or broad path outside the fosse or moat of a fortified place, between the counterscarp and the glacis. It is usually about 30 feet wide, and sunk so far below the crest of the glacis that soldiers standing upon it cannot be seen by the besiegers; hence the name. The covert way is broad enough to allow troops to form on it, either to act defensively or make sorties; and to increase this accommodation enlarged portions, called places of arms, are made at certain spots.

Covinarii. The soldiers who fought on the covinus were so called.

Covinus. A kind of war-chariot used by the ancient Britons and Belgians.

Cowardice. See Appendix, Articles of War, 42.

Cow-boys. A band of marauders in the time of the American Revolution, consisting mostly of refugees who adhered to the British side, and who infested the so-called “neutral ground” lying between the American and British lines, plundering all those who had taken the oath of allegiance to the Continental Congress. See Skinners.

Cowpens. A village in Spartanburg Co., N. C. At this place Gen. Morgan defeated Col. Tarleton, January 17, 1781; it is said that Tarleton lost 300 men in killed and wounded, and about 500 prisoners. The American loss was also considerable.

Cracow. A city in Austrian Poland, on the left bank of the Vistula. It was taken by Charles XII. in 1702; taken and retaken several times by the Russians and other confederates. The Russians were expelled from the city March 24, 1794; but it surrendered to the Prussians June 15, the same year, and in 1795 was awarded to Austria. It was occupied by 10,000 Russians, who followed the defeated Poles, September, 1831. It was finally incorporated with the Austrian empire, November 16, 1846.

Cradle. A narrow frame-work of heavy timbers upon which heavy guns are sometimes placed, to be moved upon rollers.

Crakers. Choice soldiers were so called in the time of Henry VIII.

Crakys. An old term for great guns.

Crampets. The cramp rings of a sword scabbard.

Crampton’s Gap. A pass in the South Mountains, Frederick Co., Md. A stubborn fight of four or five hours took place here September 14, 1862, between part of Gen. McClellan’s army under command of Gen. W. B. Franklin and a portion of the Confederate army under Gen. Cobb, which was defending the pass. The Confederates were forced to retire, having suffered severe loss in killed and wounded.

Cranon. In Thessaly, Northern Greece. The Macedonians under Antipater and Craterus defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by sea, and once by land, near Cranon.

Craonne. A town of France, in the department of Aisne. Here Victor and Ney defeated the Prussians under BlÜcher, after a severe contest, March 7, 1814.

Crater. The pit left by the explosion of a military mine.

Cravant. See Crevant-sur-Yonne.

CrÉcy, or Cressy. A village in France, department of the Somme, famous for a great victory obtained over the French, under Philip of Valois, by Edward III. of England, August 26, 1346. In this battle fell the king of Bohemia, the Count of Flanders, 8 other sovereign princes, 80 bannerets, 1200 knights, 1500 gentlemen, 4000 men-at-arms, with the Duke of AlenÇon and the flower of the French nobility. The English army was drawn up in three lines; of which the first was commanded by Edward, prince of Wales, assisted by the Earls of Warwick and Oxford; the second led by the Earls of Arundel and Northampton; while the third, or body reserve, was posted along the summit of a hill, under the command of the king in person, attended by the Lords Mowbray, Mortimer, and others. The English loss in this battle was very small.

CrÉcy-sur-Serre. A town of France, department of Aisne. Its castle was taken and razed by Louis le Gros in 1115. The English took the town in 1339, 1358, and 1373; it was taken by the forces of the League in 1589; and it was burned by the Spaniards in 1662.

Creedmoor. About 10 miles east of New York, noted for its splendid rifle range, which was established in 1871.

Creek Indians. Formerly a numerous and powerful tribe dwelling in Georgia and Alabama. Their number was much reduced by the war of 1814, in which year they waged war against the United States, but were subdued by Gen. Jackson. Of the survivors most removed beyond the Mississippi, and are now settled in Indian Territory, where they are rapidly advancing in the art of civilization. For numbers, etc., see Indians and their Agencies.

