Baalbec. An ancient city of Syria. From the accounts of Oriental writers, it was a place of importance down to the time of the Moslem invasion of Syria. After the capture of Damascus, it was regularly invested by the Moslems, and after a courageous defense at length capitulated; sacked and dismantled by the caliph of Damascus, and the principal inhabitants put to the sword, 748; pillaged by Timour Bey, 1400; afterwards subjected to Turkish supremacy; pillaged August 8, 1860, and the Christian inhabitants massacred by the Mohammedans.

Bab-el-Thaza. A place in Algeria where the French fought the Arabs, April 22, 1842.

Babylon. One of the oldest and most celebrated cities in the world, the ancient capital of the Babylonio-Chaldean empire, was situated in an extensive plain on the Euphrates, about 60 miles south of Bagdad. The modern town of Hillah is supposed to occupy a portion of its site. About 588 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, captured Jerusalem, burned the great temple of Solomon, and carried away the Jews as captives to Babylon. Cyrus besieged Babylon, took it by stratagem in 538, and put to death the king Belshazzar, after which the kingdom of Babylon ceased to exist. The city was occupied by Darius in 518, and taken by Alexander the Great in 331. Alexander having selected it as the capital of his empire, died there in 323 B.C.

Bacchi. Two ancient warlike machines; the one resembled a battering-ram, the other cast out fire.

Bachelier (Fr.). A young squire, or knight, who has passed through his first campaign, and received the belt of the order.

Bachevaleureux. A term which, in the old French language, signified warrior, brave, valiant, etc.

Backing. The heavy plating of wood, or of wood and iron, used to support and strengthen iron plates.

Back-plate. A piece of armor for covering the back.

Back-sight. See Sight, Rear.

Back-step. The retrograde movement of a man, or a body of men, without changing front.

Backsword. A sword with one sharp edge. In England, a stick with a basket handle, used in rustic amusements; the game in which it is used; called also “single stick.”

Backwards. A technical word made use of in the British service to express the retrograde movement of troops from line into column, and vice versa. Also a word of command in the U.S. service, to cause a man, or body of men, to march to the rear without changing front.

Bactria (now Bokhara). A province of the Persian empire; it was inhabited by a rude and warlike people, who were subdued by Cyrus or his next successors. It was included in the conquests of Alexander, and formed a part of the kingdom of the SelucidÆ until 255 B.C., when Theodotus, its governor, revolted from Antiochus II., and founded the Greek kingdom of Bactria; overthrown by the Parthians 134 or 125 B.C.

Bacule. A kind of portcullis or gate, made like a pitfall, with a counterpoise. See Bascule Bridge.

Badajos (Southwest Spain). An important barrier fortress, surrendered to the French, under Soult, March 11, 1811; was invested by the British, under Lord Wellington, on March 16, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, 1812. The French retreated in haste.

Badaleers. Musket-charges of powder in tin or copper tubes, worn dangling from a shoulder-belt, before the introduction of cartridges.

Baddesdown Hill, or Mount Badon. Near Bath, England, where Bede says the Britons defeated the Saxons, 493; others say in 511 or 520.

Badelaire, or Bandelaire (Fr.). A short, broad, curved, and double-edged pointed sword.

Baden (Southwest Germany). A grand duchy; broke out in insurrection and joined by the free city of Rastadt, May, 1849; the Prussians entered it, and defeated the insurgents commanded by Mierolawski, June 15, 1849. Noted as the place where the Emperor Napoleon III., the prince regent of Prussia, and the German kings and princes held an interview, June 16, 1860.

Badge. A distinctive mark, token, or sign, worn on the person. Corps badges were worn to distinguish the army corps during the civil war, 1861-65. Marksmen’s badges are given to good shots in most armies.

Badon, Mount. The scene of a battle said to have been fought by King Arthur against the Saxons who invaded his kingdom, and in which the latter were signally defeated. By some writers Badon has been identified with Bath, by others in Berkshire.

BÆcula. An ancient town in Hispania Tarraconensis, west of Castulo, where the Romans under Scipio defeated the Carthaginians under Hasdrubal, 209 B.C.

Bagaudes. A name given to the peasants of Gaul, who revolted against the Romans in 270; they pillaged cities and villages and massacred the Roman officers; two of the insurgent chiefs, Aliandus and Amandus, were elected emperors; their reign was of short duration; besieged in their camp near the confluence of the Seine and Marne, where Saint-Maur is now situated, they died in arms. This place was named for a long time “Camp des Bagaudes.”

Bagdad. In Asiatic Turkey, built by Al Mansour, and made the seat of the Saracen empire about 762; taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258; often taken by the Persians, and retaken by the Turks, with great slaughter; the latter took it in 1638, and have held it since.

Baggage. The clothes, tents, utensils of divers sorts, and provisions, etc., belonging to an army, or part of an army.

Baggonet. The old term for bayonet.

Bagpipe. The name of a musical warlike instrument, of the wind kind, used by the Scotch regiments, and sometimes by the Irish. Bagpipes were used by the Danes, by the Romans, and by the Asiatics. The Greeks also had an instrument composed of a pipe and blown-up skin. The bagpipe has been a favorite instrument among the Scots. There are two varieties, the one with long pipes, sounded with the mouth; the other, with short pipes, filled with air by a bellows, and played on with the fingers. The first, the loudest and most ear-piercing of all music, is the genuine Highland pipe, and was suited to the warlike genius of that people. It formerly roused their courage to battle, alarmed them when secure, and collected them when scattered, solaced them in their long and painful marches, and in time of peace kept up the memory of the gallantry of their ancestors by the tunes composed after signal victories. The other is the Irish bagpipe.

Bags. Articles used in field fortifications, and in works to cover a besieging army. Sand-bags, which are generally 16 inches in diameter, and 30 high, are filled with earth or sand, to repair breaches and embrasures of batteries, when damaged by the enemy’s fire or by the blast of the guns. They are also placed on parapets, so arranged as to form a covering for men to fire through. Earth-bags contain about a cubical foot of earth, and are used to raise a parapet in haste, or to repair one that is beaten down. They are only employed where the ground is rocky, or too hard for the pickaxe and spade, and does not afford ready material for a temporary parapet.

Bags, Cartridge-. See Cartridge.

Bags of Powder. Are used to blow down gates, stockades, and slight obstructions. In future wars the higher explosives will probably be used for such purposes.

Bahama Isles (North America). Were the first points of discovery by Columbus. New Providence was settled by the English in 1629. They were expelled by the Spaniards in 1641; returned in 1666; again expelled in 1703. These isles were formally ceded to the English in 1783. The Bahamas profited by blockade-running during the American civil war, 1861-65.

Bahar. A province in Northern India; conquered by Baber in 1530. Bahar, Bengal, and Orissa, a princely dominion, became subject to the English East India Company in 1765, by the treaty of Allahabad.

Baiclaklar. A color-bearer in the Turkish army.

Baiky. The ballium, or inclosed plat of ground in an ancient fort.

Bail. A stout iron yoke placed over heavy guns and fitting closely over the ends of the trunnions, to which it is attached by pins in the axis of the trunnions; used to raise or lower the gun by means of the gin.

Baille (Fr.). A term formerly used to designate a work or fortification which served as an outpost or exterior defense.

Baionnier (Fr.). A name formerly given to soldiers who were armed with a bayonet.

Baker, Post. The person who bakes bread for a garrison. In the U.S. service an enlisted man, who receives additional pay for his labor.

Bakery, or Bakehouse. See Ovens.

Balaklava. A small town in the Crimea, with a fine harbor, about 10 miles from Sebastopol. Near here about 12,000 Russians, commanded by Gen. Liprandi, were repulsed by a furious charge of heavy English cavalry, led by Brig.-Gen. Scarlett, under the orders of Lord Lucan, October 25, 1854. After this, from an unfortunate misconception of Lord Raglan’s order, Lord Lucan ordered Lord Cardigan, with the light cavalry, to charge the Russian army, which had reformed on its own ground, with its artillery in front. This order was most gallantly obeyed, and great havoc was made on the Russians; but of 670 British horsemen only 198 returned (termed by Tennyson “The Charge of the Six Hundred”). On March 22, 1855, a sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol led to a desperate engagement here, in which the Russians were vigorously repulsed, with the loss of 2000 men killed and wounded; the allies lost about 600.

Balance-step. An exercise in squad drill, a preliminary to marching.

Balbec. See Baalbec.

Baldrick, or Baudrick. A girdle, or richly ornamented belt, worn pendent from one shoulder across the breast, and under the opposite arm.

Bale, or Basel. One of the largest towns in Switzerland; captured and burned by the Hungarians in 917. In 1444 there was a bloody battle fought about a quarter of a mile beyond its gates, called the battle of St. Jacob, between the Swiss, 1600 strong, and a French army that was twenty times their number, commanded by the dauphin, afterwards Louis XII. For ten hours the brave Swiss band kept this large army in check; but nearly all the Swiss fell, not more than 10, according to some accounts, escaping alive. This exploit first spread the fame of Swiss valor, and led to the enrollment of the Swiss body-guard of France. The treaties of peace between France and Spain, and France and Prussia, were signed here, July 22, 1795.

Balearic Islands. A group of islands in the Mediterranean; conquered by the Romans 123 B.C.; by the Vandals about 426 B.C., and formed part of Charlemagne’s empire, 799. They were conquered by the Moors about 1005, and held by them till about 1280, when they were annexed by Aragon. See Majorca and Minorca.

Balista. A machine in ancient warfare used for throwing stones, burning objects, leaden balls, and even dead and putrefied bodies. The latter were thrown to cause sickness in besieged cities.

Balistarium. A store-room or arsenal in which the Romans stored their balistas.

Balister. A term applied in ancient times to a cross-bow.

Balistrier. A name applied to cross-bow men in ancient times.

Balkan. The ancient HÆmus, a range of mountains extending from the Adriatic to the Euxine. Their passage, up to that time deemed impracticable, was completed by the Russians under Diebitsch during the Russian and Turkish war, July 26, 1829. An armistice was the consequence, and a treaty of peace was signed at Adrianople, September 14, following. The Balkan was again crossed by the victorious Russians in the face of all opposition during the Russian and Turkish war, 1877.

Balks. Joist-shaped spars, which rest between the cleats upon the saddles of two pontons, to support the chess or flooring.

Ball. Is a general term applied to every kind of spherical shot fired from a musket, rifle, or cannon. Leaden balls are chiefly used for the small-arms and iron for the artillery. See Cartridge, Shot, Shells.

Ball and Chain. For serious offenses soldiers are sometimes sentenced to wear a 6- or 12-pounder ball attached by a chain to the leg.

Ball-cartridge. A cartridge containing a ball.

Ballinamuck. A town in the county of Longford, Ireland. Here, on September 8, 1798, the Irish rebels and their French auxiliaries were defeated and captured.

Ballistea. In antiquity, songs accompanied by dancing, used on occasions of victory.

Ballistic, or Electro-ballistic Machine. Is a machine designed to determine by electricity the initial velocity of a projectile. The West Point ballistic machine, devised for use at the Military Academy by Col. Benton, of the ordnance department, and since adopted by that department, consists of a bed-plate of metal supporting an arc placed in a perpendicular position, and graduated. Suspended perpendicular to the plane of this arc are two pendulums, having a common axis of motion passing through the centre. Two electro-magnets are attached to the horizontal limb of the arc to hold up the pendulums when they are deflected through angles of 90°. There is also an apparatus which records the point at which the pendulums pass each other, when they fall by the breaking of the currents which excite the magnets, two targets being placed so as to support the wires in a position to be cut by the projectile. The velocity of the electric currents being considered instantaneous, and the loss of the power of the magnets simultaneous with the rupture of the currents, it follows that each pendulum begins to move at the instant that the projectile cuts the wire, and that the interval of time corresponds to the difference of the arcs described by the pendulums up to the time of meeting.

Ballistic Pendulum. A machine consisting of a massive block of wood suspended by a bar. It was devised for experiments on the initial velocities of cannon-shot. The shot being fired into the block, the velocity is calculated from the vibrating effect on the pendulum.

Ballistics. Is that branch of gunnery which treats of the motion of projectiles.

Ballistraria. Cruciform apertures in the walls of a stronghold, through which the cross-bow men discharged their bolts. It also signified a projecting turret, otherwise called a bartizan, such as is commonly seen in old castles.

Ballium. A term used in ancient military art, and probably a corruption of vallium. In towns, the appellation “ballium” was given to a work fenced with palisades, and sometimes to masonry covering the suburbs; but in castles, it was the space immediately within the outer wall.

Ballon. A town in the department of the Sarthe, France, formerly fortified; captured by the English in 1417; retaken by Charles VII. of France.

Balloon. A bag or hollow vessel, made of silk or other light material, and filled with hydrogen gas or heated air, so as to rise and float in the atmosphere; called for distinction an air-balloon. Balloons were used extensively as a means of observation during the American civil war, 1861-65, and in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870.

Balloting. A bounding movement of a spherical projectile in the bore of a cannon. See Injuries to Cannon.

Ball-proof. Incapable of being penetrated by balls from fire-arms.

Ball’s Bluff. In Virginia, on the banks of the Potomac. On October 21, 1861, by direction of the Federal general C. P. Stone, the heroic Col. Baker crossed the river to reconnoitre. He attacked the Confederate camp at Leesburg, and was defeated with great loss. The disaster was attributed to mismanagement, and in February, 1862, Gen. Stone was arrested on suspicion of treason, but was afterwards discharged, and at a later period again given a command. The Federal loss in killed, wounded, and drowned was probably 1000 men.

Ballynahinch. A town in Ireland where a sanguinary engagement took place between a large body of the insurgent Irish and the British troops, under Gen. Nugent, June 13, 1798. A large part of the town was destroyed, and the royal army suffered very severely.

Balots (Fr.). Sacks or bales of wool, made use of in cases of great emergency, to form parapets or places of arms. They are likewise adapted for the defense of trenches, to cover the workmen in saps, and in all instances where promptitude is required.

Baltic Sea (Ger. Ostsee, or “Eastern Sea”). Separates Sweden and the Danish Isles from Russia, Prussia, and Germany. Declared neutral for commerce by treaty between Russia and Sweden, 1759, and Denmark, 1760. It is often partially frozen. Charles X. of Sweden with an army crossed the Belts in 1658. Several Baltic expeditions were undertaken by the British and French against Denmark and Russia.

Baltimore. The chief city in Maryland, situated at the head of navigation on the Patapsco River; it was founded in 1729. On September 12, 1814, the British army under Col. Ross advanced against this place. He was killed in a skirmish, and the command was assumed by Col. Brooke, who attacked and routed the American army, which lost 600 killed and wounded, and 300 prisoners. The projected attack on the town was, however, abandoned.

Baltimore (Ireland). A decayed town; early in the 17th century, the Algerine pirates plundered the town, carrying away 200 prisoners.

Baltinglass. A town in the county of Wicklow, Ireland. Here an action took place in 1798 between the royalists and the insurgents, in which the latter were defeated.

Bamberg. A town in Bavaria, said to have been founded by the Saxons in 804; taken and pillaged by the Prussians in 1759.

Bampton. A town in Devonshire, England. A great battle was fought here, 614, between the West Saxons and Britons, in which the former were defeated.

Ban (Fr.). A sort of proclamation made at the head of a body of troops, or in the several quarters or cantonments of an army, by sound of trumpet or beat of drum, either for observing martial discipline, or for declaring a new officer, or punishing a soldier, or the like. At present such kind of proclamations are given out in the written orders of the day.

Ban. In the former days of France, when the feudal barons, who held their estates and honors from the king, were summoned to attend him in time of war, they were called the ban, or the levy first called out; while the tenants, subordinate to these barons, formed the ArriÈre ban, or secondary levy.

Banbury. A town in Oxfordshire, England. The castle erected by Alexander de Blois, 1125, has been frequently besieged; in 1646 it was taken by the Parliamentarians and demolished. At Edgecote, or Danesmore, near Banbury, Edward IV. defeated the Lancastrians under the Earl of Pembroke, July 26, 1469, and their leader and his brother were soon after taken prisoners and executed.

Bancal (Fr.). A curved sabre, which was used in France during the Republic and the Empire.

Band, Military. Consists of a body of musicians attached to each army regiment or battalion. The law provides for a band at the Military Academy at West Point, and for each artillery, cavalry, and infantry regiment. A chief musician, who shall be instructor of music, and for each artillery and infantry regiment two principal musicians; each cavalry regiment to have one chief trumpeter. Musicians for regimental bands are enlisted as soldiers, and formed under the direction of the adjutant, but are not permanently detached from their companies, and are instructed in all the duties of a soldier.

Banda Isles. Eastern Archipelago, visited by the Portuguese (1511), who settled on them 1521, but were expelled by the Dutch about 1600. Rohun Island was ceded to the English in 1616. The Bandas were taken by the latter in 1796; restored in 1801; retaken, 1811, and restored in 1816.

Banded-mail. A kind of armor, which consisted of alternate rows of leather or cotton and single chain-mail.

Banderet. In military history, implies the commander-in-chief of the troops of the canton of Berne, in Switzerland.

Banderol. A small flag used in marking out a camp, etc.; a camp color.

Bandes (Fr.). Bands, bodies of infantry. Bandes FranÇaises; the French infantry was anciently so called; the term, however, became less general, and was confined to the PrevÔt des Bandes, or the judge or provost-marshal that tried the men belonging to the French guards.

Banditti. Bands of robbers who infest the mountainous parts of Italy and Greece. Formerly they frequently attacked travelers, hurried them off into their mountain fastnesses, and held them captive until ransomed.

Bandoleer. In ancient military history, a large leathern belt worn over the right shoulder, and hanging under the left arm, to carry some kind of warlike weapons.

Bandoleer. A little wooden case covered with leather; every musketeer used to wear 12 of them hanging on a shoulder-belt; each case contained the charge of powder for a musket. Bandoleers are now superseded by the cartridge-box.

Banffshire. A maritime county in the northeast of Scotland; it was the scene of many bloody conflicts between the Scots and their Danish invaders, and was the theatre of almost incessant struggles from 1624 to 1645.

Bangalore. A fortified town of Hindostan, in Mysore, which was taken from Tippoo Saib by Lord Cornwallis in 1791.

Baniwas. A tribe of South American Indians living on the Amazon and the Rio Negro.

Banner. Originally a small square flag borne before a banneret, whose arms were embroidered on it; hence, a military ensign; the principal standard of a prince or state; a pennon; a streamer.

Bannered. Furnished with or bearing banners.

Banneret. Was originally a military rank conferred only on such as were able to bring a certain number of vassals into the field; hence, a rank corresponding to this; also, a small banner.

Bannockburn. In Stirlingshire, Scotland; the site of two battles: 1. Between Robert Bruce of Scotland and Edward II. of England, June 24, 1314. The army of Bruce consisted of 30,000; that of Edward of 100,000 men, of whom 52,000 were archers. The English crossed the rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug and covered pits, they fell into them and were thrown into confusion. The rout was complete; the English king narrowly escaped, and 50,000 were killed or taken prisoners. 2. At Sanchieburn, near here James II. was defeated and slain on June 11, 1488, by his rebellious nobles.

Banquette. Is the step of earth within the parapet, sufficiently high to enable the defenders, when standing upon it, to fire over the crest of the parapet with ease.

Banquette Slope. Is a slope of earth or timber, placed in rear of the banquette when the top cannot be reached by an ordinary step.

Bantam. In Java; here a British factory was established by Capt. Lancaster in 1603. The English and Danes were driven from their factories by the Dutch in 1683. Bantam surrendered to the British in 1811, but was restored to the Dutch at the peace in 1814.

Bantry Bay. In the south of Ireland, where a French fleet bringing succor to the adherents of James II. attacked the English under Admiral Herbert, May 1, 1689. A French squadron of 7 sail of the line and 2 frigates, armed en flute, and 17 transports anchored here for a few days, but without effect, December, 1796. Mutiny of the Bantry Bay squadron took place in December, 1801.

Banyuls-de-Aspres. A town in the department of the Eastern Pyrenees, France, which is memorable for the defense which its inhabitants made in 1793, when they compelled 7000 Spaniards, who had attacked them, to surrender.

Bapaume. A fortified town of France, department of Pas-de-Calais. A portion of the allied troops advanced to this place after compelling the French to abandon their fortified position, and to retreat behind the scarpe, in August, 1793.

Baptism of Blood. As the name implies, is the act of being baptized with blood, and was used specially with reference to soldiers who fought on their first battle-field. In the old French service, baptism of blood equalized all grades, and military services, not rank, were the recognized claims for promotion.

Baptism of Fire. A figurative term applied to soldiers who have passed through their first fire in battle.

Bar. A long piece of wood or iron. Bars have various denominations in the construction of artillery-carriages, as sweep- and cross-bars for tumbrils, fore, hind, and under cross-bars for powder-carts, shaft-bars for wagons, and dowel-bars, used in mortar-beds.

Bar. In heraldry, is one of those important figures or charges known as ordinaries. It is formed by two horizontal lines passing over the shield like the fess, but it differs from it in size,—the fess occupying a third, the bar only a fifth part of the shield. The fess is also confined to the centre, while the bar may be borne in several parts of the shield.

Barb. The reflected points of the head of an arrow. The armor for horses was so called.

Barbacan, or Barbican. In fortification, a watch-tower for the purpose of descrying an enemy at a distance; advanced works of a place or citadel, properly the boulevards of the gates and walls; a fort at the entrance of a tower or bridge, with a double wall; or an aperture or loop-hole in the walls of a fortress through which to fire upon an enemy.

Barbary. A country in North Africa, considered to comprise Algeria, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, and Tripoli, with their dependencies (all of which see). Piratical states (nominally subject to Turkey) were founded on the coast by Barbarossa about 1518.