Creil. A town of France, department of the Oise. It was ravaged several times by the Normans; taken by the king of Navarre in 1358; by the English in 1434; by Charles VII. in 1441; pillaged by the Calvinists in 1567, and occupied by forces of the League in 1588.

Cremaille. In field fortification, is when the inside line of the parapet is broken in such a manner as to resemble the teeth of a saw. This advantage is gained by the measure, that a greater fire can be brought to hear upon the defile than if only a simple face was opposed to it; and consequently the passage is rendered more difficult.

CrÉmaillÈre (Fr.). An indented or zigzag line of intrenchment.

Cremona. A fortified city of Northern Italy, the capital of the province of the same name. It was besieged by the Gauls in 200 B.C.; by Primus, a general of Vespasian, in 69; by Frederick Barbarossa in 1160. Prince EugÈne took possession of it in 1702; it was taken by the French in 1796 and 1800.

Crenaux (Fr.). In fortification, small openings or loop-holes, made through the walls of a fortified town or place. They are extremely narrow towards the enemy, and wide within; so that the balls from the besiegers can scarcely ever enter, whereas two or three soldiers may fire from within.

Crenelle, or Crenel. A term used sometimes to denote a battlement, but more frequently an embrasure in a battlement. The adjective crenellated is employed to signify that a building is supplied with crenelles.

CrÉpy. A town of France, department of the Oise; it was captured and sacked by the English in 1339; by the Duke of Lancaster in 1373; occupied by the Burgundians in 1418; by Pothon and Xaintrailles in 1419; it was besieged by the Duke of Burgundy in 1420; taken by the English and their allies in 1431; by Charles VII. in 1433; by the Duc de Mayenne in 1588.

CrÉpy en Laonois. A town of France, department of Aisne. It was sacked by the English in 1339 and 1373, and taken by the Burgundians in 1418 and 1420. A treaty of peace was concluded here between Spain and France, September 18, 1544.

Crescent. The figure or likeness of the new moon borne in the Turkish flag or national standard; also the standard itself.

Crescent. The name of three orders of knighthood; the first instituted by Charles I., king of Naples and Sicily, in 1268; the second by RenÉ of Anjou, in 1448; and the third by the sultan Selim, in 1801. Of these the last is still in existence, and is remarkable for the fact that none but Christians are eligible. See Crescent, Turkish Order of.

Crescent. In heraldry, is used both as a bearing or charge, and as a difference or mark of cadency. In the latter case it designates the second son, and those that descend from him.

Crescent, Turkish Order of the. In 1799, after the battle of Aboukir, the sultan Selim III. testified his gratitude to Nelson by sending him a crescent richly adorned with diamonds. Selim was flattered by the value which the English admiral seemed to attach to this gift, and it was this circumstance which determined him, in 1801, to found the order of the Crescent, which is only conferred on Christians who have done service to the state. The second person on whom it was conferred was Gen. Sebastiani, for his defense of Constantinople against the English fleet in 1807.

Cressit. A small crease or dagger.

Crest. Signifies the line which marks the top of a parapet. It is sometimes called the interior crest. The exterior, or sub-crest, is the line marking the meeting of the exterior and superior slopes.

Crest. In feudal times was the distinctive ornament of the helmet; hence the term is frequently applied to the helmet itself. In heraldry the crest is shown as an appendage to the shield, placed over it, and usually borne upon a wreath. It is generally either some portion of the coat-armor, or a device commemorative of some incident in the history of a family, and often contains an allusion to the office of the bearer.

Crete. In fortification, implies the earth thrown out of the ditch in a fortification, trench, etc. The most elevated part of a parapet or glacis.

Crete. See Candia.