Barbets. Were peasants of Piedmont, who abandoned their dwellings when an enemy had taken possession of them. They formed into bodies and defended the Alps.

Barbette. An earthen terrace, raised within a parapet, so high as to enable guns to be fired over the latter, and therefore with a freer range than when worked at an embrasure.

Barbette Carriage. Is a carriage of the stationary class, on which a gun is mounted to fire over a parapet; and a barbette gun is any gun mounted on a barbette carriage.

Barbette Centre-pintle Carriage. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Sea-coast Carriages.

Barbette Front-pintle Carriage. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Sea-coast Carriages.

Barbole (Fr.). A heavy battle-axe, used in ancient times.

Barboursville, or Cabell Court-house. The capital of Cabell Co., W. Va. It was the scene of a brilliant action between the Confederate and Federal forces, in which the latter were victorious, July 18, 1861.

Barce, or Berche (Fr.). A small gun, shorter and thicker than a falconet, which was formerly used on board ship.

Barcelona. An ancient maritime city in Northeastern Spain, said to have been rebuilt by Hamilcar Barca, father of the great Hannibal, about 233 B.C. The city has suffered much by war. The siege by the French, in 1694, was relieved by the approach of the English fleet commanded by Admiral Russell; but the city was taken by the Earl of Peterborough in 1706; bombarded and taken by the Duke of Berwick and the French in 1714; taken by Napoleon in 1808, and retained till 1814. It revolted against the queen in 1841, and was bombarded and taken in December, 1842, by Espartero.

Bard. A fortress and village of Piedmont on the bank of the Dora Baltea, 23 miles south-southeast of Aosta. The fortress is situated on an impregnable rock, and arrested for some time Napoleon’s march in the valley of the Dora, at the outset of his campaign of 1800, almost compelling him to abandon it. The garrison consisted of 400 men, and was finally passed only by stratagem. It was subsequently razed by the French (1800), but has since been restored.

Bardewick. A town in Hanover, which was dismantled by Henry the Lion in 1189.

Bareilly. A province of Delhi, Northwest India, ceded to the East India Company by the ruler of Oude, 1801. A mutiny at Bareilly, the capital, was suppressed in April, 1816; on May 7, 1858, it was taken from the cruel Sepoy rebels.

Barezim. A small town in Poland, where the Russians were defeated by the Poles in 1675.

Barfleur. An ancient seaport town in the department of Manche, France, where William the Conqueror equipped the fleet by which he conquered England, 1066. Near it Prince William, duke of Normandy, son of Henry I., in his passage from Normandy, was shipwrecked November 25, 1120. Barfleur was destroyed by the English in the campaign in which they won the battle of CrÉcy, 1346. The French navy was destroyed near the cape by Admiral Russell after the victory of La Hogue in 1692.

Bari (Southern Italy). The Barium of Horace was in the 9th century a stronghold of the Saracens, and was captured by the emperor Louis II., a descendant of Charlemagne, in 871. In the 10th century it became subject to the Eastern empire, and remained so till it was taken by Robert Guiscard, the Norman, about 1060.

Baril Ardent (Fr.). Fire-barrel; a barrel filled with layers of tarred chips intermixed with powder and primed at each end with a shell-fuze; it had holes bored in it for the purpose of admitting air to the burning contents; formerly used for illuminating purposes.

Baril Foudroyant, or D’artifice (Fr.). Of the same nature as the baril ardent, with the addition of grenades placed between the layers of chips. Barils foudroyants were used at the defense of a breech, by rolling them upon the assailants.

Barkam. A fortress on the banks of the Danube. Near here John Sobieski, king of Poland, was defeated by Pasha Ka-Mehemed, October 7, 1683.

Barking-irons. Large dueling pistols.

Barnacles. In heraldry, resemble what are now called twitchers, or instruments used by farriers to curb unruly horses. They are frequently introduced into coats of arms as a charge.

Barnet. A town in Hertfordshire, England. Here, at Gladsmore Heath, Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lancastrians on Easter-day, April 14, 1471, when the Earl of Warwick and his brother, the Marquis of Montacute, or Montague, and 10,000 men were slain.

Barometer. An instrument for measuring the weight of the atmosphere. The form ordinarily used was invented in 1643, by Torricelli. It consists of a glass tube filled with mercury inverted in an open cup.

Baron. In England a title of nobility,—the grade between the baronet and viscount,—the lowest grade in the House of Lords.

Barons’ War. Arose in consequence of the faithlessness of King Henry III. and the oppression of his favorites in 1258. The barons, headed by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, met at Oxford in 1262, and enacted statutes to which the king objected. In 1263 their disputes were in vain referred to the decision of Louis IX., king of France. War broke out, and on May 14, 1264, the king’s party were totally defeated at Lewes, and De Montfort became the virtual ruler of the kingdom. Through treachery the war was renewed, and at the battle of Evesham, August 4, 1265, De Montfort was slain, and the barons were defeated. They, however, did not render their final submission till 1268.

Barrackpore. A native town and military cantonment on the river Hoogly, 16 miles from Calcutta, India. In 1857 it became famous as the cradle of the formidable mutiny or rebellion of that year. Several regiments of native troops were stationed at Barrackpore. The men objected to bite off the ends of the cartridges for the Enfield rifle, believing the paper to be polluted by animal fat. The troubles connected therewith—a mere prelude to the fatal outbreak at Meerut in May—commenced about the beginning of February, and continued to assume various degrees of intensity, till at last two regiments of Bengal native infantry had to be disbanded. An intoxicated Sepoy of one of the disbanded regiments attacked and wounded his officer, Lieut. Baugh, with sword and pistol. This fellow, whose name was Mungal Pandy, would seem to have had the equivocal honor of giving the local designation of Pandies to the entire body of insurgents.

Barrack-allowance. In the British army, is a specific allowance of bread, beef, wood, coals, etc., to regiments stationed in barracks.

Barrack-guard. When a regiment is in barracks the principal guard is called the barrack-guard, the officer being responsible for the regularity of the men in barracks, and for all prisoners duly committed to his charge while on that duty.

Barrack-master. The officer who superintends the barracks of soldiers.

Barracks. Are permanent structures for the accommodation of soldiers, as distinguished from huts and tents, which have usually a square or open place in front, for the purpose of drill and parade.

Barrack-sergeants. In the British army, are faithful old sergeants who are selected from the line and placed in charge of barracks, under the superintendence of the barrack-masters.

Barrel. A round vessel or cask, of more length than breadth, and bulging in the middle, made of staves and headings and bound with hoops. Powder-barrels are made to contain 100 pounds each, the barrels being large enough to allow sufficient space for the powder to move when rolled, to prevent its caking. Also any hollow cylinder or tube, as the barrel of a gun. See Fire-barrel.

Barricade. An obstruction formed in streets, avenues, etc., so as to block up access to an enemy. They are generally formed of overturned wagons, carriages, large stones, breastworks, abatis, or other obstacles at hand.

Barrier. In a general sense means any fortification or strong place on the frontiers of a country. It is likewise a kind of fence composed of stakes and transoms, as over-thwart rafters, erected to defend the entrance of a passage, retrenchment, or the like. In the middle of the barrier is a movable bar of wood, which is opened or shut at pleasure. It also implies a gate made of wooden bars, about 5 feet long, perpendicular to the horizon, and kept together by two long bars going across and another crossing diagonally. Barriers are used to stop the cut made through the esplanade before the gate of a town.

Barrier Treaty. A treaty by which the Low Countries were ceded to the emperor Charles VI., and which was signed by the British, Imperial, and Dutch ministers November 15, 1715.

Barritus, or Bardites. A word which not only signified the battle-cry of the ancient Germans, but all battle-cries were formerly so called.

Barrosa, or Barosa. In Southern Spain, where a battle was fought on March 5, 1811, between the British army, commanded by Maj.-Gen. Sir Thomas Graham, afterwards Lord Lynedoch, and the French under Marshal Victor. After a long conflict, the British achieved one of the most glorious triumphs of the Peninsular war. Although they fought at great disadvantage the British compelled the French to retreat, leaving nearly 3000 dead, 6 pieces of cannon, and an eagle, the first that the British had taken. The loss of the British was 1169 men killed and wounded.

Bar-shot. An obsolete projectile, consisting of two shot connected by a bar of iron.

Bar-sur-Aube. An ancient town of France, on the Aube, in the department of Aube, where the French under Oudinot and MacDonald were defeated by the allies, February 27, 1814.

Bar-sur-Seine. A town in the department of Aube, France; often ruined and sacked during the wars of Burgundy. It was the scene of a severe engagement between Napoleon and the allies, May 25, 1814.

Bartholomew, St. The massacre of St. Bartholomew commenced at Paris on the night of the festival of this saint. According to Sully 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants, including women and children, were murdered throughout the kingdom by secret orders from Charles IX., at the instigation of his mother, the queen-dowager, Catherine de MÉdicis, August 24, 1572.

Bartholomew, St. A West India island held by Sweden. It was colonized by the French in 1648; and has been several times taken and restored by the British. It was ceded to Sweden by France in 1785.

Bartizan. A small stone closet thrown out upon corbels over doorways and on other parts of mediÆval castles, generally for defensive purposes, but sometimes for the convenience of the inmates.

Bascinet. A light helmet, generally without a visor; so called from its resemblance to a basin.

Baschi. A Turkish title, signifying a superior commander, officer, chief, etc.; this title is only used in connection with the office title; the most prominent are:

Toptschjy-Baschi, general of artillery and inspector of forts, etc.

Solacki-Baschi, sub-commander of the archers.

Sandschjack-Darlars-Baschi, chief of the 50 color-bearers.

Konadschjy-Baschi, quartermaster-general.

Boluck-Baschi, colonel of a regiment (Boluck) of 1000 militia.

Oda-Baschis, company officers who superintend drill.

Bascule Bridge. A kind of draw-bridge with a counterpoise swinging up and down, and usually a pit behind it, in which the counterpoise falls or rises as the bridge rises or falls. Bascule is the arrangement of the counterpoise in bascule bridges.

Base. In fortifications, is the exterior side of the polygon, or that imaginary line which connects the salient angle of two adjacent bastions.

Base. In heraldry, denotes the lower part of the shield.

Base-line. In gunnery, is a line traced around the gun in rear of the vent; also the measured line used to obtain ranges by triangulation.

Base of Operations. That secure line of frontier or fortresses, or strong country occupied by troops, or of sea occupied by fleets, from which forward movements are made, supplies furnished, and upon which a retreat may be made, if necessary.

Base of the Breech. In gunnery, is the rear surface of the breech of a gun.

Basel, Treaty of. This place gives its name to two important treaties of peace, concluded here on April 5 and July 22, 1795, between the representatives of the French Republic, Prussia, and Spain, by which Prussia withdrew from the coalition against France, took under her protection all the states of Northern Germany which should like herself relinquish the war in which the German empire was engaged, and also give up to the victorious republic her possessions beyond the Rhine; whilst Spain gave up her portion of St. Domingo, and prepared the way for that alliance with France which was afterwards productive of consequences so important.

Base-ring. In gunnery, is a projecting band of metal adjoining the base of the breech, and connected with the body of the gun by a concave moulding.

Bashaw. See Pasha.

Bashi-Bazouks. Are irregular troops in the pay of the sultan. Very few of them are Europeans; they are mostly Asiatics, from some of the pashalics in Asiatic Turkey; they are wild, turbulent men, ready to enter the sultan’s service under some leader whom they can understand, and still more ready to plunder whenever an opportunity offers. During the Russo-Turkish war of 1854, etc., they had many encounters with the enemy in that kind of irregular warfare which the Russians intrust to Cossack horsemen; but the peaceful villagers had almost as much distrust of the Bashi-Bazouks as of the Russians. They were also partially employed by the British during the Crimean war.

Bashkirs. A race supposed to be descended from the Nogay Tartars, who inhabit the Russian provinces of Ufa and Yekaterinboorg, in the governments of Orenburg and Perm respectively. They are but partially civilized, and are generally employed by Russia as guards on the frontier of Asia.

Basientello (Southern Naples). Here the army of Otto II., in an ambuscade, was nearly cut to pieces by the Greeks and Saracens, July 13, 982; the emperor barely escaped.

Basilisk. An ancient piece of ordnance, which was 10 feet long and weighed 7200 pounds; so called from its supposed resemblance to the serpent of that name, or from its size.

Basillard. An old term for a poniard.

Basket-hilt. The hilt of a sword, so made as to contain and guard the whole hand.

Basket-hilted. Having a hilt of basket-work.

Baskets. See Gabion.

Baslard. A short sword or dagger, worn in the 15th century.

Basnet. See Bascinet.

Basque Provinces (Northwest Spain, Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Alva). The Basques, considered to be descendants of the ancient Iberi, were termed Vascones by the Romans, whom they successfully resisted. They were subdued with great difficulty by the Goths about 580, and were united to Castile in the 13th and 14th centuries.

Basque Roads (Western France). Four French ships of the line, riding at anchor here, were attacked by Lords Gambier and Cochrane (the latter commanding the fire-ships), and all, with a great number of merchant and other vessels, were destroyed, April 11-12, 1809. Cochrane accused Gambier of neglecting to support him, and thereby allowing the French to escape. At a court-martial Lord Gambier was acquitted.

BassÉe, La. A town in the department of the North, France, formerly fortified. It sustained several sieges. Louis XIV. captured it from the Spaniards and caused it to be dismantled.

Basseterre Roads, St. Christopher’s, West Indies. Here the French admiral, the Comte de Grasse, was repulsed with loss in three desperate attacks on the British fleet, commanded by Sir Thomas Graves, January 25-26, 1782.

Basson (Northern Italy). Here the Austrians under Wurmser were defeated by the French under Massena, September 8, 1796.

Bassorah, Basrah, or Bussorah (Asia Minor). A Turkish city, founded by the Caliph Omar about 635. It has been several times taken and retaken by the Persians and Turks.

Bass Rock. An isle in the Frith of Forth, Southern Scotland; granted to the Landers in 1316; purchased for a state prison, 1671; taken by the Jacobites, 1690; surrendered, 1694; granted to the Dalrymples, 1706.

Bastard, or Batarde (Fr.). An ancient piece of ordnance of about 8 pounds calibre, 9¹/₂ feet long, and weighing 1950 pounds. It was invented by Jean Maurique de Lard, master-general of ordnance under Charles V. of France in 1535. He also had several bastards cast of a larger calibre. This term was also applied to guns of an unusual make or proportion, whether longer or shorter.

BastarnÆ, or BasternÆ. A warlike German people who migrated to the country near the mouth of the Danube. They are first mentioned in the wars of Philip and Perseus against the Romans, and at a later period they frequently devastated Thrace, and were engaged in wars with the Roman governors of the province of Macedonia. In 30 B.C. they were defeated by Marcus Crassus, and driven across the Danube, and we find them, at a later period, partly settled between the Tyras (now Dniester) and Borysthenes (now Dnieper), and partly at the mouth of the Danube, under the name of Peucini, from their inhabiting the island of Peuce, at the mouth of the river.

Bastia. A fortified seaport town, and formerly capital of Corsica, on its northeast coast, and 67 miles from Ajaccio; besieged without success by the Piedmontese in 1748; captured by the English, 1794.

Bastide (Fr.). In ancient times, a bastion, block-house, fortress, or outer fortifications.

Bastile. Originally, a temporary wooden tower used in warfare; hence, any tower or fortification.

Bastile, or Bastille (Paris). A castle built by Charles V., king of France, in 1369, for the defense of Paris against the English; completed in 1383, and afterwards used as a state prison. Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in vain in the siege of Paris during the war, 1587-94. On July 14-15, 1789, it was pulled down by the populace, the governor and other officers seized, conducted to the Place de GrÈve, their hands and heads were cut off, and the heads carried on pikes through the streets.

Bastinado. A punishment among the Turkish soldiers, which is performed by beating them with a cane or flat of a sword on the soles of their feet.

Bastion. A work consisting of two faces and two flanks, all the angles being salient. Two bastions are connected by means of a curtain, which is screened by the angle made by the prolongation of the corresponding faces of two bastions, and flanked by the line of defense. Bastions contain, sheltered by their parapets, marksmen, artillery, platform, and guards. They are protected by galleries of mines, and by demi-lunes and lunettes outside the ditch, and by palisades, if the ditch is inundated. The faces of the bastion are the parts exposed to being enfiladed by ricochet batteries, and also to being battered in breach.

Bastion, Composed, is where two sides of the interior polygon are very unequal, which makes the gorges also unequal.

Bastion, Cut, is that which, instead of a point, has a re-entering angle.

Bastion, Deformed, is when the irregularity of the lines and angles puts the bastion out of shape; as, when it wants a demi-gorge, one side of the interior polygon being too short.

Bastion, Demi, is that which has only one face and one flank, cut off by the capital,—like the extremities of horn- and crown-works.

Bastion, Double, is that which is raised on the plane of another bastion.

Bastion, Flat, is a bastion built in the middle of the curtain, when it is too long to be defended by the bastions at its extremes.

Bastions, Hollow, are those surrounded only with a rampart and parapet, having the space within unoccupied where the ground is so low that no retrenchment can be made in the centre in the event of the rampart being taken.

Bastion, Regular, is that which has true proportion of faces, flanks, and gorges.

Bastions, Solid, are those which have the void space within them filled entirely, and raised of an equal height with the rampart.

Bastioned Fort. A fort having bastions.

Baston. A staff or cudgel formerly used in tournaments. In heraldry, a staff or cudgel generally borne as a mark of bastardy, and properly containing one-eighth in breadth of the bend-sinister.

Bat de Mulet (Fr.). A pack-saddle used on service when mules are employed to carry stores. Aparejos in the United States service are used for a similar purpose. See Pack-saddles.

Batage (Fr.). The time employed in reducing gunpowder to its proper consistency. The French usually consumed 24 hours in pounding the materials to make good gunpowder. Supposing the mortar to contain 16 pounds of composition, it would require the application of the pestle 3500 times each hour. The labor required in this process is less in summer than in winter, because the water is softer.

Bataillon de la Salade (Fr.). A name formerly given in France to old corps which wore a peculiar kind of helmet called salade. See Salade.

Batardeau (Fr.). A wall built across a ditch or fortification, with a sluice-gate by which the height of the water in the ditch on both sides may be regulated. To prevent this wall being used as a passage across the ditch, it is built up to an angle at the top, and armed with iron spikes; and to render the attempt to cross still more difficult, a tower of masonry is built on it.

Batavia and Batavian Republic. See Holland.

Bateau (Fr.). A light boat.

Bateau-bridge. Is a floating bridge supported by bateaux or light boats. See Pontons.

Bateau d’Avant-garde (Fr.). A small light boat attached to the advance-guard of an army. It is 33 feet in length by 5 feet 6 inches in breadth.

Bate Isle. An island of Hindostan, belonging to the province of Guzerat, situated at the southwestern extremity of the Gulf of Cutch. It was formerly a rendezvous for pirates, who were the dread of all traders on the western coast of India. In 1803 a naval force, consisting of a British frigate and two Bombay cruisers, succeeded in destroying several of the pirate boats and vessels; but an attack upon the castle, though conducted under the fire of the ships, was repulsed with some loss. In 1807 a treaty was entered into with the chiefs of the island, whereby they consented to relinquish their piratical practices.

Bath, Knights of the. See Order of Knights of the Bath.

Bat-horse. A baggage horse which bears the bat or pack.

Bat-man. A servant in charge of the bat-horses. The term is now applied in the English service to a soldier who acts as servant to an officer.

Baton. A truncheon borne by generals in the French army, and afterwards by the marshals of other nations. Henry III. of France before he ascended the throne was made generalissimo of the army of his brother Charles IX., and received the baton as the mark of the high command, 1569.

Baton. A staff used by drum-majors of foot regiments.

Baton Rouge. A city of Louisiana. It was captured by the Federals August 5, 1862, after a fierce conflict.

Batourin. A town of Russia, 63 miles east of Tcheringov, on the Seim. It was the residing place of the hetman of the Ukraine Cossacks from 1699 to 1708; captured and sacked by the Russians in 1708.

Batta. An allowance made to military officers in the service of the East India Company in addition to their pay. See Half-batta.

Battalia. The order of battle; disposition or arrangement of troops, brigades, regiments, battalions, etc., as for action. Formerly the term applied to the main body of an army in array, as distinguished from the wings.

Battailant. Equipped for battle; warlike; a combatant. This word is now obsolete.

Battalion. A body of troops, so called from being originally a body of men arranged for battle; consisting in European armies of about 800 or 1000 men; in the U.S. service, an aggregation of from two to twelve companies.

Battard. An early cannon of small size.

Batten. The sloping of a wall which brings the perpendicular from the top inside the base.

Batter. A cannonade of heavy ordnance, from the first or second parallel of intrenchment, against any fortress or works. To batter in breach implies a heavy cannonade of many pieces directed to one part of the revetment from the third parallel.

Batterie en Rouage (Fr.). Is an enfilading battery, when directed against another battery.

Battering. In military affairs, implies the firing with heavy artillery on some fortification or strong post possessed by an enemy, in order to demolish the works.

Battering Charge. The charge of powder used in battering. The heaviest charge used in a gun.

Battering-pieces. Are large pieces of ordnance, used in battering a fortified town or post.

Battering-ram. In antiquity, a military engine used to batter and beat down the walls of places besieged. There were two different kinds of battering-rams, one rude and plain, the other compound. The former seems to have been no more than a great beam, which the soldiers bore on their arms and shoulders, and with one end of it, by main force, assailed the walls. The compound ram was a large beam with a head of iron, which was sometimes made to resemble the head of a ram. It was suspended by ropes to a beam supported by posts, and balanced so as to swing backwards and forwards, and was impelled by men against the wall. These rams were sometimes 120 feet in length.

Battering-train. A train of artillery used solely for besieging a strong place, inclusive of mortars and howitzers. See Siege-train.

Battery. A battery consists of two or more pieces of artillery in the field. The term battery also implies the implacement of ordnance destined to act offensively or defensively. It also refers to the company charged with a certain number of pieces of ordnance. The ordnance constitutes the battery; men serve it; horses drag it, and epaulments may shelter it.

Ambulant Battery, heavy guns mounted on traveling carriages, and moved as occasion may require, either to positions on the coast or in besieged places.

Barbette Batteries are those without embrasures, in which the guns are raised to fire over the parapet.

Battery d’Enfilade is one that sweeps the whole length of a line, or the face or flank of any work.

Battery de Reverse is one which plays upon the rear of the troops appointed to defend a place.

Battery en Echarpe is that which plays obliquely.

Breaching Battery. See Breach.

Covered, or Masked Battery is when the cannon and gunners are covered by a bank or breastwork, commonly made of brushwood, fagots, and earth.

Cross-batteries are two batteries which play athwart each other upon the same object, forming there an angle, and battering with more effect, because what one battery shakes the other beats down.

Facine and Gabion Batteries are batteries constructed of those machines where sods are scarce, and the earth very loose and sandy.

Floating Batteries are such as are erected either on rafts or on the hulls of ships.

Gun-battery is a defense constructed of earth faced with green sods or fascines, sometimes of gabions filled with earth. It consists of a breastwork, epaulment, or parapet; the open spaces through which the muzzles of the cannon are pointed are called embrasures, and the solid masses between the embrasures, merlons; the genouilleres are those parts of the parapet which cover the carriage of the gun. The platforms are plank floors made to prevent the cannon from sinking into the ground; they are made with a slope to check the recoil of the guns, and to render it more easy to bring them forward again when loaded.

Half-sunken Battery. This term is applied to a battery in which the earth to form the parapet is derived partly from a ditch in front and partly from the excavation of the terre-plein. See Artillery, also Cavalier.

Mortar-batteries differ from gun-batteries in this, that the parapets have no embrasures, and the platforms have no slope, but are exactly horizontal; the shells being fired quite over the parapet, commonly at an elevation of 45°.

Open Battery is a number of cannon, commonly field-pieces, ranged in a row abreast on some natural elevation of ground, or on an artificial bank raised for that purpose.

Raised Battery, one whose terre-plein is elevated considerably above the ground.

Redan Batteries are such as flank each other at the salient and re-entrant angles of a fortification.

Ricochet Battery, so called by its inventor Vauban, was first used at the siege of Aeth in 1697. It is a method of discharging cannon with a very small charge of powder, and with just elevation enough to fire over the parapet. When properly managed its effects are most destructive; for the shot, rolling along the opposite rampart, dismounts the cannon and disperses or destroys the troops. Ricochet practice is not confined to cannon alone; small mortars and howitzers may be effectually employed for the same purpose.

Sunken Battery, where the sole of the embrasures is on a level with the ground, and the platforms are consequently sunk below it.

Battery-boxes are square chests or boxes, filled with earth or dung; used in making batteries, where gabions and earth are not to be had. They must not be too large, but of a size that is governable.

Battery-wagon. It consists, besides the limber, of a long-bodied cart with a round top, which is connected with the limber in the same way as all other field-carriages. The lid opens on hinges placed at the side; and in the rear is fixed a movable forage-rack for carrying along forage. One of these wagons accompanies each field battery, for the purpose of transporting carriage-maker’s and saddler’s tools, spare parts of carriages, harness, and equipments, and rough materials for replacing different parts. Both it and the forge are made of equal mobility with the other field-carriages, in order to accompany them wherever they may be required to go. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Battery, Electric. The apparatus used to generate a current of electricity.

Battery, or Traveling Forge. See Ordnance, Carriages for.

Battery Gun. A gun capable of firing continuously a great number of shots in a short time. Applied to guns mounted upon tripods, stands, swivels, or carriages. A magazine cannon in contradistinction to a magazine small-arm. Also called machine gun and mitrailleur. Guns of this kind existed as early as the 14th century. From the arrangement of the barrels they were called killing organs. They have always been used in various forms, but were comparatively inefficient till recent times, when the introduction of the metallic cartridge gave the subject a new importance.

Puckle’s revolver, 1718, was ingeniously mounted upon a tripod with good elevating and traversing arrangements. It had one barrel and a movable rotating breech containing nine charges. These were fired in succession, and a new breech, ready charged, was slipped on. Two kinds of bullets were used,—round bullets against Christians and square ones for Turks.

Winans’s steam gun, invented about 1861 by the celebrated American inventor and engineer Thomas Winans, of Baltimore, was a battery gun of large calibre. The shot fell from a hopper into a breech-chamber, and were projected through the barrel by the sudden admission behind it of steam under enormous pressure.

The infernal machine with which Fieschi killed Marshal Mortier and a large number of others in his attempt to assassinate Louis Philippe, in 1835, was a crude form of battery gun, consisting of a row of gun-barrels fired by a train of powder. Many battery guns are of this type.

The Requa battery—American—used in the civil war, 1861-65, consisted of a row of 24 barrels on a wheel-carriage, so arranged as to give either parallel or divergent fire. It was breech-loading, the cartridges being forced into the barrels by a transverse bar worked by levers. It was capable of seven volleys a minute.

One of the forms of mitrailleur used in the Franco-Prussian war was very much the same. The loading-bar was rotating, and had two sets of chambers. One set was fired while the other was being loaded.

The Abbertini gun used in Europe has 10 barrels arranged as in the Requa battery. It is worked by a crank. The cartridges are conveyed by mechanical devices from a box magazine to the rear of the barrels.

The form in which a cluster of barrels is used was probably first introduced in France, and was made by inserting 25 gun-barrels into the bore of a brass field-piece, into the breech of which a slot was cut, the open rear ends of the barrels being flush with the front wall of the slot. A cylinder-case containing cartridges being placed in the slot, a set of plungers pushed the cartridges into the barrels. The case was then replaced by a firing-block containing a lock and pin for each cartridge.

This was improved by mounting the barrels (37) without the casing and replacing the cartridge-case by a steel block in which the cartridges were fired without being pushed into the barrels.

The first successful gun in which the cluster of barrels was made to revolve was the Gatling. (See Gatling Gun.) In this both the barrels and the locks revolve. The Gatling gun in its various forms is used by all the leading nations of Europe. It is used in a variety of ways for field service, mountain service, flank defense of fortifications, in the main-tops of ships, etc. It has been mounted upon the backs of camels, on tripods, swivels, and field-carriages. In Europe its principal rival is the Nordenfelt, in which the barrels are stationary and the breech mechanism works horizontally. It is probably superior to the Gatling in the amount of metal thrown in a given time. In mechanism and accuracy it is inferior. Its principal claim to superiority is that it fires either volleys or single shots. The recoil, which is always great in volley-guns, requires a very heavy stand, making it clumsy and unwieldy compared to the Gatling. Accidents have also happened in its use from defective mechanism. Among other American battery or machine guns are the Lowell and Gardner, both of which have won enviable reputations. A late form of the Gardner consists of two barrels fixed in a brass casing, giving it the external appearance of an ordinary field-piece. It has less rapidity of fire (its maximum being about 357 shots a minute) than some other guns, but it is simple, strong, and efficient.

The Taylor gun was something like the Nordenfelt in principle, having a fixed cluster of barrels and a sliding breech mechanism, firing volleys or single shots at discretion. A later form of Taylor gun has the barrels in a horizontal row. The improvement consists in rapidity of loading. The cartridges are carried in the ordinary paper or wooden cases, exposing the heads. The gun has a number of upright pieces at the breech with grooves between them. By drawing the cartridge-case downward over these uprights the cartridges are caught in the grooves by their flanged heads. They fall by gravity, and are conducted by suitable devices in grooved channels to the barrels. This gun, it is believed, fires more shots a minute than any other, but its mechanism is not so perfect as several of its rivals.

The Hotchkiss revolving cannon has the largest calibre of the modern machine guns. It differs from the Gatling in having but one lock for all the barrels. It is worked by a crank like the Gatling, but the mechanism is such that during a part of the revolution of the crank the barrels are stationary. It is during this time that one cartridge is fired and another case extracted. The rapidity of fire is much less than the Gatling and most others, but in perfection of mechanism, accuracy, and other qualities, it is unsurpassed. A peculiar form of brake is fitted to the wheels of the field-gun to prevent the recoil from moving the carriage. For the larger sizes both shells and canister are used. The metallic cartridge-case is of brass. This gun is the invention of B. B. Hotchkiss, an American, now residing in Paris. His guns are made at the Hotchkiss Works, near that city, and have been adopted for flank defense of fortifications and for naval use by several of the continental powers.

Battle. An action or engagement between the forces of two armies. A battle is either general or partial; general, where the whole or the greater part of each army is brought into action; and partial, where only brigades, divisions, or corps d’armÉe are engaged. But, however the numbers may vary, the great principles to be applied in delivering battle are in almost every case the same. Palamedes of Argos is said to have been the first who ranged an army in order of battle, placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the soldier’s vigilance by giving him a watch-word.

Battles may be arranged into three general classes, defensive, offensive, and mixed battles. In a purely defensive battle, an army chooses a position in which to await the enemy, and there to give battle with no other end in view than to hold this position and repulse the enemy. In a purely offensive battle, an army seeks the enemy and attacks him wherever he is to be found. A mixed battle, is a combination of these two. The most common case of this last class is that in which a position is selected beforehand, where the army awaits the attack of the enemy, and, at a suitable moment, moves from it, and attacks the assaulting columns. This case is sometimes known as a defensive-offensive battle. Details of particular battles and engagements are given under their respective headings in this work.

Battle-Abbey. In Sussex, England; founded by William I. 1067, on the plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, October 14, 1066. It was dedicated to St. Martin, and given to Benedictine monks, who were to pray for the souls of the slain. The original name of the plain was Hetheland. After the battle of Hastings, a list was taken of William’s chiefs, amounting to 629, and called the Battle-Roll; and among these chiefs the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were distributed.

Battle-array. Array or order of battle; the disposition of forces preparatory to a battle.

Battle-axe. A weapon much used by the early northern nations, Celtic and Scandinavian, requiring great strength in its use. Some were held with one hand, some with two; the former kind could be wielded equally by horse and foot, but the latter was for foot soldiers only. The battle-axe has a longer handle, and a broader, stronger, and sharper blade than the common axe. During the Middle Ages and somewhat earlier, it was much used in sorties, and to prevent the escalading of a besieged fortress. The pole-axe differed but little from the battle-axe. The black-bill and brown-bill were a sort of halbert, having a cutting part like a woodman’s bill, with a spike projecting from the back, and another from the head. The glaive was a kind of pole-axe or bill used by the Welsh.

Battle-cries. See War-cries.

Battle-ground. A village of Tippecanoe Co., Ind., where the battle of Tippecanoe was fought, November 7, 1811, between Gen. Harrison and the Indians under the chief Tecumseh and his brother the “Prophet.”

Battlements. The indentations in the top of old castles, or fortified walls, in the form of embrasures, for the greater convenience of firing or looking through.

Battle of the Giants. See Marignano.

Battle of the Herrings. A name given by historians to an engagement which took place February 12, 1429, in which Sir John Fastolfe, an English general at the head of 1500 men, gained a victory over 6000 Frenchmen near Orleans, and brought a convoy of stores in safety to the English camp before that place. The stores comprised a large quantity of herrings.

Battle of the Nations. See Leipsic.

Battle of the Spurs. A name given to the battle of Courtrai (which see); also to that of Guinegate. See Guinegate.

Battle of the Standard. A name given to a battle between the English and Scotch at Northallerton (which see).

Battle of the Thirty. A name given in English and French history to a celebrated engagement which took place at a spot known as Midway Oak, half-way between the castles of Josselin and Ploermel, in France, March 27, 1351. The French general Beaumanoir, commanding at the former place, being enraged at the English general Bemborough, occupying the latter position, challenged him to fight. Upon this it was agreed that 30 knights of each party should meet and decide the contest. At the first onset the English were successful, but Bemborough having been killed, the French renewed the struggle with redoubled courage, and finally won the victory.

Battle-range. The range corresponding to the maximum “dangerous space” for the trajectory of any fire-arm. This range is somewhat greater for such fire-arm employed against mounted troops than against foot troops. For instance, it is 262 yards for the Springfield rifle (calibre .45) when used against foot troops, and represents the extreme range for which the rear sight may be set so as to cover such foot troops continuously between that point and the firer. There is also a “dangerous space” of 75 yards behind that point for the foot soldier; hence the maximum “dangerous space” is 337 yards, and is a continuous one. For the same arm and against cavalry, the “battle-range” is 291 yards, corresponding to a maximum continuous “dangerous space,” front and rear, of (291 + 95 =) 386 yards. For the carbine (cal. .45) against infantry, this range is 204 yards, and the maximum “dangerous space” is 300 yards. Upon the latest model sights (1879) for these two fire-arms, the letter “B” is placed opposite the “battle-range” elevation, and indicates the most suitable one for firing at an enemy’s line of battle; with this elevation and the aim taken at the foot, the enemy will be hit wherever he may be within a range of about 400 yards. The most effective fire, and one covering the greatest zone of continuous “dangerous space,” can be secured by causing troops to lie down, to fire at the feet of the opposing line, and to use the “battle” elevation. The zone then swept will be round about 500 yards for troops armed with the service rifle. See Dangerous Space.

Battle, The Fearless. An engagement between the LacedÆmonians under Archidamus III. and the Arcadians.

Battre (Fr.). To direct one or more pieces of ordnance in such a manner that any given object may be destroyed or broken into by the continued discharge of cannon-ball, or other warlike material; it likewise means to silence an enemy’s fire.

Battre de Front (Fr.). To throw cannon-balls in a perpendicular or almost perpendicular direction against any body or place which becomes an object of attack. This mode of attack is less effectual than any other unless battering in breach.

Baulois. A piece of punk stuff, used by miners for firing the saucision, or train.

Bavaria. A kingdom in South Germany; conquered from the Celtic Gauls by the Franks, between 630 and 660. The country was afterwards governed by dukes subject to the French monarchs. Tasillon II. was deposed by Charlemagne, who established margraves in 788. Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, Bavaria, and Brunswick, was dispossessed in 1180 by the emperor Frederick Barbarossa (who had previously been his friend and benefactor.) Bavaria supported Austria in the contest with Prussia in June, 1866, and took part in the war; made peace with Prussia August 22. Took part with Prussia against the French in the Franco-Prussian war, 1870.

Bavier. The beaver of a helmet.

Bavin. The old word for fascine.

Bayberry Tallow. A product of the wax myrtle, used as lubricant for bullets.

Bayeux. A city in the department of Calvados, France, 17 miles west-northwest of Caen; captured and sacked by Henry I. of England in 1106; by Philip of Navarre in 1356; the English took possession of it, 1450; the Protestants in 1561; LamoriciÈre for the League in 1589, and the Duke of Montpensier in 1590.

Baylen. A town in Southern Spain, where on July 20, 1808, the French, commanded by Gens. Dupont and Wedel, were defeated by the Spaniards under Reding, Coupigny, and other generals, whose force amounted to 25,000.

Bayonet. A triangular dagger, made with a hollow handle and a shoulder, to fix on the muzzle of a rifle, so that its presence does not impede either the charging or firing of the piece. It is said to have been invented at Bayonne, in France, about 1647, 1670, or 1690. It was used at Killiecrankie in 1689, and at Marsaglia by the French in 1693, “with great success against the enemy, unprepared for the encounter with so formidable a novelty.” Bayonets are sometimes made in other shapes. See Sword-bayonet and Trowel-bayonet.

Bayonet Exercise. A drill in fencing with the bayonet fixed on the gun.

Bayonet Scabbard. A leather or metallic case for carrying the bayonet suspended from the belt.

Bayonne. An ancient city in Southern France, at the confluence of the Adour and Nive; held by the British from 1295 till it was taken by Charles VII. The queens of Spain and France met here in 1565 the cruel Duke of Alva, it is supposed to arrange the massacre of St. Bartholomew. Charles IV. of Spain abdicated here in favor of his “friend and ally,” the emperor Napoleon, May 4, 1808. In the neighborhood of Bayonne was much desperate fighting between the French and English armies, December 10, 11, and 13, 1813; invested by the British January 14, 1814; on April 14, the French made a sally and attacked the English with success, but were at length driven back. The loss of the British was considerable, and Lieut.-Gen. Sir John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner.

Bayou. A long and narrow place; a branch of a trench in fortification; a hose or leathern pipe; the outlet of a lake; a channel for water.

Baza. A city in Andalusia, Spain; it was taken by the Spaniards under Ferdinand V. from the Moors in December, 1489, after a siege of nearly seven months; in 1810 the Spaniards under Gens. Blake and Freire were defeated by the French under Marshal Soult.

Bazar. The sutler establishment which accompanies a native regiment in the India service wherever it goes.

Bazeilles. A village in the Ardennes, Northeast France. During the dreadful battle of Sedan, September 1, 1870, Bazeilles was burnt by the Bavarians, and outrages committed. Of nearly 2000 inhabitants scarcely 50 remained alive, and these indignantly denied having given provocation. The cause of provocation appears to have been that an old woman whose husband and sons had been killed had fired upon and killed two Bavarians.

Bazoche-des-Hautes. Near Orleans, Central France. Here a part of the army of the Loire, under Gen. d’Aurelle de Paladines, was defeated after a severe action by the Germans under the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg, December 2, 1870.

Beach-master. Formerly a superior officer, appointed to superintend the disembarkation of an attacking force, who holds plenary powers, and generally leads the storming-party. His acts when in the heat of action are unquestioned.

Beachy Head. A promontory, Southeast Sussex, England, near which the British and Dutch fleets, commanded by the earl of Torrington, were defeated by a superior French force under Admiral Tourville, June 30, 1690; the allies suffered very severely. The Dutch lost 2 admirals, 500 men, and several ships,—sunk to prevent them from falling into the hands of the enemy; the English lost 2 ships and 400 men. The admirals on both sides were blamed,—the English for not fighting, the French for not pursuing the victory.

Beacon. A signal-fire to notify the approach of an enemy.

Bear. In a military sense, a piece of ordnance is said to bear, or come to bear, or is brought to bear, when pointed directly against the object; that is, pointed to hit the object.

Bear, Order of. Was a military order in Switzerland, instituted by the emperor Frederick II. in 1213, by way of acknowledgment for the service the Swiss had done him, and in favor of the abbey of St. Gall. To the collar of the order hung a medal, on which was represented a bear raised on an eminence of earth.

Beard. The reflected points of the head of an ancient arrow, particularly of such as were jagged.

Beat. In a military sense, to gain the day, to win the battle, etc.

Beating the Wind. Was a practice in use in the ancient method of trial by combat. If one of the combatants did not appear in the field at the time appointed, the other was to make so many flourishes with his weapon, by which he was entitled to all the advantages of a conqueror.

BeaucÉant, or Beaucent (Fr.). Standard of the Knights Templar; it was white on one side and black on the other.

Beaugency. An ancient town of France, in the department of Loiret, and situated on the right bank of the Loire. It was at one time surrounded by walls, flanked with towers and bastions, and defended by a strong castle, now ruined. In the history of the wars of France Beaugency occupies a conspicuous place; it was successively in the hands of the Huns, Saxons, Normans, and English, but the town sustained most damage during the religious wars of the 16th century.

Beaumont. A town in the department of the Somme, France; here the French routed the allies, June 16, 1815.

Beaumont. A village near Sedan, department of Ardennes, Northeast France. Near here a part of the army of Marshal MacMahon, under De Failly, which, after vainly endeavoring to reach Metz, was retreating before the Germans under the crown prince of Prussia, was surprised, defeated, and driven across the Meuse at Mouzon, August 30, 1870. The French loss included about 7000 prisoners, many guns, and much camp equipage. The victory was chiefly gained by the Bavarians.

Beaune-la-Rolande. A village in the Loiret, France. Here the French army of the Loire under Gen. d’Aurelle de Paladines was defeated by the Germans under Prince Frederick Charles, in an attempt to march in the direction of Fontainebleau, to relieve Paris, November 28, 1870. The French loss was reported by the Germans to be 1000 dead and 4000 wounded, with more than 1700 prisoners. Their own loss was also heavy.

Beauvais (Northern France). The ancient Bellovaci, formerly capital of Picardy. When besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, with 80,000 men, the women under Jeanne Fourquet or LainÉ, also called de la Hachette, from her using that weapon, particularly distinguished themselves, and the duke raised the siege, July 10, 1472. In memory of this, the women of Beauvais walk first in the procession on the anniversary of their deliverance.

Bebra. A sort of javelin, used by the ancient Germans; it was an imitation of the pilum of the Romans.

Bec de Corbin (Fr.). A kind of halbert formerly used by the body-guards of the kings of France.

Bechlis. Light cavalry of the Turks, composed of picked men and horses.

Bedaines (Fr.). Stone bullets which were thrown from catapults during the Middle Ages.

Bednore, or Nuggur. A large city of Mysore, India. In 1763 it was taken and pillaged by Hyder Ali, who subsequently made it the seat of his own government. It was taken by the British under Gen. Matthews in 1783, but was soon retaken by Tippoo, at the head of a vastly superior force, when Gen. Matthews and all the principal British officers were put to death.

Bedouins. Wandering tribes of Arabs, living on the plunder of travelers, etc. They profess a form of Mohammedanism, and are governed by sheikhs. They are said to be descendants of Ishmael.

Beds. Are receptacles for ordnance of large calibre,—mortar-beds serve the same purpose as gun-carriages. They are made of solid timber, consisting generally of two pieces fastened together with strong iron bolts and bars. Their sizes depend on the kind of mortar they carry. The beds for the smaller mortars are made of one solid block only. The reason that a bed is used for a mortar instead of a wheel-carriage is on account of the high elevation at which a mortar is usually fired, when the recoil, instead of forcing the piece backwards, tends to force it downwards, and this tendency becomes so great at the higher angles that no wheel-carriage could long sustain the shock.