Crevant-sur-Yonne. In Northern France; besieged by John Stuart, earl of Buchan, with a French army, July, 1423, and relieved by the Earl of Salisbury with an army of English and Burgundians; after a severe contest the French were totally defeated.

Creveldt. Near Cleves, Western Prussia. Here, on June 23, 1758, Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated the French under the Count of Clermont.

Crimea. A peninsula of Southern Russia, formed by the Sea of Azof and the Black Sea. It was the Taurica Chersonesus of the ancient Greeks, by whom it was colonized about 550 B.C. Here was founded the kingdom of Bosporus, which formed part of the dominions of Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose descendants continued to rule the country under Roman protection until the irruption of the Goths, Huns, etc., 258 A.D. It fell into the hands of the Mongols in the 13th century, was subjected to the Ottoman yoke in 1475, and was ceded to Russia in 1783. War having been declared against Russia by England and France, March 28, 1854, an expedition against the Crimea was determined on. Accordingly, the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 men, commanded by Lord Raglan and Marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna September 3, and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th without opposition at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked the Russians (40,000 to 50,000 strong), who were intrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. It was the scene of several other engagements during the continuance of the war, until the proclamation of peace in April, 1856. The allies quitted the Crimea July 12, following.

Crimes, Capital. See Appendix, Articles of War, 21, 22, 23, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 56, 57, 105, and Section 1343.

Crimes, Military. See Appendix, Articles of War.

Crimisus. A river in Sicily, near which Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians, 339 B.C.

Crimping-houses. Houses in which persons were entrapped into the army; hence the name of “crimp sergeant.” In a riot in London some of these receptacles were destroyed by the populace, in consequence of a young man who had been enticed into one being killed in endeavoring to escape, September 16, 1794.

Criques (Fr.). Small ditches which are made in different parts of a ground for the purpose of inundating a country, in order to obstruct the approaches of an enemy.

Croatia. A province of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. This region was anciently inhabited by the Pannonians, who were conquered by the Romans in the reign of Augustus. It was conquered by Coloman, king of Hungary, in 1102, and was with that country united to Austria in 1526.

Croats. In military history, light irregular troops were so called; generally people of Croatia. They were ordered upon all desperate services, and their method of fighting was the same as the Pandours.

Crochert. A hagbut or hand-cannon, anciently in use.

Cronstadt. A seaport and fortress of Russia, about 20 miles west from St. Petersburg. It was founded by Peter the Great in 1710, the island having been taken from the Swedes by him in 1703. A Swedish fleet was defeated here by the Russians in 1790, and in 1855 an English fleet, commanded by Sir Charles Napier, proceeded to the Baltic, with the view of taking this place or destroying its fortifications; but either from the inadequacy of the means placed at his disposal, or from the great strength of the forts, no attempt was made upon them.

Cropedy Bridge. Near Banbury, Oxfordshire, England. Here the royalists defeated Sir William Waller and the army of Parliament, June 29, 1644.

Cross-belts. Belts worn over both shoulders, and crossing the breast.

Cross-bow. A weapon formerly used in discharging arrows, formed by placing a bow crosswise on a stock.

Crossen. A town of the Prussian province of Brandenburg. In 1758 this place was taken by the Russians.

Cross-fire. The crossing of lines of fire from two or more points or places.

Cross, Victoria. See Victoria Cross.

Crotchet. In fortification, an indentation in the glacis of the covered way at a point where a traverse is placed.

Crotchet. The arrangement of a body of troops, either forward or rearward, so as to form a line nearly perpendicular to the general line of battle.

Croton, or Crotona. One of the most celebrated of the Greek colonies in Southern Italy, founded about 710 B.C. About 510 a Crotoniat army of 100,000 men, under Milo, defeated a greatly superior force of Sybarites on the banks of the Tracis, took the city of Sybaris, and utterly destroyed it. (See Sybaris.) In the second Punic war the Bruttians, with the assistance of the Carthaginian general Hanno, succeeded in making themselves masters of the city of Crotona, with the exception of the citadel, which held out until induced to surrender on terms. The ravages of this war completed the decay of the city, and it sunk into the condition of an obscure provincial town.