Beeren, Gross. A village of Prussia, 11 miles east-southeast of Potsdam, well known as the scene of a great victory gained by the Prussians over the French on August 22-23, 1813.

Beetles. In a military sense, are large wooden hammers for driving down palisades, and for other uses.

Beetlestock. The stock or handle of a beetle.

Befort, or Belfort. A fortified town in the department of Haut-Rhin, France; sustained several sieges; taken by the Austrians in 1814. Its citadel was constructed by Vauban.

Beg, or Bey. A Turkish title, rather vague in its import, and commonly given to superior military officers, ship-captains, and distinguished foreigners. More strictly, it applies to the governor of a small district, who bears a horse-tail as a sign of his rank. Beglerbeg, or more correctly Beilerbegi (“lord of lords”), is the title given to the governor of a province who bears three horse-tails as his badge of honor, and has authority over several begs, agas, etc.

Begkos, or Beikos. A large village of Anatolia, on the Bosphorus, 8 miles north-northeast of Scutari, said to be the locality of the contest between Pollux and Amycus, in which the latter was killed. At the commencement of the Crimean war, the allied fleets anchored in Begkos Bay, prior to their entering the Black Sea, in January, 1854.

Behourd, Bihourt, or Bohourt (Fr.). This name was given during the Middle Ages, to a combat on horseback, lance in hand; also a tilting of cavaliers, which took place at public amusements.

Beilan. A town and mountain-pass of Syria at its northern extremity, on the east side of the Gulf of Iskanderoon. Here the Egyptian troops totally defeated the Turks in 1882.

Belbeys, or Belbeis. A town of Lower Egypt, on the eastern arm of the Nile, 28 miles north-northeast of Cairo; it is inclosed by earthen ramparts, and is a station on the route from Egypt to Syria. During the expedition of the French into Egypt, Gen. Bonaparte had the ancient fortifications repaired.

Beleaguer. To invest a town or fortress, so as to preclude escape; to besiege; to blockade.

Belem. A town of Portugal, on the right bank of the Tagus, near Lisbon. It is historically interesting as the place from whence Vasco de Gama set sail on his voyage of oriental discovery; it was taken in November, 1807, by the French, the royal family of Portugal embarking from its quay for Brazil as they entered; in 1833, it was occupied by Don Pedro’s troops.

Belemnon. A dart used by the ancient Grecians.

Belfry, or Beffroi. Among military writers of the Middle Ages, a movable tower, often several stories high, erected by besiegers for purposes of attack and defense.

Belgian-fuze. See Bormann-fuze.

Belgium. Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and anciently the territory of the BelgÆ, who were finally conquered by Julius CÆsar, 51 B.C.; a revolution commenced at Brussels, August 25, 1830; Antwerp taken (except the citadel), December 23, 1830. The king of the Netherlands commenced war August 3, 1831, but France sent 50,000 troops to assist Belgium, which effected an armistice. Antwerp was taken by the French, December 23, 1832, and the French army returned to France immediately after. For previous history, see Flanders.

Belgrade. An ancient city in Servia, on the right bank of the Danube. It was taken from the Greek emperor by Solomon, king of Hungary, in 1086; gallantly defended by John Huniades, against the Turks under Mahomet II., July to September, 1456, when the latter was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men; it was taken by Sultan Solyman, 1521, and retaken by the Imperialists in 1688, from whom it was again taken by the Turks, 1690; besieged in May, 1717, by Prince Eugene. On August 5, of that year, the Turkish army, 200,000 strong, approached to relieve it, and a sanguinary battle was fought at Peterwardein, in which the Turks lost 20,000 men; after this battle Belgrade surrendered. In 1739 it was ceded to the Turks, after its fine fortifications had been demolished; retaken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach in 1790. The Servian insurgents had possession of it in 1806; in 1815, it was placed under Prince Milosch, subject to Turkey; the fortifications were restored in 1820; the fortress was surrendered by the Turks to the Servians about August, 1867.

Belier (Fr.). A battering-ram, invented by the Carthaginians about 441 B.C.; used in ancient times for siege purposes. Also a wooden machine for driving wedges under a ship’s bottom.

Bellair. In North America; this town was attacked by the British forces under Sir Peter Parker, who, after an obstinate engagement, were repulsed with considerable loss; their gallant commander was killed August 30, 1814.

Belle-Alliance. A farm-house on the field of Waterloo, Belgium; it is situated on the right side of the high-road to Brussels and about two miles from Mount-Saint-Jean. Here Napoleon marshaled his guards for their last effort at Waterloo; and here Wellington and BlÜcher met after the battle was gained by the allies.

Bellegarde. A hill fortress of France, in the department of the PyrÉnÉes Orientales. Here the French under Philip III. were defeated by Peter III. of Aragon, in 1285; captured by the Spaniards in 1674, and again by the French under Marshal Schomberg, in 1675; blockaded and taken by the Spaniards under Ricardos, but was retaken by the French in the following year.

Belleisle. An isle on the southeast of Brittany, France, erected into a duchy for Marshal Belleisle in 1742, in reward of his military and diplomatic services, by Louis XV. Belleisle was taken by the British forces under Commodore Keppel and Gen. Hodgson, after a desperate resistance, June 7, 1761; restored to France in 1763.

Belley, Bellica, Bellicum, or Bellicium. A town in the department of Ain, France, 39 miles east from Lyons, formerly fortified. Belley served as a place of arms to CÆsar against the Allobroges; burned by Alaric in 390; it was in the possession of the dukes of Savoy; it was ceded to France in 1601.

Belligerent. In a state of warfare. Hence any two or more nations at war are called belligerent powers.

Bellinzona. A town in the Swiss canton of Ticino, on the river Ticino. It has several castles, and was captured and recaptured several times by the Germans, Swiss, and French.

Bellipotent. Powerful or mighty in war.

Bell-metal. An alloy of about 78 parts copper and 22 of tin, used in making bells. It is harder and more sonorous than gun-metal, but much more brittle.

Bellovaci. The most powerful of the BelgÆ, dwelt in the modern Beauvais, between the Seine, Oise, Somme, and Bresle. In CÆsar’s time they could bring 100,000 men into the field, but they were subdued by CÆsar with the other BelgÆ.

Bellows-house. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Traveling Forge.

Bells of Arms. In the British service, are tents in front of the quarters of each company of infantry, in which the arms are piled. In Indian cantonments, the bells of arms are of masonry.

Beloochistan, Southern Asia. The ancient Gedrosia. The capital, Kelat, was taken by the British in the Afghan war, in 1839; abandoned in 1840; taken and held for a short time in 1841.

Belt, Great. A strait forming the central communication between the Baltic and the Cattegat; it separates the island of Funen from that of Seeland. In the winter of 1658, while frozen, it was crossed by Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, and his army, on his way to besiege Copenhagen.

Belts. Leathern suspenders of different sorts and for various purposes, viz.: sword belts, to which swords hang; shoulder or cross belts, broad leathern belts, crossing from the right shoulder, and to which the pouch is affixed; and leathern straps fixed round the waist, by which a sword or bayonet is suspended.

Benares. A holy city of the Hindoos in India; it was ceded by the nabob of Oude to the English in 1755; the scene of an insurrection in 1781, which nearly proved fatal to the British interests in Hindostan. In June, 1857, Col. Neil succeeded in suppressing attempts to join the Sepoy mutiny.

Ben-Azzedin. A place in Algiers, where the French fought the Kabyles, September 9, 1848.

Benburb. Near Armagh (Northern Ireland). Here O’Neill totally defeated the English under Monroe, June 5, 1646. Moore says that it was “the only great victory since the days of Brian Boru achieved by an Irish chieftain in the cause of Ireland.”

Bend. In heraldry, is one of the ordinaries, or more important figures. It is formed of two parallel lines drawn from the dexter to the sinister base, and consequently passing athwart the shield. It is supposed to represent a shoulder-belt, or scarf worn over the shoulder.

Bender (Bessarabia, European Russia). Was the asylum of Charles XII. of Sweden after his defeat at Pultowa by the czar Peter the Great, July 8, 1709. The peace of Bender was concluded in 1711; it was taken by storm, by the Russians, in September, 1770; again taken by Potemkin in 1789; and again stormed in 1809. It was restored at the peace of Jassy, but retained at the peace of 1812.

Benevente. A small town of the province of Alentejo, Portugal, where Lord Paget, afterwards Marquis of Anglesea, in 1808, greatly distinguished himself by a brilliant cavalry action, against the French under Marshal Soult; when Gen. Lefebre Desnouettes, who commanded the advanced guard of the French forces, was taken prisoner.

Benevento (anc. Beneventum). An ancient city in South Italy, said to have been founded by Diomedes the Greek, after the fall of Troy; Pyrrhus of Macedon, during his invasion of Italy, was totally defeated near Beneventum, 275 B.C. At a battle fought here, February 26, 1266, Manfred, king of Sicily, was defeated and slain by Charles of Anjou, who thus became virtually master of Italy. It was seized by the king of Naples, but restored to the pope, 1773; it was taken by the French in 1798, and restored to the pope in 1814.

Bengal. Chief presidency of British India, containing Calcutta, the capital. Its governors were delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi till 1340, when it became independent. It was added to the Mogul empire by Baber about 1529.

Beni-Abbes. An Algerian tribe who fought the French, May 16, 1847.

Beni-Achour. An Algerian tribe who were defeated by the French, September 22, 1848.

Benicke. A kind of military fÊte among the Turks, similar to a tournament, but without the presence of ladies.

Beni-Mered. An Algerian tribe who were defeated by the French, May 27, 1836.

Beni-Yala. An Algerian tribe who were chastised by the French, May 31, 1847.

Ben-Nahr. A place in Algeria where the French defeated the Arabs, February 7, 1846.

Bennington. A post-township of Bennington Co., Vt., 117 miles southwest of Montpelier. Here a detachment of the English army under Gen. Burgoyne were defeated by the Americans under Gen. Stark, August 16, 1777, and 600 prisoners captured.

Ben-Tijour. A place in Algeria where the French engaged the Arabs, September 22, 1848.

Bentonville. A village in Johnston Co., N. C. Here part of the army of Gen. Sherman encountered a Confederate army (40,000 strong) under Gen. Johnston, March, 1865. The attack was made by Gen. Johnston on the left wing of the Federal army with the intention of overwhelming it before it could be relieved. Six assaults were gallantly sustained by the Federals against the combined forces of Gens. Hoke, Hardee, and Cheatham. During the night Gen. Slocum received reinforcements which rendered his position impregnable. On March 21, Gen. Sherman ordered a general attack by his skirmish-line, and the ensuing night Johnston retreated towards Smithfield, leaving his pickets to fall into Gen. Sherman’s hands. The Federal loss was 1646; the Confederate loss is unknown, but about 1300 prisoners were taken by the Union forces.

Beraun. A walled town of Bohemia, capital of a circle, on the Beraun River. Here the Austrians defeated the Prussians in 1744.

Berbers. The general name usually given to the tribes inhabiting the mountainous regions of Barbary and the northern portions of the Great Desert. They were conquered in succession by the Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, and Arabs. They are of middle stature, sparely but strongly built; complexion varies from a red to a yellow brown; hair is, in general, dark, and eyes dark and piercing. Their manners are austere, and in disposition they are cruel, suspicious, and implacable. They are usually at war with their neighbors or among themselves.

Beresina, or Berezina. A river in Russia, crossed by the French main army after its defeat by the Russians, November 25-29, 1812. The French lost upwards of 20,000 men, and their retreat was attended by great calamity and suffering.

Bereung. A description of Swedish militia, consisting of every man in the kingdom, from 20 to 25 years of age, capable of bearing arms.

Bergamo. A fortified city of Lombardy, Italy; captured by the French in 1698. During the height of the Venetian power, Bergamo was a dependency on its territory; under Napoleon, it was the capital of the department of Serio.

Bergedorf. A town of North Germany; it was taken from the Duke of Saxe-Lauenberg in 1736 by the cities of Hamburg and Lubeck; recaptured in 1412; and again taken by the same two cities in 1720.

Bergen. A small town in Germany, about 5 miles from Frankfort. Here the French, under the Duke of Broglie, defeated the allies under the Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, April 13, 1759. The allies lost 2500 killed and wounded, and the French lost about 1800.

Bergen. A town in Holland. Here the allies under the Duke of York were defeated by the French, under Gen. Brune, with great loss, September 19, 1799. In another battle fought October 2, the same year, the duke gained the victory over Brune; but on the 6th, the duke was defeated before Alkmaer, and on the 20th entered into a convention, by which his army was exchanged for 6000 French and Dutch prisoners in England.

Bergen-op-Zoom, or Berg-op-Zoom. A strongly-fortified town of Holland, in North Brabant, on the river Zoom. In 1586 it was unsuccessfully besieged by the famous Duke of Parma, and afterwards, in 1622, it defied the utmost attempts of Spinola, who was forced to abandon the enterprise after a siege of ten weeks, with the loss of 12,000 men. It was taken by the French under Count Lowendahl in 1747, and in 1795 was again occupied by them. An attempt made by the British under Gen. Sir T. Graham (afterwards Lord Lynedoch) to carry the fortress by storm was defeated; after forcing an entrance, their retreat was cut off, and a dreadful slaughter ensued; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, March 8, 1814.

Bergerac. A town in the department of Dordogne, France; it was formerly fortified, and sustained many sieges; taken by the English in 1345, and retaken by the Duke of Anjou in 1370. Its fortifications were razed by Louis XIII. in 1621.

Bergfried, Combat of. A combat which took place between the French and Russians, February 3, 1807, in which the latter were repulsed.

Bergues. A fortified town in the department of the North, France; it was captured and recaptured by the Spaniards and French; the last time by Turenne in 1658.

Berlin. Capital of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg; alleged to have been founded by the margrave Albert the Bear, about 1163. It was taken by an army of Russians and Austrians in 1760, but they were obliged to retire in a few days. On October 26, 1806, after the battle of Jena (October 14), the French entered Berlin; and from this place Napoleon issued the famous “Berlin decree” or interdict against the commerce of England, November 20. On November 5, 1808, Napoleon entered into a convention with Prussia by which he remitted to Prussia the sum due on the war-debt and withdrew many of his troops to reinforce his army in Spain. An insurrection commenced here in March, 1848; a treaty of peace between Prussia and Saxony was signed on October 21, 1866.

Berme. A narrow path round fortifications between the parapet and the ditch, to prevent the earth from falling in.

Bermuda Hundred. In Chesterfield Co., Va., on the right bank of the James River, just above the mouth of the Appomattox. Here on May 16, 1864, the Federal forces under Gen. Butler were attacked by the Confederates under Beauregard, and after several hours’ severe fighting Butler was compelled to fall back to his first line of intrenchments, with a loss of about 2500.

Bermuda Islands, or Bermudas. A group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, discovered by Juan Bermudez, a Spaniard, in 1527, but not inhabited until 1600, when Sir George Somers was cast away upon them. The Bermudas are garrisoned by British troops.

Bernard, The Great St. A famous mountain-pass of the Pennine Alps, so called from a monastery founded on it by Bernardine de Meuthon in 972. Velan, its highest peak, is about 8000 feet high, covered with perpetual snow. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginians by this pass into Italy, 218 B.C.; and by the same route, in May, 1800, Bonaparte led his troops to Italy before the battle of Marengo, June 14, 1800.

Berne. The sovereign canton of Switzerland; joined the Swiss League in 1352; the town of Berne was made a free city by the emperor Frederick, May, 1218; it successfully resisted Rudolph of Hapsburg, 1288. It surrendered to the French under Gen. Brune, April 12, 1798; the town was made capital of Switzerland in 1848.

Berry (anc. Biturigum regis), Central France; held by the Romans since the conquest by CÆsar, 58-50 B.C., till it was subdued by the Visigoths; from whom it was taken by Clovis in 507.

Bersaglieri. The sharpshooters of the Sardinian army; first employed about 1848.

Berserker. A legendary Scandinavian hero of the 8th century, celebrated for his strength and valor. He fought without a coat of mail or helmet, whence his name. The name Berserkers was also applied to a class of warriors who, under the influence of a sort of demoniac possession, fought naked, performing marvelous feats of valor, unmindful or insusceptible of wounds.

Berwick-on-Tweed. A fortified town on the northeast extremity of England; the theatre of many bloody contests while England and Scotland were two kingdoms; it was claimed by the Scots because it stood on their side of the river; annexed to England in 1333; and after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to England in 1482; in 1651 it was made independent of both kingdoms; the town surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and afterwards to Gen. Monk in 1659.

BesanÇon. A fortified city of France, capital of the department of Doubs; sacked by Attila; captured and ruined by the ancient Germans; rebuilt by the Burgundians; it was ceded to Spain by the peace of Westphalia; taken by Louis XIV. on May 15, 1670; united to France in 1678; in 1814 the Austrians besieged it without success.

Besiege. To lay siege to or invest any fortified place with armed forces.

Besieged. The garrison that defends the place against the army that lays siege to it.

Besiegers. The army that lays siege to a fortified place.

Bessarabia. A frontier province of European Russia, part of the ancient Dacia. After being possessed by the Goths, Huns, etc., it was conquered by the Turks in 1474, and ceded to Russia in 1812.

Bessemer Steel. See Ordnance, Metals for.

Bessi. A fierce and powerful Thracian people, who dwelt along the whole of Mount HÆmus as far as the Euxine. After the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 168 B.C., the Bessi were attacked by the latter, and subdued after a severe struggle.

Bethoron. A village of Palestine. Near here Judas MaccabÆus gained advantages on two different occasions over the generals of Antiochus.

Bethsur. An ancient city of Palestine, now extinct. The Syrian general Lysias captured it, 163 B.C., after a severe combat in which Eleazar, a brother of Judas, perished.

BÉton. French term for concrete. Much used in permanent fortifications. See Concrete.

BÉton AgglomÉrÉ. A species of concrete invented by M. Coignet. Used in building arches, aqueducts, cellar walls, etc. It differs from ordinary bÉton, having much greater strength and hardness,—qualities derived from the ramming to which it is subjected.

Betray. To deliver perfidiously any place or body of troops into the hands of the enemy. To discover that which has been intrusted to secrecy.

Betty. A machine used for forcing open gates or doors. See Petard.

Bey. See Beg.

Beyroot, or Beyrout (anc. Berytus). A seaport of Syria, colonized from Sidon; alternately possessed by the Christians and Saracens; and after many changes, fell into the power of Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman empire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pasha in 1832. The total defeat of the Egyptian army by the allied British, Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyroot (the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and 20 pieces of cannon), took place October 10, 1840. Sir C. Napier was the English admiral engaged. Beyroot suffered greatly in consequence of the massacres in Syria in May, 1860.

BÉziers. A city of France, department of HÉrault; sacked by the Vandals in the 5th century; by the Visigoths in the 5th, 6th, and 7th centuries; by the Saracens in 720; by Charles Martel in 737; in 1209, this city was taken by the Catholics under Simon de Montfort and Arnaud, abbÉ of Citeaux, and was the scene of a barbarous massacre of the Albigenses; 60,000 inhabitants were slain without consideration of sex or age (7000 were found dead in the church de la Magdeleine, where they sought refuge from their relentless slayers).

Bhootan. A country north of Lower Bengal. Invaded by the British in December, 1864, in consequence of injurious treatment of an envoy.

Bhurtpoor (India). Capital of Bhurtpoor, was besieged by the British, January 3, 1805, and attacked five times up to March 21, without success. The fortress was taken by Gen. Lake, after a desperate engagement with Holkar, the Mahratta chief, April 2, 1805; this led to a treaty on April 17. On the rajah’s death, during a revolt against his son, Bhurtpoor was taken by storm, by Lord Combermere, January 18, 1826.

Biacolytes. A military organization in the Grecian empire, whose duty was to prevent the committal of any excesses against life or property. Their service was analogous to that of the French gendarmes.

Biagrasso, or Abbiategrasso. A city on the Ticinella, in Lombardy; here, in 1524, the French were defeated by the Imperialists.

Bibans, or Bibens. “The Gates of Iron.” A dangerous defile of the Atlas Mountains, between Algiers and Constantine; it is traversed by a number of currents. The French, led by the Duke of Orleans and Marshal ValÉe, passed through it in 1839.

Bibaux, or Petaux (Fr.). In ancient times, were soldiers who fought on foot, with cross-bow and lance.

Biberach (WÜrtemberg). Here Moreau twice defeated the Austrians,—under Latour, October 2, 1796, and under Kray, May 9, 1800.

Bicker. A word formerly used in the sense of to skirmish; to fight off and on; to make repeated attacks.

Bicocca (Northern Italy). Lautrec and the French were here defeated by Colonna and the Imperialists, April 29, 1522, and Francis thereby lost his conquests in Milan.

Bicoque (Fr.). A term used in France to signify a place ill fortified and incapable of much defense. It is derived from a place on the road between Lodi and Milan, which was originally a gentleman’s country-house surrounded by ditches. In 1522, a body of Imperial troops were stationed in it, and stood the attack of the whole French army, during the reign of Francis I. This engagement was called the battle of Bicoque.

Bicorneurs (Fr.). Name given to the militia of Valenciennes.

Bidarkee. A skin boat used by the Aleuts.

Bidassoa. A river of the Pyrenees, which forms one of the boundaries of France and Spain, the passage of which is memorable as completing the endeavors of Lord Wellington to drive the French, under Marshal Soult, out of the Peninsula into France. In 1808, Marshal Junot crossed the Bidassoa with the armies of France to invade the Peninsula, and in 1813, Lord Wellington crossed it, after driving the French out of Spain.