Crown. The emblem of sovereignty in modern Europe. It was originally an Oriental decoration, and was adopted by Alexander the Great from the kings of Persia. In modern states crowns were of various forms, till heralds devised a regular series of them to mark the various gradations of sovereignty, from that of the emperor down to what are called the coronets of counts and barons. In England, so entirely has the crown been regarded as the symbol of sovereignty, that the word is frequently used as synonymous with the monarchy.

Crown, Civic. See Civic Crown.

Crown, Mural. See Mural Crown.

Crown, Obsidional. See Obsidional Crown.

Crown, Triumphal. See Triumphal Crown.

Crown, Vallary. See Vallary Crown.

Crowning. A term in fortifications generally applied to the operation, by the besieged, of establishing works on the crest of the glacis or summit of the breach. It is sometimes used when describing the movements of troops, to signify that they have reached the top of a hill or parapet, which they are said to have crowned.

Crown-work. A term used in fortification to signify a work consisting of two or more fronts of fortification, joined by two long branches to the ditch of another work, a river, a village, etc. It is generally used to defend a bridge or suburb.

Crows, or Absorokas. A tribe of Indians inhabiting the northern part of Wyoming Territory and the southern part of Montana. They are divided into two bands, and belong to the Dakota family. See Indians and their Agencies.

Crows-foot. An implement of metal with four points, so formed that, in whatever way it falls, there is one point upward; intended to injure the feet of horses; a caltrop.

Crucible, Steel. Steel melted in crucibles; cast steel. See Ordnance, Metals for.

Crusader. A knight engaged in the Crusades.

Crusades. From the Latin crux, a “cross.” A term applied to the military expeditions undertaken by Christian powers in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries for the recovery of Palestine, or the “Holy Land,” from the Mohammedans. They were originated by Peter the Hermit, an enthusiastic French officer of Amiens, who turned pilgrim. There were in all eight crusades, from 1096 to 1270. The last one ended in the Christians being driven out of Syria.

Ctesiphon (afterwards Al Madayn). On the Tigris, the splendid capital of Parthia, was taken by Trajan in 116, and by Alexander Severus (who made 100,000 captives), 198. Its defenses deterred Julian from the siege, 363. Through the cowardice or treachery of the defenders, it was taken by Omar and the Saracens, 637, and utterly destroyed. He built Cufa near it with the remains.

Cuba. An island in the Caribbean Sea, at the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico. It is the largest of the West Indian group, belongs to Spain, and is the most important of the Spanish colonial possessions. It was discovered by Columbus, October 28, 1492, and the Spaniards formed their first settlement on it in 1511, and have remained in possession ever since. Havana, a city of Cuba, was taken by the British in 1762, but was restored to Spain the following year. In May, 1850, and August, 1851, unsuccessful attempts to revolutionize the island were made by bands of adventurers under a Spaniard named Narcisso Lopez. In the latter expedition, the whole 450 who landed were either slain in fight or taken prisoners. In 1868 the inhabitants revolted against Spain, and declared a republic. Spain at once proceeded to crush them into submission, but the patriots held out until, in 1878, abandoning all hope of assistance or recognition from abroad, they were obliged to succumb, and the Spaniards resumed full control of the country.

Cubical Powder. See Gunpowder.

Cuddalore (India). On the coast of the Carnatic, was acquired by the English in 1681. It was reduced by the French in 1758, but recaptured in 1760 by Sir Eyre Coote. Again lost in 1781, it underwent a destructive siege by the British under Gen. Stuart, in 1783, which was continued until peace was signed, when it reverted to them, 1784.

Cuenca. A city of Spain, in New Castile, about 84 miles from Madrid. It was captured from the Moors by the kings of Castile and Aragon in 1176.