Bidauts, or Bidaux (Fr.). An ancient French corps of infantry; according to some authorities they were armed with two javelins.

Bien-Hoa. A fortified seaport town of the French colony in Cochin China; it was taken from the Annamites by the French under Rear-Admiral Bonard, December 15, 1861.

Bienne. A town of Switzerland; it was captured and burned by the bishop of Basel in 1367.

Biga. A Roman term applied in ancient times to vehicles drawn by two horses abreast, and commonly to the Roman chariot used in processions or in the circus. In shape it resembled the Greek war-chariot,—a short body on two wheels, low, and open behind, where the charioteer entered, but higher and closed in front.

Big Bethel. A village of York Co., Va., near Back River, about 12 miles northwest of Fortress Monroe, on the road from Hampton to Yorktown, and about 3 miles beyond Little Bethel, on the same road. In June, 1861, the main body of the Confederate army, under Gen. Magruder, being in the vicinity of Yorktown, an outpost of considerable strength was established at Little Bethel, which Gen. Butler, who was in command at Fortress Monroe, determined to dislodge. Accordingly, on the night of June 9, two New York regiments were ordered to gain the rear of the enemy’s position, while a battalion of Vermont and Massachusetts troops and a New York regiment were to attack in front at break of day. Before daybreak, through some error, these forces approached and fired into each other, and thus betrayed their projected movements to the enemy, who retreated to Big Bethel, where there was another outpost, with works of some strength in process of erection. Gen. Pierce, who was in command of the Federal expedition, determined to carry these works. An attack was ordered, and after nearly three hours’ fighting, the Federals being exposed to a heavy fire, while the Confederates were almost entirely protected, Gen. Pierce determined to retreat, which he did in good order, the enemy falling back the same day to Yorktown. The number of Federal troops was between 3000 and 4000, while that of the enemy was nearly 1500. The Federal loss was about 60, that of the Confederates was small in comparison.

Big Horn. A navigable river of the United States, near Fremont’s Peak, in the Rocky Mountains. It has a northeast course of about 400 miles, being the longest affluent of the Yellowstone, which, again, is the largest affluent of the Missouri. A desperate battle was fought on the Little Big Horn, between the 7th U.S. Cavalry and the Sioux Indians, June 25, 1876.

Bigles. A military corps of Rome, whose particular duty was to furnish sentinels; the bread which these troops received was called bigliaticum.

Bihach, or Bichacz. One of the strongest fortress-towns of Croatia, European Turkey; it has been the scene of frequent contests during the Turkish wars.

Bilbo. A rapier, a sword; so named, it is said, from Bilboa, in Spain, where the best are made.

Bilboa, or Bilbao (Northeast Spain). Founded about 1300; taken by the French in 1795; captured and recaptured during the invasion of the French in 1808; delivered from the Carlists by Espartero, aided by the British, December 24, 1836.

Bilboquet. A small 8-inch mortar, whose bore is only half a caliber in length. It throws a shell of 60 pounds about 400 toises.

Bill. A weapon much used by infantry, in the 14th and 15th centuries, for defense against cavalry, consisting of a broad, hook-shaped blade, having a short pike at the back and another at the summit, and attached to the end of a long staff.

Billet (Fr. Billet de logement). In England, is a ticket for quartering soldiers on publicans and others, which entitles each soldier, by act of Parliament, to candles, vinegar, and salt, with the use of fire and the necessary utensils for dressing and eating his meat. In the United States, no soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in the manner to be prescribed by law (Art. 3, Amendments to the Constitution of the United States).

Bill-hook. A small hatchet used in European armies in cutting wood for fascines and other military purposes. The pioneers of the infantry are always provided with them, and a sufficient supply is issued to regiments engaged on active service.

Binche. A town in the province of Hainaut, Belgium. The French drove the Austrians out of this place in 1794.

Bipennis. A double-headed axe, the weapon which, according to ancient historians and authors, particularly distinguished those fabulous female warriors, the Amazons.

Biporus. With the ancients this word signified a double-prowed boat, so that it could change its course to the opposite direction without turning.

Bir, or Biridjek. A walled town of Asiatic Turkey, on the Euphrates, which was ruined by Tamerlane.

Birse. A small river in Switzerland, on the banks of which, on August 26, 1444, 1500 Swiss fought an army of about 20,000 men, commanded by the dauphin of France, afterwards Louis XI. There were but 11 of the Swiss who survived the day, while their enemy left 8000 men and 1100 horses on the battle-field. On the same river 6000 confederate Swiss gained a splendid victory over 15,000 Austrians, July 22, 1499.

Birtha. See Tekrit.

BiscaÏen (Fr.). A name formerly given to a long-barreled musket, the range of which was greater than the ordinary musket. Now this appellation is given to a leaden ball about the size of an egg, which is used for canister or case-shot.

Bisceglia. A fortified seaport town of Naples, on the Adriatic, 21 miles northwest of Bari. Here a celebrated combat took place between 13 Spaniards and the same number of French. Among the latter was the Chevalier Bayard.

Biskara, or Biskra. A town of Algeria, on the Kantara, taken by the French, March 3, 1844.

Bistritz. A fortified town of Transylvania, situated on the Bistritz River. Forming, as it does, the last strong position in the northeast of Transylvania, it was repeatedly, during 1848-49, the scene of hot strife between the Hungarian and Austrian generals.

Bitche. A town of France, in the department of the Moselle, in a wild and wooded pass of the Vosges. The Prussians, under Colonel Count von Wartensleben, attempted to surprise it in 1793, but failed.

Bithynia. An ancient division of Asia Minor, separated from Europe by the Propontus (Sea of Marmora) and the Thracian Bosphorus (Strait of Constantinople). It contained the famous Greek cities or colonies of Chalcedon, Heraclea, etc., and at later periods, Nicomedia, NicÆa, and Prusa. The inhabitants were supposed to be of Thracian origin. The country is said to have been subdued by Croesus of Lydia (560 B.C.), and five years later fell under the Persian dominion. About 440 or 430 B.C. it became an independent kingdom, under a dynasty of native princes, who made Nicomedia their capital. It afterwards fell into the hands of the Romans, and was governed as a province. In 1298, Osman the Turk broke into the country, and in 1328 Prusa, or Brusa, then its chief town, became the capital of the kingdom of the Osmanli.

Bitonto. A town of Naples where Mortemar and the Spaniards defeated the Germans, on May 26, 1734, and eventually gained the kingdom of the Two Sicilies for Don Carlos.

BiturritÆ (now Bedarrides). In the department of Vaucluse, France. It was a city of the Allobroges, who were totally defeated in its environs by Domitius Ahenobarbus in 122 B.C.

Bivouac. A night-watch in open air. Troops bivouac when they make the best of it for the night, encamping in the open air. The term was also applied to a night-guard of the whole army, when apprehensive of surprise. The word comes from the German bei, “near,” and wache, “watch.” In recent times it is common for soldiers on the march to use the tente d’abri, or shelter-tent.

Bizerta, or Benzerta. The most northern town of Africa, and a fortified seaport of Tunis. It is defended by two castles, which, however, are commanded by adjacent heights. Though its port now only admits small vessels, it was formerly one of the best in the Mediterranean. This city was noted for the piracy of its inhabitants.

Black. In blazonry, sable denotes constancy, wisdom, and prudence.

Black-book. An ancient book of English admiralty law, compiled in the reign of Edward III. It has always been deemed of the highest authority in matters concerning the admiralty in England.

Blackfeet. A once powerful and ferocious tribe of American Indians of Algonkin stock, who infest the country between the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, and are also found in British America. See Indians and their Agencies.

Blackheath (Kent, near London). Here Wat Tyler and his followers assembled, June 12, 1381, and here also Jack Cade and his 20,000 Kentish men encamped, June 1, 1450. Here the Cornish rebels were defeated and Flannock’s insurrection quelled, June 22, 1497. The cavern on the ascent to Blackheath, the retreat of Cade and the haunt of banditti in the time of Cromwell, was rediscovered in 1780.

Black Hole. The appellation familiarly given in England to the dungeon or dark cell of a prison. The name is associated with a horrible catastrophe in the history of British India, namely, the cruel confinement of a party of English in an apartment called the “Black Hole of Calcutta,” on the night of June 19, 1756. The garrison of a fort at Calcutta having been captured by the nabob Surajah Dowlah, he caused the whole of the prisoners taken, 146 in number, to be confined in an apartment 20 feet square, having only two small windows, which were obstructed by a veranda. After a night of excruciating agony from heat, thirst, and want of air, there remained in the morning but 23 survivors.

Black Rod, Usher of the. An officer of the English House of Lords, whose emblem of authority is the wand or rod, with a gold lion on top. He belongs to the order of the Garter, and keeps the door when the chapter of that order is in session. His principal duty is to summon the Commons to the House of Lords when royal assent is given to bills, etc., and to take into custody any peer guilty of breach of privilege.

Black Sea, or Euxine. Pontus Euxinus of the ancients; a large internal sea between the southwest provinces of Russia and Asia Minor, connected with the Sea of Azof by the Straits of YenikalÉ and with the Sea of Marmora by the Bosphorus. This sea was much frequented by the Greeks and Italians till it was closed to all nations by the Turks after the fall of Constantinople, in 1453. The Russians obtained admission by the treaty of Kainavdji, July 10, 1774. In 1779 it was partially opened to British and other traders, since which time the Russians gradually obtained the preponderance. It was entered by the British and French fleets, January 3, 1854. A dreadful storm in this sea raged from November 13 to 16, 1854, and caused great loss of life and shipping, and valuable stores for the allied armies. By the treaty of 1856 the Black Sea was opened to the commerce of all nations, the Russians and Turks not being allowed to keep ships of war on it. In 1871 the Russians were again permitted to have men-of-war on this sea.

Black Watch. Armed companies of the loyal clans (Campbells, Munros, etc.) employed to watch the Highlands from about 1725 to 1739, when they were formed into the celebrated 42d Regiment, which was formerly enrolled “The Royal Highland Black Watch.” Their removal probably facilitated the outbreak of 1745. They wore dark tartans, and hence their name.

Blackwater, Battle of. In Ireland, August 14, 1598, when the Irish chief O’Neal defeated the English under Sir Henry Bagnall. Pope Clement VIII. sent O’Neal a consecrated plume, and granted to his followers the same indulgences as to Crusaders.

Bladensburg. A village of Prince George Co., Md., memorable for the battle which was fought here August 24, 1814, between the British and Americans, and which resulted in the capture of Washington.

Blair-Athol. A village in Perthshire, Scotland; it was occupied by the Marquis of Montrose in 1644; stormed by a party under the command of one of Cromwell’s officers in 1653; and gallantly defended by Sir Andrew Agnew, in 1746, when besieged by a portion of the Highland army, until he was relieved by the Hessians under the Earl of Crawford. The pass of Killekrankie, about two miles from Blair Castle, is famous for the battle which was there fought in 1689, between the Highlanders under Viscount Dundee, and King William’s troops under Gen. Mackay.

Blaise. A military order instituted by the kings of Armenia, in honor of St. Blaise the Martyr, anciently bishop of Sebasta, and the patron saint of Armenia. Justinian calls them Knights of St. Blaise and St. Mary, and places them not only in Armenia, but in Palestine. They made a vow to defend the Church of Rome, and followed the rule of St. Basil. This institution appears to have commenced about the same time with the Knights Templar and Hospitallers.

Blakely Gun. See Ordnance, Built-up Guns.

Blakely Projectiles. See Projectile.

Blamont. A small town of France, department of Doubs. This small place was protected by an ancient fortress, which was ruined by the allies in 1814.

Blanch-Lyon. A title of one of the English pursuivants-at-arms. See Pursuivant.

Blank. The point of a target at which aim is taken, marked with a white spot; hence, the object to which anything is directed.

Blank Cartridge. See Cartridge.

Blanket-boats. A practical and highly useful plan for crossing streams is by means of boats constructed of a single rubber blanket, capable of carrying a soldier, knapsack, arms, and accoutrements, with only 4 inches of displacement. The size of some of the ordinary blankets is 6 feet long and 4 feet 9 inches wide; but 7 feet by 5 feet would be preferable. If the height of the boat be made 1 foot, the length will be 4 feet, and the width 2 feet 9 inches, so as to be completely covered by the blanket. The frame may be made of round sticks, 1 inch and 1¹/₂ inch in diameter, in the following manner:

For the bottom the two end-sticks are 2 feet 9 inches long, and the side-pieces 3 feet 9 inches long. They are connected by boring a ¹/₂-inch hole through the end-pieces, and into the ends of the side-pieces, into which pins are driven. The top is formed in the same manner, and both top and bottom of 1¹/₂-inch sticks. The side-pieces of the bottom, and the top and bottom frames are connected by 1-inch round sticks inserted in ¹/₂-inch holes, in the same manner as the upright pieces are fastened in a chair. To keep the frame from falling apart, loops of cord are passed from top to bottom, and from side to side, and twisted with a stick. The rubber blanket is then spread upon the ground, the frame placed upon it, the sides and eyes turned up and lashed to the top rail by twine passed through the eyelets. Loops of cord are passed over these projecting ends, and twisted with a stick, which binds the parts together. One of these boats having a horizontal area of 11 square feet, would require 687 pounds to sink it 1 foot, and the average weight of a man would displace less than 4 inches.

In using these blanket-boats it will be convenient to lash several together, side by side, upon which soldiers can be transported. The float can be paddled or a rope may be stretched across, supported by floats, and the men can pull themselves across. If used for cavalry, some of the men can hold the bridles of the horses, while the others can pull, paddle, or pole across the stream, the saddles being placed in the boats. The frames are abandoned, or used for fuel, when the army has crossed over.

Several of these boats lashed together, and covered with poles, would form a raft on which wagons could be carried over; but for artillery, rafts of wagon-bodies, or something possessing greater powers of flotation, should be employed. The bill of materials for the frame of a blanket-boat is: 4 end-pieces, 1¹/₂ inches round or square, 2 feet 9 inches long; 4 side-pieces, 1¹/₂ inches round or square, 3 feet 9 inches long; 30 uprights, 1 inch round or square, 1 foot long; 10 pieces across bottom, 1 inch round or square, 2 feet 9 inches long; 8 double pins, ¹/₂-inch in diameter, 3 inches long; 4 pieces of cord or strong twine, each 9 feet long; 6 pieces of cord or strong twine, each 3 feet long; 1 india-rubber blanket, 6 feet long, 4 feet 9 inches wide, with eyelet holes around all sides, not more than 6 inches apart, and 30 feet of twine to lash the blanket to the frame.

Blanketeers. A number of operators who, on March 30, 1817, met in St. Peter’s Field, near Manchester, England, many of them having blankets, rugs, or great-coats rolled up and fastened to their backs. This was termed the “blanket meeting.” They proceeded to march towards London, but were dispersed by the magistracy. It is stated that their object was to commence a general insurrection. Eventually the ringleaders had an interview with the cabinet ministers, and a better understanding between the working-classes and the government ensued.

Blasting. The displacement of earth or rock by the use of an explosive. One of the most important parts of the art of mining in its various branches of tunneling, shaft-boring, well-digging, submarine mining, etc. The explosive is ordinarily placed in a bore hole, but in submarine mining this is sometimes dispensed with when a high explosive like nitro-glycerine is used.

Blasting Powder. An explosive in the form of powder used for blasting. The most powerful blasting powders in common use are made by adding certain substances to nitro-glycerine, which, by absorbing it, reduce it to the form of powder, and thus render it comparatively safe against the shocks and jars of use. (See Giant Powder, Dynamite.) The term blasting powder is also specially applied to a powder analogous to gunpowder, but which contains sodium nitrate in place of potassium nitrate, or saltpetre.

Blaubeuren. A town of WÜrtemberg, on the Blau; here the French defeated the Austrians in 1800; the fortress was razed in 1806.

Blayle (anc. Blavia). A fortified seaport of France, in the department of Gironde, 20 miles north-northwest of Bordeaux. The Duchess de Berry was imprisoned in the citadel in 1833. This city was captured by the French, from the English, in 1339; the Protestants took possession of it in 1568, and the English tried in vain to take it in 1814.

Blazonry (from the German Blasen, “to blow”). The art of describing in technical language the objects or charges borne in a coat of arms, and the manner of arranging them on a shield. The term originated from the custom of blowing a trumpet to announce the arrival of a knight, or his entrance into the lists at a joust or tournament. The blast was answered by the heralds, who described aloud and explained the arms borne by the knight.

Blechstreifen, or Blechschienen (Ger.) (Les laisches, Fr.). Thin metal plates which the ancient Gauls placed upon the buff coats of infantry; they were placed between the buff and the lining.

Bleneau. A village of France, in the department of the Yonne, about 29 miles west-southwest of Auxerre, celebrated as the place where Turenne gained a victory over the Prince of CondÉ in 1652.

Blenheim (Ger. Blindheim). A village of Bavaria, 23 miles north-northwest of Augsburg, memorable in connection with Marlborough’s great victory over the French and Bavarians, August 13, 1704. The battle, though known in English history by the name of “Blenheim,” did not occur here, but at the neighboring village of HochstÄdt, by which name it is known to the French and Germans. The French and Bavarian army consisted of 56,000 men, commanded by Tallard, Marsin, and the Elector of Bavaria, and opposed to it was the allied army 52,000 strong, commanded by the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene. The loss of the French and Bavarians was estimated at from 30,000 to 40,000. Near here, also, in 1800, the French defeated the Austrians.

Bleus, Les (i.e. “The Blues”). A name given to the soldiers of the Republic, by the Royalists, during the wars of La VendÉe, on account of their uniform.

Blidah. A considerable town of Algeria, on the border of the Metidjah Plain; taken by the French in 1830, and permanently occupied by them since 1838.

Blieskastel. A small town of Rhenish Bavaria; near here, on November 19, 1793, 7000 Prussians and Saxons under Gen. Kalkreuth fought the French, about 20,000 strong, under Gen. Hoche, neither side gaining the victory. The Prussians held their ground without any great loss until dark, when, deeming their position untenable, they evacuated it during the night.

Blindage. A temporary bomb-proof or splinter-proof roofing, constructed of timber and the like, to give cover to magazines, batteries, hospitals, etc. See Blinds.

Blinds. In military affairs, are wooden frames, composed of four pieces, either flat or round, two of which are 6 feet long, and the others 3 or 4 feet, which serve as spars to fasten the two first together: the longest are pointed at both ends, and the two others are fastened towards the extremities of the former, at about 10 or 12 inches. Their use is to fix them either upright, or in a vertical position against the sides of the trenches or sap, to sustain the earth. Their points at the bottom serve to fix them in the earth, and those at the top to hold the fascines that are placed upon them; so that the sap or trench is formed into a kind of covered gallery, to secure the troops from stones and grenades.

Blind-shell. A shell, the bursting charge of which is exploded by the heat of impact. Used in modern ordnance against armor.

Blistered Steel. See Ordnance, Metals for.

Block. See Implements.

Blockade. In military art, is an operation for capturing an enemy’s town or fortress without a bombardment or regular siege. The attacking party throws up works on the neighboring heights and roads, and part of the besieging force remains under cover in villages, or in a temporary camp, ready to repel any sortie attempted by the besieged. The whole purpose in view is to prevent the besieged from receiving supplies of any kind, in order that, when food or ammunition is exhausted, they may be compelled to surrender. Fortresses situated on steep and rocky eminences, difficult to conquer by bombardment or assault, may often be reduced by blockade, because the roads or paths for the reception of supplies are few, and can be guarded by a small number of troops.

Blockade. In international law, is the means in time of war of rendering intercourse with an enemy’s port unlawful on the part of neutrals; and it is carried into effect by an armed force (ships of war), which blocks up and bars export or import to or from the place blockaded. To be valid, a blockade must be accompanied by actual investment of the place, and it may be more or less rigorous, either for the purpose of watching the operations of the enemy, or to cut off all excess of neutral vessels to that interdicted place. To be binding on neutrals, it ought to be shown that they have knowledge, or may be presumed to know of the blockade, for which reason a formal notification of the fact is usually made by the blockading power. The breach of blockade, which may be effected by coming out of a blockaded port, or going in, subjects the property so employed to confiscation. On the proclamation of peace, or from any political or belligerent cause, the continuance of the investment may cease to be necessary, and the blockade is then said to be raised. The blockading force then retires, and the port is open as before to all other nations. In the present century recourse has been had to this means of cutting off supplies from the enemy on several occasions. The Elbe was blockaded by Great Britain, 1803; the Baltic, by Denmark, 1848-49 and 1864; the Gulf of Finland by the allies, 1854; and the ports of the Southern States by President Lincoln, April 19, 1861.

Blockader. One who blockades.

Block Battery. In gunnery, a wooden battery for two or more small pieces, mounted on wheels, and movable from place to place; very ready to fire en barbette, in the galleries and casements, etc., where room is wanted.

Block-house. An edifice or structure of heavy timber or logs for military defense, having its sides loop-holed for musketry, and often an upper story projecting over the lower, or placed upon it diagonally, with projecting corners, to facilitate a firing downward, and in all directions; the sides and ends are sometimes much like a stockade, and the top covered with earth; there may also be a ditch around it. Formerly much used in Germany and America, and used extensively in the United States as a defense against Indians, and during the civil war, 1861-65, for the protection of important places on railroads, such as bridges, etc. If exposed to the fire of artillery, block-houses should be formed of double rows of logs 3 feet apart, with well-rammed earth between them.

Bloodhound. A name given to certain species of the dog, distinguished for their keenness of scent, and the persistency with which they follow the track of game. They have been frequently employed during wars to track partisans, and even in the American civil war, 1861-65, were employed by the Confederates to track Union prisoners who escaped from their prisons. In time of peace they are sometimes employed to hunt felons, fugitive slaves, etc. When they are thus employed they acquire a peculiarly bloodthirsty and ferocious character.