Cuirass (Fr. cuir, leather). Originally a jerkin, or garment of leather for soldiers, so thick and strong as to be pistol-proof, and even musket-proof. The name was afterwards applied to a portion of armor made of metal, consisting of a back-plate and breastplate hooked or buckled together. The cuirass is worn in the British army by the Life Guards and the Horse Guards.

Cuish. Defensive armor for the thighs, written also cuisse.

Cul-de-sac (Fr.). The “bottom of a bag.” A passage with only one outlet; a position in which an army finds itself, with no way of exit but to the front.

Cullen Rifle. See Magazine Guns.

Cullen’s-wood. In Ireland. A horrible slaughter of the English by the Irish took place at a village near Dublin on Easter or Black Monday, so called from this massacre, March 30, 1209. The English were a colony from Bristol inhabiting Dublin, whence they went to divert themselves at Cullen’s-wood, when the O’Byrnes and O’Tooles fell upon them, and destroyed 500 men, besides women and children.

Culloden, or Drummossie Moor. A wide heath in Scotland, 3 miles east of Inverness, on which the Duke of Cumberland gained a decisive victory over the Highland army in their attempt to restore the Stuart dynasty to the throne, in 1746.

Culpeper Court-house. See Fairfax.

Culverin. A long cannon used from the 14th to the 16th century; generally carried a shot of 18 pounds. The gun at Dover Castle, called Queen Elizabeth’s pocket-pistol, is a specimen of a large culverin. A demi-culverin was a similar piece, carrying a 9-pound shot.

CumÆ. An ancient and celebrated Greek city on the coast of Campania, about 6 miles north of Cape Misenum. The Tyrrhenians and Carthaginians attacked it by sea, and were defeated by Hieron, 474 B.C. In 420 the Samnites laid siege to the city, and after repeated attacks succeeded in carrying it by assault. It was given up to pillage and its inhabitants put to the sword. In the second Punic war Hannibal made an attempt upon the city, but was repulsed by Sempronius Gracchus. It was chosen by the Gothic kings as the depository of their regalia and valuables, and was the last place in Italy that held out against Narses.

Cumberland Gap. Is a natural gap in the Cumberland Mountains, about 80 miles in length, and about 150 miles south by east from Lexington, Ky. During the civil war it was an important strategic point, and was held at different times by each of the contending forces. It was held by the Confederates without any serious interference until Chattanooga was occupied by the forces of Gen. Mitchell, when it was evacuated about June 18, 1862, and occupied on the same day by the Union general Geo. W. Morgan. It was held by him until September 17, when he was compelled to evacuate it. It was again occupied by the Confederates, who to the number of 2000 under Gen. Frazer surrendered to Gen. Burnside, September 9, 1863. A large quantity of stores and 10 pieces of artillery were captured.

Cunaxa. In Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, where Cyrus the Younger was defeated and slain by his brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he had conspired, 401 B.C.

Cunette, or Cuvette. A trench in the bottom of a dry ditch; an obstacle in the passage of an enemy (especially if filled with water), and also acting as a drain.

Cunnersdorf, or Kunnersdorf. A village in Bohemia, 12 miles north-northwest of Buntzlau. On August 12, 1759, Frederick the Great with 50,000 men attacked the Austrian and Russian army of 90,000 in their camp near this place, and at first gained considerable advantages; but pursuing them too far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, and gained a complete victory. The Prussians lost 200 pieces of cannon and 30,000 men in killed and wounded.

CuraÇoa. An island in the Caribbean Sea, settled by the Spaniards about 1527, was seized by the Dutch in 1634. In 1800 the French settled on part of this island, quarreled with the Dutch, who surrendered it to a British frigate. It was restored to the Dutch in 1802; taken from them by the British in 1807, and again restored in 1814.

Curiet. A breastplate made of leather.

Current Series. In military administration, orders issued from established commands, such as divisions, departments, etc., being numbered in regular order for each year; this term is frequently used when referring to orders issued in the year passing or current, when the expression is employed.

Currier. A small musketoon with a swivel mounting.

Currytown. A village in Montgomery Co., N. Y., noted for the attack on and murder of its settlers by nearly 500 Indians and a few loyalists, commanded by a Tory named Doxstader, July 9, 1781. The settlers were unsuspicious of danger, and were generally at work in the fields when the enemy fell upon them. After killing and capturing all they could, the Indians set fire to the buildings, and drove away most of the cattle and horses in the neighborhood. Next day Col. Willett, who was at Fort Plain when the attack was made, pursued the enemy with about 150 men, attacked and killed about 40 of them, and recovered all their plunder.

Curtain. In fortification, is that part of the rampart or wall between two bastions or two gates.

Curtail, or Curtald. An ancient piece of ordnance, apparently a short one.

Curtatone. Near Mantua, Northern Italy. Here the Austrians under Radetzky crossed the Minco, and defeated the Italians after a severe conflict, May 29, 1848.

Customs of the Service. Sometimes called common law of the army. Signifies generally a right or law not written, but established by long usage. To render a custom valid it has been said that the following qualities are requisite: 1, habitual or long established practice; 2, continuance without interruption; 3, without dispute; 4, it must be reasonable; 5, certain; 6, compulsory; 7, customs must be consistent with each other. It may be said that the common law of the army derives its force from the tacit consent of those in the service. Gen. Kautz states that officers of the army have certain duties to perform that are governed by certain laws, rules, and regulations, which are interpreted and executed in a certain way, called “Customs of the Service.” A knowledge of these rules of the service, and their application, constitutes the military profession, and is the true art of war. To this extent it is an exact science, and may be acquired by application and experience.

Custozza. Near Verona, Northern Italy. Here the Italians were defeated by Marshal Radetzky, July 23, 1848; and here they were again defeated June 24, 1866, after a series of desperate attacks on the Austrian army. The Italians were commanded by their king, Victor Emmanuel, and the Austrians by the Archduke Albrecht.

Cut Off, To. To intercept, to hinder from union or return. In a military sense this phrase is variously applicable, and extremely familiar.

To Cut Off an Enemy’s Retreat is to manoeuvre in such a manner as to prevent an opposing army or body of men from retiring, when closely pressed, either to their intrenchments or into a fortified town from which they had marched or sallied.

Cut up, To. To destroy promiscuously. When the cavalry are sent in pursuit of a flying enemy, the latter are generally cut up.

Cuttack (anc. Catac). A province in the East Indies, ceded to the East India Company in 1803. Cuttack, the capital, was taken by Col. Harcourt, October 14, 1803. This province was captured by the Mahrattas in 1750.

Cuzco. A city of Peru, capital of a department, and the ancient capital of the Peruvian empire, in South America. This city was entered by Pizarro in November, 1533, and taken by him in August, 1536, after a five months’ siege.

Cylinder-gauge. See Inspection of Cannon.

Cylinder-staff. See Inspection of Cannon.

Cyprus. The most eastern island in the Mediterranean, near the mouth of the Gulf of Iskanderoon. It was divided among several petty kings till the time of Cyrus of Persia, who subdued them. It was taken by the Greeks in 477 B.C., and ranked among the proconsular provinces in the reign of Augustus. It was conquered by the Saracens, 648 A.D., but recovered by the Greeks in 957. It was reduced by Richard I. of England in 1191, and given by him to Guy de Lusignan, who became king in 1192, and whose descendants governed it until 1489, when it was sold to the Venetians. It was taken by the Turks in August, 1571, and held by them until June, 1878, when it was awarded to England by the “Peace Congress of Berlin.”

Czaslau. A town of Bohemia, 45 miles east-southeast of Prague. Here Frederick the Great gained a victory over the Austrians, May 17, 1742.