Bloreheath. In Staffordshire, England; here on September 23, 1459, the Earl of Salisbury and the Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians, whose leader, Lord Audley, was slain with many Cheshire gentlemen. A cross commemorates this conflict.

Bludgeon. A short stick, with one end loaded, or thicker and heavier than the other, used as an offensive weapon.

Blue-light. A composition, burning with a blue flame, used as a night signal in ships, or for military purposes. See Pyrotechny.

Blunderbuss. A short gun or fire-arm, with a large bore, capable of holding a number of balls, and intended to do execution without exact aim.

Blyde, Bly, or Blude (Ger.). A kind of a war machine which was used in ancient times to throw stones; some authors compare it to the catapult. In the year 1585, at the siege of the castle of Rucklingen, Albert, duke of Saxony and LÜneburg, was killed by a stone thrown by a blyde.

Board of Officers. A number of officers assembled by military authority for the transaction of business.

Board of Ordnance. A government department, which formerly had the management of all affairs relating to the artillery and engineering corps of the British army. This board was abolished after the Crimean war.

Board, Pointing. In gunnery, this is a piece of wood 1 foot long, 2 or 3 inches wide, and 1 inch thick, having a notch cut in the middle of one side to fit on the stake, and graduated into equal divisions from its middle. When not in use the pointing cord may be wound on it. This board is used for directing mortars.

Boards of Examination. In the army, are instituted to determine upon appointments in regiments, and for appointments and promotion in the medical staff, engineer corps, and ordnance department. They are composed of army officers.

Boards of Survey. In the army, are convened for the purpose of fixing the responsibility for public property lost, damaged, or destroyed, of ascertaining what articles of public property may have been lost or abstracted whenever a soldier deserts, and of taking an inventory of the public property in charge of a deceased officer.

Boats, Blanket-. See Blanket-boats.

Bobruisk. A fortified town of Russia, in the government of Minsk. It is situated on the right bank of the Beresina, and is a station for the steam-packets navigating the Dnieper and Beresina. It was besieged ineffectually by the French in 1812.

Boccacci. The Italians have a peculiar kind of fire-arm which they call by this name; it is enlarged towards the muzzle in the shape of a trumpet. This gun is principally used by the Calabrians.

Bocchetta. A celebrated pass of the Apennines, the key of the route from Novi to Genoa. Redoubts were constructed here by the Imperialists in 1746 for the defense of the pass. The French traversed this pass when they entered Italy in 1796.

Bodegraven. A fortified town of Holland. On November 28, 1672, it was captured by the Duke of Luxemburg, who tarnished his victory by authorizing the town to be pillaged.

Bodkin. A dirk or dagger; a word still in use, though Johnson says it is the oldest acceptation of it.

Body. In the nomenclature of modern ordnance, is the part of the piece in rear of the trunnions.

Body. In the art of war, is a number of forces, horse or foot, united and marching under one commander. Main body of an army, sometimes means the troops encamped in the centre between the two wings, and generally consists of infantry. The main body on a march, signifies the whole of the army exclusive of the van- and rear-guards.

Body of the Place. The enceinte of a fortress, or main line of bastions and curtains, as distinguished from outworks.

Body-guard. A guard to protect or defend the person; a life-guard.

Boeotia. One of the political divisions of ancient Greece, lying between Attica and Megaris on the south, and Locris and Phocis on the north, and bounded on the other side by the Euboean Sea and the Corinthian Gulf. The tribes of greatest importance who appear as rulers of Boeotia in the heroic age were the MinyÆ and the Cadmeans, or Cadmeones,—the former dwelling at Orchomenus, and the latter at Thebes. About 60 years after the Trojan war the Boeotians, an Æolian people who had hitherto dwelt in Thessaly, having been expelled from that country, took possession of the land then called Cadmeis, to which they gave their own name of Boeotia. At the commencement of the historic period all the ancient tribes had disappeared, and all the cities were inhabited by Boeotians, the most important forming a political confederacy under the presidency of Thebes. After the battle of ChÆronea (338 B.C.) and the destruction of Thebes by Alexander three years after, Boeotia rapidly declined, and so low had it sunk in the time of the Romans, that of all its great cities there remained only two, which had dwindled into insignificant towns; of the other great cities nothing remained but their ruins and their names. The people are represented as a dull and heavy race, with little susceptibility and appreciation of intellectual pleasures.

Bohain. A small town of France, in the department of Aisne, which fell into the hands of the Imperialists in 1537, and was recaptured a short time afterwards.

Bohemia. A political and administrative division of the Austrian empire, bounded on the north by Saxony and Prussian Silesia, east by Prussia and Moravia, south by Lower Austria, and west by Bavaria. It derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic people who settled in the country about 600 B.C., and who were expelled by the Marcomanni in the time of Augustus. About the middle of the 6th century a numerous army of Czechs entered the country and subdued it. In 1310 the crown came to the house of Luxemburg, when Charles IV. united Bohemia with the German empire. After many vicissitudes it fell to the house of Austria in the person of the Archduke Ferdinand, brother of Charles V., and brother-in-law of Louis II., king of Hungary and Bohemia, who was killed in battle with the Turks near Mohacs, in 1526. In 1619 the Bohemians revolted against the house of Austria, and offered the crown to Frederick V., elector palatine, but Frederick was defeated at the battle of White Mountain in November, 1620, and the country has ever since remained under the sway of the emperors of Austria.

Bohmisch-Brod. A small town of Bohemia. Here the emperor Sigismund defeated the Hussites in 1434.

Boii. An ancient Celtic people who emigrated into Italy, where they waged war for several centuries against the Romans. They were defeated at the Vadimonian Lake, 283 B.C. They were finally subdued by Scipio Nasica, 191 B.C., and expelled front Italy. A portion of them founded the kingdom of Boiohemum (Bohemia), from which they were expelled by the Marcomanni in the time of Augustus.

Bois-le-Duc. A fortified city of Holland, capital of North Brabant; besieged and captured by the Dutch in 1629, and by the French in 1794; surrendered to the Prussian army, under Bulow, in January, 1814.

Bojano. A town in the province of Molise, Naples. The site of Bojano has been identified as that of the famous Samnite city of Bovianum, which played so conspicuous a part in the Samnite, Punic, and Social wars. Unsuccessfully besieged by the Romans in 314 B.C., it was taken by them in 311 B.C., and yielded immense spoils. Passing out of their hands, it was retaken by them in 305 B.C., and once more reverting to its original owners, was a third time captured by the Romans in 298 B.C. During the second Punic war it formed the headquarters of the Roman army on more than one occasion. In the great Social war the confederates made it their capital. It was surprised by Sulla, and retaken by the Marsic general, PompÆdius Silo. CÆsar established a military colony, and it afterwards throve under the Roman empire.

Bojeleschti. A village of Wallachia, where, in 1828, the Russians under Gen. von Geismar defeated the Turks, although the latter were superior in force. The Russians captured 7 guns, 24 ammunition- and 400 bread-wagons, 24 colors, and guns enough to arm 10,000 men. The Cossacks took 507 prisoners.

Bokhara. The ancient Sogdiana, a state of Central Asia in Independent Toorkistan. It was conquered by the Turks in the 6th century, by the Chinese in the 7th, and by the Arabs about 705. After many changes of masters it was subdued by the Uzbek Tartars, 1505. The British envoys, Col. Stoddart and Capt. Conolly, were murdered at Bokhara, the capital, by the khan in 1843. In the war with Russia, beginning in 1866, the emir’s army was defeated several times in May and subsequent months during that year. Peace was made July 11, 1867. The Russians were again victors, May 25, 1868, and occupied Samarcand the next day. Further conquests were made by the Russians, and Samarcand was secured by treaty November, 1868.

Bolade (Fr.). A weapon of the shape of a mace.

Bologna. The ancient Felsina, afterwards Bononia. A distinguished city of Italy, capital of the province of the same name; besieged and taken by Pope Julius II., 1506; taken by the French, 1796; by the Austrians, 1799; again by the French after the battle of Marengo, in 1800; restored to the Pope in 1815; a revolt suppressed by Austrian interference, 1831; rebellion in 1848; taken by the Austrians, May, 1849; provisional government formed June 15, 1859; Victor Emmanuel entered Bologna as sovereign, May 2, 1860.

Bolster. A block of wood on the carriage of a siege-gun, and on the mortar-wagon upon which the gun rests when moving it from place to place. The first is a breach-, the second a muzzle-bolster.

Bolster. A cushioned or padded part of a saddle.

Bolt. A pointed shaft or missile intended to be shot from a cross-bow or catapult; an arrow; a dart.

Bolt. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Nomenclature of Artillery Carriage.

Bolt, Palliser. A screw-bolt for securing armor plates. The end upon which the screw-thread is cut is larger than the shank.

Bomarsund. A strong fortress on one of the Aland isles in the Baltic Sea, taken by Sir Charles Napier, commander of the Baltic expedition, aided by the French military contingent under Gen. Baraguay d’Hilliers, August 16, 1854. The governor Bodisco and the garrison, about 2000 men, became prisoners, and the fortifications were destroyed.

Bomb. A hollow ball or shell of cast iron filled with explosive materials, and furnished with a fuze, which being ignited when the missile is discharged from a mortar or howitzer, burns during its flight, and causes it to explode with destructive violence when it falls. They are now commonly called shells.

Bombard. An ancient piece of ordnance, very short, thick, and wide at the bore. Some of the bombards used in the 15th century propelled stones weighing from 200 to 500 pounds each.

Bombard. To assault a town or fortress by projecting into it shells, etc., from mortars, in order to set fire to and destroy the houses, magazines, and other buildings.

Bombardelle (Fr.). A small bombard which was used in ancient times. In 1830, one was disinterred near Laon, France; it is the opinion of some that this bombardelle was manufactured during the reign of Charles VII., from 1436-40.

Bombardier. Is an artilleryman versed in that department of arms which relates especially to bombs and shells, mortars and howitzers, grenades and fuzes. In some foreign armies, the bombardiers form a separate corps. In the British service a bombardier is a non-commissioned grade in the artillery below that of corporal.

Bombardment. Is an attack upon a fortress or fortified town by means of shells, red-hot shot, carcasses, rockets, etc., to burn and destroy the buildings, and kill the inhabitants, and by this means compel its surrender. A bombardment requires little engineering skill; whereas a regular siege requires the aid of engineers to direct the attack against fortifications, guns, and soldiery, leaving the inhabitants and buildings untouched. It is generally regarded by military engineers as a cruel operation, and in modern times is mostly adopted as an adjunct to a siege. The stores required for a vigorous bombardment are immense. Thus, in 1759, Rodney threw 20,000 shells and carcasses into Havre; in 1792, the Duke of Saxe Teschen threw 36,000 shot and shell into Lille in 140 hours; in 1795, Pichegru threw 8000 shells into Mannheim in 16 hours; and in 1807, the English threw 11,000 shot and shell into Copenhagen in three days. Of the bombardments recorded in history may be mentioned that of Algiers by Duquesne in 1682-83, by the Venetians in 1784, and by the English in 1816; of Genoa in 1684; of Tripoli in 1685, 1728, and 1747; of Barcelona in 1691; of Brussels in 1694; of Toulon by the English in 1707; of Prague in 1744, 1759, and 1848; the bombardment of Lille by the Austrians in 1792; of Le Quesnoy, Breda, Lille, Lyons, Maestricht, and Mayence in 1793; of Menin, Valenciennes, and Ostend in 1794; of Copenhagen by the English in 1807; of Glogau, Breslau, and Schweidnitz by the French in 1806-7; of Saragossa by the French in 1808; of Flushing by the English in 1809; of Antwerp in 1832; of St. Jean d’Ulloa by the French in 1838; of Beyrout and St. Jean d’Acre by the English in 1840; of Barcelona by Espartero in 1842; of Mogador by the French in 1844; and of Odessa by the English and French fleets in 1854. Vera Cruz was bombarded by Gen. Scott for three days before its surrender, March 27, 1847. During the civil war recourse was had several times to this method of reducing fortified places. Among the most noted were the bombardment by Admiral Farragut for six days, April 18, 1862, of Forts Jackson and St. Philip (after which they surrendered); the bombardment of Fort Pulaski, Ga., by Gen. Gillmore, in April, 1862; the first bombardment of Fort Sumter in August, 1863, which effectually disabled the fort for immediate defense of Charleston harbor, although the works remained in the possession of the Confederates; and the second bombardment, which took place in October following, leaving the place in ruins. During the Franco-German war Strasburg was bombarded by the Prussians on August 18, 1870, and after an immense number of shells were thrown into it with ruinous effect the city surrendered on September 27. During the siege of Paris it was estimated that for two weeks in January, 1871, about 500 shells a day were thrown into the city, to the great destruction of life and property.

Bomb-chest. A chest filled with bombs, or only with gunpowder, placed under ground, to cause destruction by its explosion.

Bomb-proof. A term applied to military structures of such immense thickness and strength that bombs cannot penetrate them.

Bomb-shell. A hollow globe of iron, filled with powder, and thrown from a mortar; a bomb.

Bone, Bona, or Bonah. A fortified seaport town of Algeria, 85 miles northwest of Constantine; it is surrounded by a wall with square turrets which has four gates. Fort Cigogne is its chief defense; the French occupied this place in July, 1830.

Bonn. A town on the Rhine (the Roman Bonna) was in the electorate of Cologne; it has been frequently besieged, and was assigned to Prussia in 1814.

Bonnet. In fortification, is a small defense work constructed at salient angles of the glacis or larger works. It consists of two faces only, with a parapet 3 feet high by 10 or 12 feet broad. There is no ditch. A larger kind, with 3 salient angles, is called a priest’s bonnet, or bonnet À prÊtre. The use of the bonnet is to check the besiegers when they are attempting to make a lodgment.

Bonneval. A town of France, formerly fortified; it was partially destroyed by the English during the 15th century.

Bontchouk. A lance ornamented with a horse’s tail. When the kings of Poland led their armies, boutchouks were carried before them.

Boomerang. A very singular missile weapon used by the natives of Australia. It is made of hard wood, usually from 20 to 30 inches in length, from 2 to 3 inches wide, and ¹/₂ or ³/₄ of an inch thick. It is curved or bent in the middle at an angle of from 100° to 140°. When thrown from the hand with a quick rotary motion, it describes very remarkable curves, according to the shape of the instrument and the manner of throwing it, often moving nearly horizontally a long distance, then curving upward to a considerable height, and finally taking a retrograde direction, so as to fall near the place from which it was thrown, or even very far in the rear of it.

Booneville. A river-port, capital of Cooper Co., Mo., situated on the right bank of the Missouri River, 48 miles northwest of Jefferson City. During the civil war a Confederate force of about 2500 raw troops was here attacked by the Federals under Gen. Lyon, June 17, 1861. After a short conflict the Confederates were routed, abandoning their guns and camp equipage, which fell into the hands of the Union forces.

Boothauk. A fortified pass of Afghanistan, 12 miles to the east of Cabul. It runs for 5 miles between cliffs 500 feet high, and in some places only 50 yards wide.

Boots and Saddles. In cavalry tactics, a trumpet call which is the first signal for mounted drill, and for all other formations mounted; it is also the signal for the trumpeters to assemble.

Booty. Is the victors’ share in property captured from the vanquished. It is generally a military term, the word prize being more frequently used in the navy.

Bordeaux, or Bourdeaux (Southwest France). This city was sacked by the Visigoths, who were driven from it by Clovis; it was ravaged by the Saracens and Normans in the 8th and 9th centuries. It came into the possession of the Duke of Gascoyne in 911; in 1653 the city rebelled, but was taken by the royal troops; Bordeaux was entered by the victorious British army after the battle of Orthes, fought February 27, 1814.

Bordure, or Border. In heraldry, coats of arms are frequently surrounded with a bordure, the object of which is to show that the bearer is a cadet of the house whose arms he carries. Its character often has reference to the profession of the bearer; thus a bordure embattled is granted to a soldier, and a bordure ermine to a lawyer.

Bore. Of a piece of ordnance includes all the part bored out, viz., the cylinder, the chamber (if there is one), and the conical or spherical surface connecting them.

Borghetto. A town of Italy, on the Mincio, 15 miles southwest of Verona; it has a castle and a vast fortified causeway. The French here defeated the Austrians in 1796.

Borgo Forte. A town of Italy, in Lombardy, on the Po, 7 miles south of Mantua. The Austrians were here defeated by the French in 1796.

Bori. A Turkish term for military trumpets.

Boring Cannon. See Ordnance, Construction of.

Borissov. A town of Russia, on the left bank of the Berezina. A conflict took place here November 23, 1812, between the French and Russians; near this town, at the village of Studienka, the disastrous passage of Berezina was effected by the French army, November 26-27, 1812.

Bormann-fuze. A fuze which is used for spherical case-shot. The fuze-case is made of metal (a composition of lead and tin), and consists of a short cylinder, having at one end a horseshoe-shaped indentation, one end only of which communicates with the magazine of the fuze placed in the centre by a channel filled with rifle powder. This horseshoe indentation extends nearly to the other end of the cylinder, a thin layer of the metal only intervening. This is graduated on the outside into equal parts representing seconds and quarter-seconds. In the bottom of this channel a smooth layer of the composition is placed, with a piece of wick or yarn underneath it. On this is placed a piece of metal, the cross-section of which is wedge-shaped, and this, by machinery, is pressed down upon the composition, sealing it hermetically. The cylindrical opening is filled with musket powder and covered with a sheet of tin, which is soldered, closing the magazine from the external air. Before using the fuze several holes are punched through this sheet of tin, to allow the flame to enter the shell. On the side of the fuze the thread of a screw is cut which fits into one cut on the inside of the fuze-hole, and the fuze is screwed into the shell with a wrench. The thin layer of metal over the composition is cut through with a gouge or chisel, or even a penknife, at the interval marked with the number of seconds which we wish the fuze to burn. To prevent the metal of this fuze, which is soft, from being driven into the shell by the explosive force of the charge, a circular piece of iron, with a hole through its centre, and the thread of a screw on the outside, is screwed into the fuze-hole before the fuze is inserted. The most important advantage of this fuze is, that the shells can be loaded, all ready for use, and remain so any length of time, perfectly safe from explosion, as the fuze can be screwed into its place, and the composition never exposed to external fire until the metal is cut through.

Borneo. An island in the Indian Ocean, the largest in the world except Australia; discovered by the Portuguese about 1520; the pirates of this island were several times chastised by the British government; incorporated with the British empire, December 2, 1846.

Bornhoevede. A village of Holstein, where a battle was fought on July 22, 1227, between Woldemar II., king of Denmark, and Adolphus IV. of Holstein; the Danes were totally defeated.

Borodino. A Russian village on the Moskwa, near which a sanguinary battle was fought, September 7, 1812, between the French under Napoleon, and the Russians under Kootoosof, 240,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory; but the Russians retreated, leaving Moscow, which the French entered September 14. The French name it the battle of Moskwa, and it gave Marshal Ney his title of Prince of Moskwa.

Boroughbridge. A town in Yorkshire, England, the site of a battle between the Earls of Hereford and Lancaster and Edward II., March 16, 1322. The latter at the head of 30,000 men pressed Lancaster so closely that he had not time to collect his troops together in sufficient force, and being defeated and made prisoner, was led, mounted on a lean horse, to an eminence near Pontefract, and beheaded by a Londoner.

Boscobel. Near Donington, Shropshire, England, where Charles II. concealed himself after his defeat at Worcester.

Bosnia. In European Turkey, formerly part of Pannonia, was governed by chiefs till a brother-in-law of Louis, king of Hungary, was made king, 1376. He was defeated by the Turks in 1389, and became their vassal. Bosnia was annexed to the Ottoman empire in 1522. Many efforts have been made by the Bosnians to recover their independence; they rebelled in 1849, and were subdued by Omar Pasha in 1851.

Bosniaken. Formerly light cavalry of the Prussians, resembling the present Uhlans. Frederick I. formed this cavalry in 1745.

Bosphorus, or Bosporus, Thracian (now Strait of Constantinople). The ancient name of the strait which connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora. Darius Hystaspes threw a bridge of boats over this strait when about to invade Greece, 493 B.C.

Bosporus. The country on both sides of the Bosporus Cimmerius, or Strait of YenikalÉ, formed in ancient times the kingdom of Bosporus. The Scythians conquered Bosporus, 285 B.C.; conquered by Mithridates VI., 80 B.C.; conquered by CÆsar, 47 B.C.; Polemon conquered Bosporus, 14 B.C. A list of obscure kings given by some writers ends with Sauromates VII., 344.

Boss. The apex of a shield.

Bosse, Bosse À Feu (Fr.). A term used in the French artillery to express a glass bottle which is very thin, contains 4 or 5 pounds of powder, and round the neck of which 4 or 5 matches are hung after it has been well corked. A cord 2 or 3 feet in length is tied to the bottle, which serves to throw it. The instant the bottle breaks the powder catches fire, and everything within the immediate effects of the explosion is destroyed.

Bostanji. The first Turkish foot-guards, about 12,000 strong; they guard the imperial castles and accompany the sultans to the field. They were originally employed as gardeners, guards for the seraglio, etc. Their number is now greatly reduced.

Boston. A city and capital of Massachusetts, situated on the west side of Massachusetts Bay, at the mouth of Charles River. It was built about 1627. Here originated that resistance to the British authorities which led to American independence. The act of Parliament laying duties on tea, papers, colors, etc. (passed June, 1767), so excited the indignation of the citizens of Boston, that they destroyed several hundred chests of tea, December 16, 1773. Boston seaport was shut by the English Parliament, until restitution should be made to the East India Company for the tea lost, March 25, 1774. The town was besieged by the British next year, and 400 houses were destroyed. A battle between the royalist and independent troops, in which the latter were defeated, took place June 17, 1775; the city was evacuated by the king’s troops, April, 1776. The inhabitants were very zealous against slavery in 1861.

Boston Massacre. A name popularly given to a disturbance which occurred in the streets of Boston on the evening of March 5, 1770, when a sergeant’s guard belonging to the British garrison fired upon a crowd of people who were surrounding them and pelting them with snowballs, and killed 3 men besides wounding several others. The leader of the townspeople was a black man named Crispus Attucks. The affair is of historical importance, as it prepared the minds of men for the Revolutionary struggle which followed.

Bostra, or Bozrah. A city of Arabia, in an oasis of the Syrian Desert, 76 miles south of Damascus; it was besieged, captured, and sacked by the Saracens, who were commanded by Khaled.

Bosworth Field. In Leicestershire, England, the site of the thirteenth and last battle between the houses of York and Lancaster, August 22, 1485, when Richard III. was defeated and slain by the Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII. Sir William Stanley at a critical moment changed sides, and thus caused the loss of the battle. It is said that Henry was crowned on the spot with the crown of Richard found in a hawthorn bush near the field.

Bothwell Bridge. In Lanarkshire, Scotland. The Scotch Covenanters, who took up arms against the intolerant government of Charles II., and defeated the celebrated Claverhouse at Drumclog, June 1, 1679, were totally routed at Bothwell Bridge, June 22, 1679, by the Earl of Monmouth, and many persons were tortured and executed.

BotonÉ, or Bottony. In heraldry, a cross-botonÉ is a cross of which the ends are in the form of buds or buttons.

Bottle Cartridge. See Cartridge, Bottle.

Bottoming. The foundation of a roadbed.

Botzen, or Bolzana (anc. Pons Drusi). The capital of the circle of Etsch in Tyrol. This town was captured by the French in 1809.

Boucanier (Fr.). A long, heavy musket, used by the American buccaneers, and with such skill as to give the weapon a high degree of celebrity.

Bouchain. A small strongly fortified frontier town of France, in the department of the North; besieged and captured by Louis XIV. in 1673; by the Duke of Marlborough in 1711; retaken by the French in 1712, and ceded to France by the treaty of Utrecht.

Bouche (Fr.). Means the aperture or mouth of a piece of ordnance, that of a mortar, of the barrel of a musket, and of every species of fire-arms from which a ball or bullet is discharged.

Boufarik, or Boofareek. A place in Algeria where the French encountered the Arabs, October 2, 1832.

Bouge, or Boulge (Fr.). An ancient war-club, the head of which was loaded with lead, also called plombÉe.

Bougiah (anc. SalvÆ). A seaport town of Algeria, which was captured by the French, October 19, 1833, and successfully defended against the Arabs, August 25, 1842.

Bouillon (Belgium). Formerly a duchy, was sold by Godfrey, its ruler, to Albert, bishop of LiÈge, to obtain funds for the crusade, 1095; it was seized by the French in 1672, and held by them till 1815, when it was given to the king of the Netherlands, as duke of Luxemburg. It was awarded to Belgium after the revolution of 1830.

Boulaf. A kind of baton or very short mace, formerly used by the Polish generals.

Boulak, or Boolak. A town of Lower Egypt, on the right bank of the Nile; burned by the French in 1799; since rebuilt by Mohammed Ali.

Boulanger Chronograph. See Chronoscopes.

Boulanger Telemeter. See Range Finders.

Boulevard (Fr.). An ancient bastion, bulwark, or rampart.

Boulogne. A seaport in Picardy, Northern France; was taken by the British under Henry VIII., September 14, 1544, but restored at the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked this city, disabling 10 vessels and sinking 5, August 3, 1801; in another attempt he was repulsed with great loss. In 1804, Bonaparte assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors, to invade England; it is supposed that this French armament served merely for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the invasion. Sir Sidney Smith unsuccessfully attempted to burn the flotilla with fire-machines called catamarans, October 2, 1804. Congreve rockets were used in another attack, and they set the town on fire, October 8, 1806. The army was removed on the breaking out of the war with Austria in 1805. Louis Napoleon, afterwards emperor, made a descent here with about 50 followers, August 6, 1840, without success.

Bounty. A premium offered or given to induce men to enlist into the public service.

Bourbon, Isle of (in the Indian Ocean). Discovered by the Portuguese about 1545. The French here formed a colony in 1653 (according to others, 1642, 1646, 1649). In 1810, after a gallant resistance, it fell into the hands of the British, who retained it till the general peace, 1814. In 1815, before the downfall of Napoleon, it was once more besieged by the English, and along with the Mauritius again fell into their hands. After the general pacification of Europe, Bourbon was restored to France, in whose possession it now is; but the adjoining island has since been retained by its English conquerors.

Bourdonnante (Fr.). A name formerly given to a kind of bombard of a heavy caliber.

Bourg-en-Bresse. A town of France, capital of the department of Ain. The town was captured by the allies in 1814.

Bourges. The capital of the department of the Cher, in France; captured by CÆsar, 52 B.C.; destroyed by Chilperic, 583; carried by assault by Pepin, 762; sustained a siege during the reign of Charles VII., in 1415; captured by the Protestants, 1562; by Henry IV., 1594; by the Protestants, 1615, and by Marshal Matignon in 1616.

Bourguignote, or Bourgignotte (Fr.). A helmet worn by the Burgundians, from whom it was named. It was of polished iron, with a visor. Under Louis XIV. their head-dress was changed to a kind of bonnet.

Bourlette (Fr.). In antiquity, a mace which was garnished with iron points.

Bournous, Burnoose, or Burnos. A kind of cloak or overcoat, used by the Arabs, and which constitutes a part of the military clothing of some corps of the French army.

Bouton, or Boutoou (Fr.). A kind of war-club, formerly used by the Caribs of the Antilles.

Bovianum (now Bojano). A town of Italy, 10 miles southwest of Campobasso. It was sacked by the Romans in 311, 305, and 298 B.C. During the second Punic war it was several times the headquarters of the Roman army.

Bouvines (Northern France). The site of a desperate battle, July 27, 1214, in which Philip Augustus of France was victorious over the emperor Otho and his allies, consisting of more than 150,000 men. The Counts of Flanders and Boulogne were taken prisoners.

Bow. A weapon made of a strip of wood, or other elastic material, with a cord connecting the two ends, by means of which, when drawn back and suffered to return, an arrow is propelled.

Bow, Cross. An ancient weapon of offense of the 11th century. Philip II., surnamed the Conqueror, introduced cross-bows into France. In this reign Richard I. of England was killed by a cross-bow at the siege of Chalus.

Bowie-knife. A knife from 10 to 15 inches long, and about 2 inches broad, worn as a weapon in the Southern and Southwestern States of the United States,—so named from its inventor, Col. James Bowie.

Bowman. A man who uses a bow; an archer.

Bow-shot. The space which an arrow may pass when shot from a bow.

Bowstring. The string of a bow. Also a string used by the Turks for strangling offenders.

Bowyer. The man who made or repaired the military bows was so called.

Boxer-cartridge. The metallic cartridge used in the service rifle of England. See Cartridge.

Boxtel (in Dutch Brabant). Here the British and allied armies, commanded by the Duke of York, were defeated by the French republicans, who took 2000 prisoners and 8 pieces of cannon, September 17, 1794.

Box Pontons. See Pontons.

Boyaca. A village of the republic of New Granada, South America, celebrated for the victory gained by Bolivar over the Spaniards, August 7, 1819, which secured the independence of Colombia.

Boyau. In military engineering, is a winding zigzag or trench, made by besiegers to enable them to approach a town or fortified place under cover. These trenches are also called zigzags, or approaches.

Boyne. A river in Kildare, Ireland, near which William III. defeated his father-in-law, James II., July 1, 1690. The latter lost 1500 (out of 30,000) men; the Protestant army lost about a third of that number (out of 30,000). James fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to France. The Duke of SchÖmberg was killed, shot by mistake by his own soldiers as he was crossing the river.

BrabanÇons (Fr.). Soldiers of fortune, adventurers, freebooters of Brabant, who, during the Middle Ages, hired their services to those chiefs who paid them best.

Bracelet. In ancient times, a piece of defensive armor for the arm; a part of a coat of mail.

Bracket. The cheek of a mortar-carriage, made of strong plank.

BraconniÈre, or BragonniÈre (Fr.). In antiquity, a mail-armor, of the shape of a petticoat, which was attached to the cuirass, and reached from the hips to the middle of the thigh, and sometimes below the knee.

Braga (anc. Bracara Augusta). The capital of the province of Minho, in Portugal; it is fortified and defended by a citadel. The Suevi were here vanquished by the Goths in 585.

Brailoff, Brahilow, or Ibraila. A fortified town and the principal port of Wallachia, European Turkey. In 1770 the town was taken by the Russians, and almost razed to the ground; rebuilt, and again taken by the Russians in 1828, after a brave defense. It was restored to Turkey by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. During the war of 1854-56, it was occupied by Russian troops.

Brake. That part of the carriage of a movable battery or engine which enables it to turn.

Brake. An ancient engine of war analogous to the cross-bow and balista.

Bramham. In Yorkshire, England; near here the Earl of Northumberland and Lord Bardolf were defeated and slain by Sir Thomas Rokeby, the general of Henry IV., February 19, 1408; and Fairfax was defeated by the royalists under the Duke of Newcastle, March 29, 1643.

Brand. The Anglo-Saxon for a burnished sword.

Brandenburg. A city in Prussia, founded by the Slavonians. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, after defeating the Slavonians, fortified Brandenburg, 926, as a rampart against the Huns, and bestowed the government on Sigefroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of Margrave, or protector of the marches or frontiers. Occupied by the French, October 25, 1806.

Branding. Was a mode of punishment, in nearly all armies, inflicted on soldiers who were convicted of the crime of desertion,—the branding or marking being with ink, or other similar preparation. This practice is now discontinued in the American, and several European armies.

Brandschwaermer (Ger.). A small rocket which contained a bullet; it was fired out of a gun and used for the purpose of setting fire to straw-thatched buildings.

Brandywine. A river in Pennsylvania and Delaware, near which a battle took place between the British and Americans, in which the latter (after a day’s fight) were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell into the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777.

Brass. See Bronze.

Brassar. A piece of defensive armor for the arm.

Brassart. In plate-armor, joined plates of steel which protected the upper part of the arm, from the elbow to the shoulder. When the front of the arm only was shielded, the pieces were called demi-brassarts.

Brasset. A casque or head-piece of armor.

Braunau. A town of Bohemia, Austria; captured by the French, October 28, 1805.

Bray. A small town in the department of Seine-et-Marne, France; it was occupied by the allies, February 12, 1814.

Brazil. An empire in South America, was discovered by Vincent Pinzon in February, and Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, driven upon its coasts by a tempest, in 1500. The French having seized Portugal in 1807, the royal family and nobles embarked for Brazil, and landed March 7, 1808. Brazil declared war against Uruguay in February, 1865; entered into a treaty with Uruguay and the Argentine Republic against Paraguay, governed by Lopez, in May, 1865, and war was waged with varying results up to 1870.

Breach. Rupture made in a fortification to facilitate the assault. The operation by which the opening is produced is called breaching, and the guns used for this purpose are breaching batteries. To repair a breach, is to stop or fill up the gap with gabions, fascines, etc., and prevent the assault. To fortify a breach, is to render it inaccessible by means of chevaux-de-frise, crow’s feet, etc. To make a lodgment in the breach. After the besieged are driven away, the besiegers secure themselves against any future attack in the breach. To clear the breach, that is, to remove the ruins, that it may be better defended.

Breach of Arrest. See Appendix, Articles of War, 65.

Bread and Water. A diet used as a military punishment.

Break Ground. Is to commence the siege of a place by opening trenches, etc.

Breast-height. In fortification, the interior slope of a parapet.

Breastplate. A plate worn upon the breast as a part of defensive armor.

Breastwork. In fortification, a defensive work breast-high, hastily thrown up, of earth or other material.

Brechin. A place in Scotland; sustained a siege against the army of Edward III., 1333. The battle of Brechin was fought between the Earls of Huntly and Crawford; the latter was defeated, 1452.

Breech. In ordnance, is the mass of solid metal behind the bottom of the bore, extending to the cascabel. The base of the breech is its rear surface.

Breech-block. The block of metal which closes the bore in breech-loading arms.

Breech-loader. A fire-arm that receives its load at the breech.

Breech-loading. Receiving the charge at the breech instead of the muzzle. A feature of modern small-arms. The principle, however, is very old, as some of the earliest guns were breech-loaders. A gun of the time of Henry VIII. still extant is substantially the same as the modern Snider. Puckle’s revolver of 1718 was mounted on a tripod, and was very much like the Gatling gun in its general features. The first American patent was to Thornton & Hall, of Massachusetts, 1811. These guns were extensively issued to U.S. troops. There is a specimen in the West Point Museum. Prior to 1861 the best known breech-loading small-arms were Sharps’, Burnside’s, Maynard’s, Merrill’s, and Spencer’s. See Small-arms.

In modern times the breech-loading principle for heavy ordnance has gained and lost favor at different epochs. On the continent of Europe it is generally accepted. Italy, however, has committed itself in the largest calibers to the enormous 100-ton muzzle-loaders of Sir William Armstrong. The same inventor introduced his breech-loading field-piece in England about 1850. His principle was approved and adopted for various calibers about 1858, but partial failures in his system led to an investigation by a committee of the House of Commons, 1862-63, and after a tedious discussion, the breech-loading principle was officially discarded (1866), though many of the guns were retained in the service. The successful application of hydraulic machinery in handling and loading heavy guns (1876) confirmed the government in its choice of muzzle-loaders. The difficulty of muzzle-loading in a turret and the impossibility of employing the great length of bore necessary to obtain the best results was, up to this time, the strong argument in favor of breech-loaders. Loading by hydraulic machinery from beneath the deck through a trap-door outside the turret obviated these objections to muzzle-loaders, and gave the gunners ample protection by closing the port, thus placing these guns for the time being on a par with breech-loaders. The bursting of the 38-ton gun on the “Thunderer” (1878), however, which has been generally attributed to double loading, has shaken confidence in hydraulic ramming, and now there is a strong current in favor of a return to breech-loaders. The splendid performance of Krupp guns on the practice-ground at Meppen, 1879, and the numerous misfortunes which have recently befallen the Woolwich and Elswick systems, have doubtless had their weight in this change of opinion.

Breech Mechanism. The mechanism used for opening and closing the breech of a fire-arm and securing it against the escape of the gas. In small-arms this is readily accomplished. The use of the metallic cartridge-case renders any special gas-check unnecessary, as the case itself by being expanded against the walls of the chamber serves the purpose. The various mechanisms used in small-arms have been classified as follows: 1st, Fixed chamber; 2d, Movable chamber. The second class is now obsolete. The fixed chamber class is subdivided into—1st, Barrel moves; 2d, Breech-block moves. The first class comprises many of the shot-guns in use, the second, the best known of military arms. Under this latter class are the following subdivisions: 1st, Sliding block; 2d, Sliding and rotating; 3d, Rotating about an axis. We find excellent guns under each of these classes which are further subdivided as to the direction of the motions. The Sharps’ may be taken as typical of the first of these classes, the Hotchkiss magazine gun of the second, and the Springfield of the third.

A similar classification may be made for breech-loading devices in heavy ordnance, but the problem here is not so simple. The pressure is much greater, the masses of metal much larger, and the cartridge must be used without a case to check the gas. Breech-loaders were impossible until the problem of checking the gas had been solved. The inventor of the first successful gas-check was an American, L. W. Broadwell, now residing abroad. The term Broadwell ring has been applied to all similar devices. This is a steel ring which fits in a recess reamed out in the rear of the chamber and abutting upon the breech-block. The inside of the ring is so shaped as to be pressed by the gas outwards and backwards, thus closing both the space outside of the ring and between it and the block. Broadwell is also the inventor of a breech mechanism which, with a few modifications, is that used by Krupp for all of his guns. The breech-block slides horizontally through a rectangular slot in rear of the chamber. In the Armstrong breech-loader, the block called the vent-piece is taken out and put in through a rectangular orifice on the top of the gun. It is locked in place by a hollow breech-screw. The French use a breech-screw with the threads cut away in longitudinal rows. The female-screw being similarly arranged, a very small rotation enables it to be entirely withdrawn. Among American devices are Thompson’s, a breech-block which rolls to the side and opens or closes the bore. Sutcliffe’s, a cylindrical block, with its axis parallel to the one hanging on a pin projecting from the front periphery of the hollow screw. The block is raised and locked by turning the screw, and falls into a recess below when the screw is half turned back. Mann’s, in which the gun rotates upwards about the trunnions something like a shot-gun, and many others.

Breech-pin. A strong plug firmly screwed in at the breech of a musket or other fire-arm.

Breech-sight. In gunnery, an instrument having a graduated scale of tangents by means of which any elevation may be given to a piece. Correctly speaking, the breech-sight gives the angle made by the line of aim or sight with the axis of the piece. The base of the breech-sight is a plate of brass curved to fit the base-ring or line, the scale and slides are similar to those of the pendulum hausse except that a hole is made in the plate, instead of a notch to sight through. Breech-sights are graduated for no disparts, a front-sight equal in height to the dispart being screwed into the top of the muzzle; in the Rodman guns, into the seat provided for the purpose between the trunnions. Breech-sights are also frequently held in sockets, and when the front-sight is placed on the trunnion, the socket is on the side of the breech. The pendulum hausse (see Hausse) is a breech-sight used for field-guns to correct the error arising from difference of level in the wheels of the carriage. The Quinan breech-sight (invented by Lieut. W. R. Quinan, 4th U.S. Artillery) is an improvement on the pendulum hausse. It is fixed in a socket on the right side of the breech. The scale has a spirit-level, by means of which it is made vertical. The front sight is a short tube with cross-hairs fixed in it. The advantages claimed over the hausse are increased steadiness and accuracy.

Bregenz, or Bregentz. A town of Tyrol, Austria; it was occupied by the French in 1799.

Breisach, Old. A very old town of the grand duchy of Baden; taken by Ariovistus when he invaded Gaul. Being regarded as the key to the west of Germany, it was a prominent scene of action during the Thirty Years’ War, at the conclusion of which it was ceded to the French. During the next century it frequently changed masters, now belonging to France and now to Austria; its fortifications were destroyed by the French in 1744, and during the war of the Revolution, in 1793, part of the town was burned by them. In 1806 the French handed it over to the house of Baden.

Breitenfeld. A village and manor of Saxony, about 5 miles north of Leipsic. It is historically remarkable for three battles, fought on a plain in its neighborhood. The first of these, between the Swedes and the Imperialists, which was fought September 7, 1631, was of the highest importance to Europe, as it secured the permanency of Protestantism and the freedom of Germany. Tilly’s pride had reached its highest point after the fall of Magdeburg, which took place on May 20, 1631; and in the early part of September of the same year he advanced against the Saxons with an army of about 40,000 men for the purpose of forcing the elector, John George I., into an alliance with the emperor. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, joined by the Saxons, advanced towards Leipsic, where Tilly lay, the latter advancing into the plain of Breitenfeld. The Imperial forces were completely defeated, and their three most distinguished generals, Tilly, Pappenheim, and FÜrstenberg, wounded. The second battle which Breitenfeld witnessed again, resulted in the triumph of Swedish valor: it took place on October 23, 1642, between the Swedes, headed by Torstenson, one of the pupils of Gustavus, who had invested Leipsic, and the Archduke Leopold, with Gen. Piccolomini, who were advancing from Dresden to its relief. The Swedes gained a complete victory over the Imperialists, who fled into Bohemia, leaving behind them 46 cannon, 121 flags, 69 standards, and the whole of their baggage. The third battle of which Breitenfeld was the scene was fought on October 16-18, 1813. See Leipsic.

Bremen (Northern Germany). Said to have been founded in 788; in 1648 it was erected into a duchy and held by Sweden till 1712; it was taken possession of by Denmark in 1731, by whom it was ceded to Hanover; it was taken by the French in 1757, who were expelled by the Hanoverians in 1758; annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810; its independence restored in 1813; its old franchises in 1815 It became a member of the North German Confederation in 1866.

Brenneville (Northwest France). Here Henry I. of England defeated Louis VI. of France, who had embraced the cause of William Clinton, son of Robert, duke of Normandy, August 20, 1119.

Brenta. A river which rises in Tyrol and flows, after a course of 90 miles, into the Adriatic Sea, at Porto di Brondolo. On the banks of this river the French twice defeated the Austrians in 1796.

Brentford. A county town of Middlesex, England. Here Edmund Ironside defeated the Danes, May, 1016. It was taken by Charles I., after a sharp fight, November 12, 1642.

Brescelia, or Bregelia (anc. Brixellum). A town on the right bank of the Po, in North Italy. Here the emperor Otho put himself to death in 69. On May 20, 1427, an army under Duke Philip Maria Visconti, of Milan, was here defeated by an army sent against him by the republic of Venice, under Francis Carmagnola.

Brescia. A town in Northern Italy (the ancient Brixia), became important under the Lombards, and suffered by the wars of the Italian republics, being attached to Venice. It was taken by the French under Gaston de Foix in 1512, when it is said 40,000 of the inhabitants were massacred. It surrendered to the Austrian general Haynau, March 30, 1849, on severe terms; annexed to Sardinia in 1859.

Breslau. Capital of the province of Silesia, Prussia; it was burnt by the Mongols in 1241, and conquered by Frederick II. of Prussia in January, 1741. A fierce battle took place here between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under Prince Bevern, who was defeated November 22,1757. Breslau was taken, but was regained, December 21, the same year; besieged by the French, and surrendered to them January, 1807, and again in 1813.

Bressuire. A small town of France, department of Deux-SÈvres; it was fortified during the Middle Ages, and was captured from the English by the celebrated Du Guesclin in 1373; it was nearly destroyed during the wars of La VendÉe.

Brest. A seaport in Northwestern France; besieged by Julius CÆsar, 54 B.C.; possessed by the English in 1378; given up to the Duke of Brittany in 1390. Lord Berkeley and a British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. The magazine burnt to the value of some millions of pounds sterling, 1744; marine hospital, with 50 galley-slaves, burnt, in 1766; the magazine again destroyed by fire, July 10, 1784. England maintained a large blockading squadron off the harbor from 1793 to 1815, but with little injury to France. It is now a chief naval station of France, and from the fortifications and other vast works of late construction it is considered impregnable.

Bretigny, Peace of. Concluded with France, May 8, 1360, by which England retained Gascony and Guienne, and acquired other provinces; renounced her pretensions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; was to receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to release King John, long a prisoner. The treaty not being carried out, the king remained and died in London.

Breuci. A powerful people of Pannonia, near the confluence of the Savus and the Danube, took an active part in the insurrection of the Pannonians and Dalmatians against the Romans, 6 A.D.

Brevet. An honorary rank conferred upon an officer, for meritorious services, above the rank he holds in his own corps. In the U.S. army rank by brevet is conferred, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, for “gallant actions or meritorious services.” A brevet rank gives no right of command in the particular corps to which the officer brevetted belongs, and can be exercised only by special assignment of the President. Officers while so serving under assignment are said to have local rank (which see).

Brevet. To confer rank or title upon by brevet.

Brevetcy. The rank or condition of a brevet.

Bricole. An improved kind of traces used by the French in drawing and manoeuvring artillery; analogous to the old drag-rope, but having the addition of a leather strap or girdle with a buckle, to which the drag is affixed, and an iron ring and hook at the end to drag by.

Bridge. A structure usually of wood, stone, brick, or iron, erected over a river or other water-course, or over a ravine, railroad, etc., to make a continuous roadway from one bank to the other.

Bridge. In gunnery, two pieces of timber which go between the two transoms of a gun-carriage. Not used in the U.S. service.

Bridge, Flying. See Pontons.

Bridge, Trail. See Pontons.

Bridge, Train. See Equipage.

Bridge, Trestle. See Trestle Bridge.

Bridges. When a river is more than 4 feet in depth, or when its bottom is of mud or quicksand, recourse must be had either to ferrying by means of boats, rafts, etc., or to military bridges. The latter are always to be preferred when circumstances will permit their establishment.

Military bridges are composed of a roadway and its supports; the first consists of beams or balks reaching across the adjacent supports, and covered with plank called chess.

The supports, from which the bridge takes its name, may be either fixed, as trestles, gabions, carriages, piles, or floating, as pontons, boats of commerce, rafts, etc.

Ponton bridges are preferable to all others when a passage by main force or surprise is to be undertaken. They may be constructed on any stream of sufficient depth; they may be replaced by rafts when the velocity of the stream does not exceed 6 feet per second. In swifter currents the latter are unmanageable, drag their anchors, and are liable to destruction from floating bodies.

Trestle bridges may be constructed in rivers whose depth does not exceed 9 feet, and whose velocity is not more than 6 feet. They may be employed with advantage in rivers of moderate depth and gentle current, with hard, even bottoms. When the bed of the river is uneven the adjustment of the trestles to the bottom is very tedious, and if the current is rapid, almost impossible. When the bed is of mud or fine sand, the settlement of the legs is liable to be irregular.

Gabion bridges are used over marshes and shallow streams. They consist of gabions constructed in the ordinary way, and of a height necessary to give a level road; these are placed in rows perpendicular to the axis of the bridge, are filled with stones, or gravel, and are capped with a piece of timber on which the balks rest.

Pile bridges are superior in point of stability to all other military bridges, but requiring much labor and time in their construction; they are usually restricted to securing the communications in rear of the army.

Bridge-head. A fortification covering the extremity of a bridge nearest the enemy. The French term for the same is tÊte du pont.

Bridle. An instrument with which a horse is governed and restrained, consisting of a head-stall, a bit and reins, with other appendages, according to its particular form and uses.

Bridle. In gunnery, the piece in the interior of a gun-lock, which covers and holds in place the tumbler and sear, being itself held by the screws on which they turn.

Bridle, Arm Protect. The term for a guard used by the cavalry, which consists in having the sword-hilt above the helmet, the blade crossing the back of the head, with the point of the left shoulder, and the bridle-arm; its edge directed to the left and turned a little upwards, in order to bring the mounting in a proper direction to protect the hand.

Bridoon. The snaffle rein of a military bridle, which acts independently of the bit, at the pleasure of the rider.

Brieg. A town of Silesia, Prussia, about 27 miles from Breslau; it was taken by Frederick II., April 4, 1741; dismantled by the French in 1807.

Briel, Brielle, or The Brill. A fortified seaport town on the north side of the island of Voorne, Holland. It was the nucleus of the Dutch republic, having been taken from the Spaniards by William de la Marck in 1572. This event was the first act of open hostility to Philip II., and paved the way to the complete liberation of the country from a foreign yoke. Briel was the first town of Holland which, without extraneous aid, expelled the French in 1813. The celebrated admirals De Witt and Van Tromp were natives of this place.

Brienne, or Brienne le ChÂteau. A town of France, department of the Aube. It has a fine castle, but it is chiefly celebrated as the place where Napoleon received the rudiments of his military education, and where, in 1814, a bloody battle was fought between the French and the allied forces of Russia and Prussia.

Brier Creek. In Warren Co., Ga. An American force 2000 strong, under Gen. Ashe, was defeated on this creek by the English under Prevost, March 4, 1779.

Brigade. A body of troops, whether cavalry, artillery, or infantry, or a mixed command, consisting of two or more regiments, under the command of a brigadier-general. Two or more brigades constitute a division, commanded by a major-general; two or more divisions constitute an army corps, or corps d’armÉe, the largest body of troops in the organization of the U.S. army.

Brigade. To form into a brigade, or into brigades.

Brigade. In the British service the artillery is divided into brigades, which consist of seven batteries each, under the command of a colonel. The Household Brigade is composed of the Horse Guards, Life Guards, and Foot Guards.

Brigade-Inspector. An officer whose duty it is to inspect troops in companies before they are mustered into the service.

Brigade-Major. An officer appointed to assist the general commanding a brigade in all his duties.

Brigadier-General. An officer in rank next above a colonel and below a major-general. He commands a brigade; and this officer is sometimes called simply brigadier.

Brigand. A species of irregular foot soldiers, frequently mentioned by Froissart. From their plundering propensities comes the modern use of the term.

Brigandine, or Brigantine. A coat of mail, consisting of thin, jointed scales of plate, pliant and easy to the body.

Brigantes. The most powerful of the British tribes, inhabited the whole of the north of the island from the Abus (now Humber) to the Roman wall, with the exception of the southeast corner of Yorkshire. They were conquered by Petilius Cerealis in the reign of Vespasian. There was also a tribe of this name in the south of Ireland.

Brignais (anc. Priscinniacum). An ancient fortress in France, department of the Rhone; it was captured in 1361 by bodies of adventurers, called Grandes Compagnies. Prince Jacques de Bourbon made an effort to dislodge them, but was completely defeated, and died of wounds received upon this occasion.

Brihuega. A town of New Castile, Spain; it was formerly surrounded by walls, of which traces still exist. Here, in 1710, during the War of the Succession, the English general Stanhope, owing to the dilatoriness of his allies in affording him support, was defeated by the Duke of VendÔme, and compelled to surrender with all his force, amounting to about 5500 men.

Brindisi (anc. Brundisium). A fortified seaport of Italy, on a small bay of the Adriatic; it was the usual place of embarkation for Greece and the East; taken by the Romans from the Sallentines in 267 B.C., and was afterwards the principal naval station of the Romans on the Adriatic. During the civil war between CÆsar and Pompey, this place was invested by CÆsar in 49 B.C.

Brins d’Est (Fr.). Large sticks or poles resembling small pickets, with iron at each end. They were used to cross ditches, particularly in Flanders.

Brise-mur (Fr.). A heavy piece of ordnance which was used during the 15th century to batter down walls, etc.

Brissarthe. A village of France, department of Maine-et-Loire. Here the Normans were defeated in 886 by Robert the Strong.

Bristol (West England). Built by Brennus, a British prince, 380 B.C.; is mentioned in 430 as a fortified city; taken by the Earl of Gloucester in his defense of his sister Maud, the empress, against King Stephen, 1138; taken by Prince Rupert, 1643; by Cromwell, 1645.

Brisure. In fortification, any part of a rampart or parapet which deviates from the general direction.

Britain (called by the Romans Britannia, from the Celtic name Prydhain). The Celts, the ancestors of the Britons and modern Welsh, were the first inhabitants of Britain; it is referred to by Herodotus, 450 B.C.; invaded by Julius CÆsar, 55-54 B.C.; Aulus Plautus and Vespasian reduced South Britain, 47. Romans defeated by Boadicea; 70,000 slain, and London burnt; she is defeated by Suetonius; 80,000 slain, 61. Agricola, governor, conquers Anglesea, and overruns Britain in seven campaigns, and reforms the government, 78-84. He defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus; surrenders the island, 84. The Romans held sway in Britain down to about 420, soon after which time the Saxons invaded South Britain, and ultimately subdued it. It was merged into the kingdom of England about 829. See England.

Britain, Great. The name given in 1604 to England, Wales, and Scotland.

Briteste. A small town of France, in the old province of Guienne; besieged by the Duke of VendÔme in 1622, who was compelled to retreat, without accomplishing his object, after firing 2000 shots; he made five assaults and lost 1500 men.

British Legion. Raised by Lord John Hay, Colonel De Lacy Evans, and others, to assist the queen of Spain against the Carlists in 1835; defeated them at Hernani, May 5, 1836, and at St. Sebastian’s, October 1.

Brittany, or Bretagne (Northwest France). The ancient Armorica. Conquered by Julius CÆsar, 56 B.C. Brittany was formerly united to the monarchy, 1532; held by the Spaniards, 1591; recovered by Henry IV., 1594. The Bretons took part in the Vendean insurrection in 1791.

Brixham. A seaport town in the county of Devon, England. Here William III. (of Orange) landed in England on November 6, 1688.

Brizure, BrizÉ, or BrisÉ. Terms used in heraldry to indicate that a charge is bruised or broken.

Broad-axe. A military weapon used in ancient times.

Broadsword. Is a sword with a broad blade, for cutting only, not for stabbing, and therefore not sharp at the point like a sabre.

Broadwell Ring. A gas-check for use in heavy breech-loading guns, invented by L. W. Broadwell. See Breech Mechanism.

Brod (Slavonian). A military frontier fortress of Austria, on the Save, defended by a fort. Here Ziska defeated the emperor Sigismund in 1422.

Broke. Sentence of a court-martial depriving an officer of his commission, or a non-commissioned officer or warrant-officer of his warrant. Also said of a non-commissioned officer being reduced by order.

Brondolo. A fortified village of Northern Italy, on the Brenta-Nuova; it was formerly a flourishing town; destroyed by the Genoese in 1380.

Broni. A town of Redmont, in the province of Alessandria, about 11 miles southeast of Pavia. In its vicinity is the castle of Broni, celebrated in history as the place where Prince EugÈne obtained a victory over the French in 1703.

Bronnitza. A town of Russia, in the government of Novgorod, on the Masta. Here the Swedes defeated the Russians in 1614.

Bronze. See Ordnance, Metals for, Bronze.

Bronze. Gun-barrels are bronzed by acting upon them with the chloride or butter of antimony, or with hydrochloric or nitric acids, when the surface of the iron gets partially eaten into, and covered with a thin film of oxide, after which the gun-barrel is thoroughly cleaned, oiled, and burnished. A brownish shade is thus communicated to the barrel, which protects it from rust, and at the same time renders it less conspicuous to an enemy.

Brooke Gun. See Ordnance, Construction of.

Brooklyn. A city and seaport of the United States, at the extremity of Long Island, opposite New York City. In 1776 this part of Long Island was one of the principal localities of the war of independence. Here on August 27, 1776, was fought the first great battle of the Revolutionary war after the Declaration of Independence. The American army occupied Manhattan, Governor’s, and Long Islands, a large force being placed by Washington under the command of Gen. Greene in a fortified camp extending from Wallabout Bay to Gowanus Cove. Unfortunately, Gen. Greene was taken sick, and four days before the battle the command was given to Gen. Putnam. On August 22 the British forces under Lord Howe landed and encamped at the western point of Long Island. About midnight on the 26th the British attacked the American left, and about daybreak on the 27th the Hessians under Von Heister attacked the centre, and were met bravely by the American forces; but an important pass through the hills on their right, called the Jamaica Pass, being left unguarded, a select body of English troops poured through, followed by Percy and Cornwallis with the main army, and, attacking them from the flank and rear, drove the patriots in confusion with heavy loss. On the night of the 29th, Washington succeeded, under cover of a dense fog, in withdrawing all his troops from Brooklyn to New York, and finding it impossible to defend that city, he removed his forces to the heights of Harlem. During the civil war Brooklyn was not surpassed by any city in her zeal for the cause of the Union.

Brother Officers. Those of the same regiment.

Brother Soldier. See Soldier.

Brownbill. The ancient weapon of the English foot soldiers, resembling a battle-axe.

Browning. See Bronze.

Bruges. A city in Belgium. In the 7th century it was the capital of Flanders, and in the 13th and 14th centuries had become almost the commercial metropolis of the world. It suffered much through an insurrection in 1488, and the consequent repression. It was incorporated with France in 1794, with the Netherlands in 1814, and with Belgium in 1830.

Brumaire. A division of the year in the calendar of the French Republic. It is derived from the Latin bruma, “winter,” and included the time from October 23 to November 21. The celebrated 18th Brumaire, which witnessed the overthrow of the Directory and the establishment of the sway of Napoleon, corresponds with November 9, 1799, of the Gregorian calendar.

Brunanburg (supposed by some to be near Ford, Northumberland, England). Anlaf, with an army of Northmen from Ireland, and Constantine III., king of Scots, landed at the mouth of the Humber, and were defeated with very great slaughter at Brunanburg by Athelstan in 937.

Brunette, La. An ancient fortress of Piedmont; dismantled by the French in 1798.

BrÜnn. Capital of Moravia. Its citadel was blockaded by the Hungarians in 947; the town was besieged by the Swedes in 1645, and by the Prussians in 1742; entered by the French under Murat, November 18, 1805, and by the Prussians, July 13, 1866.

Brunswick. A city of Germany, the capital of a duchy of the same name. It was formerly fortified; besieged in 1761, and a combat took place under its walls in 1813.

Brunt. The troops who sustain the principal shock of the enemy in action are said to bear the brunt of the battle.

Bruttium (now Calabria Ultra). In Southern Italy; the Bruttians and Lucanians defeated and slew Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 326 B.C. They were conquered by Rome 277 B.C.

BrÜx, or Brix. A town of Bohemia, on the river Bila. Here the Prussians defeated the Austrians in 1759.

Bruyeres-sous-Laon. A town of France, in the department of the Aisne. It was captured and pillaged by the Normans in 882; sacked by the English in 1358 and 1373; Jean de Luxembourg took possession of it in 1433, and the Calvinists in 1567.

Brzesc Litewski. A fortified town of Russia, in the government of Grodno. Here the Russians defeated the Poles in 1794. The Poles were 13,000 strong, out of which 500 were taken prisoners, 300 escaped, and the remainder fell on the field of battle.

Buccellarii. An order of soldiery under the Greek emperors, appointed to guard and distribute the ammunition bread, though authors are somewhat divided as to their office and quality.

Bucephalus. The celebrated horse of Alexander the Great, which no one could ride except that monarch, and which is said to have carried Alexander through all his Indian campaigns. He died about 327 B.C., and Alexander built the city of Bucephala, on the Hydaspes, in his honor.

Bucharest. The capital of Wallachia; preliminaries of peace were ratified at this place between Russia and Turkey, May 28, 1812. The subsequent war between these powers altered many of the provisions of this treaty. Bucharest was occupied by the Russians, Turks, and Austrians successively in the Crimean war. The last quitted it in 1856.

Buck and Ball. A cartridge for small-arms. See Cartridge, Buck-and-Ball.

Buck-board. A simple four-wheeled vehicle, consisting of a board resting on the axle-trees, forming a spring seat by its elasticity.

Buckler. A kind of shield or piece of defensive armor, anciently used in war. It was often 4 feet long, and covered the whole body.

Buckshot. A small leaden bullet, weighing about 165 to the pound.

Buda, or Ofen. A free city of the Austrian empire, on the west bank of the Danube, opposite Pesth, and with it the capital of Hungary. It was taken by Charlemagne in 799; and sacked by Solyman II. after the battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 200,000 of his subjects carried away captives, 1526. Buda was sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hungary was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1541. Retaken by the Imperialists, under the Duke of Lorraine, and the Mohammedans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. It suffered much in 1848, and was entered without resistance by the Austrians, January 5, 1849. Here the emperor Francis Joseph was crowned king of Hungary, June 8, 1867. See Pesth.

Buderich. A town of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite Wesel. Here the Duke of Lorraine was defeated by the emperor Otho I. It was taken by the French in 1672; burned by the French in 1813.

Budge-barrel. A small barrel with only one head; on the other end a piece of leather is nailed, which is drawn together with a string, like a purse. It is used for carrying powder from the magazine to the battery, in siege or coast service.

Buena Vista. A celebrated battle-field of Mexico, situated about 90 miles southwest of Monterey and 7 miles from Saltillo, famous for the victory gained there by an American force not 5000 strong, under Gen. Zachary Taylor, over a Mexican army four times their number under Santa Anna, February 22-23, 1847. Gen. Taylor, on the way from Victoria to Monterey, having learned that Santa Anna was threatening him with an overwhelming force, decided to withdraw his troops from their camp at Agua Nueva to a position more favorable for withstanding a superior force, which had been selected a little south of the small village of Buena Vista, at a point where the road passed through a mountain gorge called Angostura. Accordingly, on the afternoon of February 21, the camp at Agua Nueva was broken up, and Santa Anna, believing the American forces were retreating, eagerly pursued them until he was drawn into their chosen position. After a useless summons to surrender, on the afternoon of the 22d the Mexicans opened the attack on the American left, but they made no impression, while they suffered severe loss. During the night the Mexicans occupied a position on the heights to the east of the American lines with the intention of forcing their left flank, and it was here that the fighting commenced on the 23d, and continued during the day with varying success, finally resulting in the repulse of the enemy. Meanwhile a force of Mexican cavalry had been detached to attack the American camp at Buena Vista, but was gallantly repulsed. The final attack was made against the American centre—where Gen. Taylor commanded in person—by Santa Anna himself, with his entire reserve, but he was met with such a deadly fire from the American batteries that he was obliged to draw off his much-diminished forces, and during the night he fell back to Agua Nueva. The American loss in killed and wounded was about 700; the Mexicans lost about 2000.

Buenos Ayres. A province of the Argentine Republic, with a capital of the same name. A British fleet and army took the city with slight resistance, June 27, 1806; retaken August 12, 1806. Gen. Whitelock and 8000 British entered Buenos Ayres, and were severely repulsed, July 5, 1807; independence of the province declared July 19, 1816; a prey to civil war for many years. It seceded from the Argentine Republic in 1853, and was reunited to it in June, 1860.

Buffalo. See Pack and Draught Animals.

Buffalora. A town of Italy, on the river Ticino. In its environs in 1636, the French and Spanish armies met in combat, in which the former were victorious. There is a bridge at this place crossing the Ticino, over which a division of the invading army of Austria marched, April 29, 1859. This was the first act of overt hostility in the war between Austria and Sardinia.

Buff Coat. A close military outer garment, with short sleeves, and laced tightly over the chest, made of buffalo-skin, or other thick and elastic material, worn by soldiers in the 17th century as a defensive covering.

Buffer, Pneumatic. See Air Cylinders.

Buffers. See Hurter.

Buff Jerkin. Originally a leathern waist-coat; afterwards one of a buff color, worn as an article of dress by sergeants and catchpoles; used also as a dress.

Buff Leather. A sort of leather prepared from the buffalo, which, dressed with oil, makes what is generally called buff-skin. In European armies, troopers’ breeches, shoulder-belts, and sword-belts are made of this leather.

Buff Stick. A wooden stick covered with buff leather, used by soldiers in cleaning their equipments.

Bugle-horn, or Bugle. The old Saxon horn, now used by all infantry regiments. By its soundings their manoeuvres are directed, either in advancing, skirmishing, or retreating.

Bugler. One who plays a bugle.

Built-up Guns. See Ordnance.

Bukors. Kettle-drums of the Swedish cavalry.

Bulgaria. Anciently Moesia, now part of European Turkey. The Bulgarians were a Slavonian tribe, who harassed the Eastern empire and Italy from 499 to 678, when they established a kingdom. They defeated Justinian II., 687; but were subdued, after several conflicts, by the emperor Basil in 1018. After defeating them in 1014, having taken 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrymen home. The kingdom was re-established in 1086; but after many changes, was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1396.

Bull. A fort which the English possessed in Canada, and which constituted one of their military depots; it was captured by the French, March 27, 1756.

Bulletin. A brief statement of facts respecting some passing events, as military operations, etc.

Bullet-mold. An implement containing a cavity of the proper shape into which lead is poured to form a bullet.

Bullet-proof. Capable of resisting the force of a bullet.

Bullets. Are projectiles of lead to be discharged from various kinds of small-arms. The first bullets used were round, and were designated by the number weighing one pound. The sizes employed were very large. Until quite recently the round ball still held its place with rifles and smooth-bores. Various devices were used for making it take the grooves of the rifle,—a guard-patch being among the best. (See Small-arms.) It was with this that the early settlers of America won their reputation as marksmen. Robins, in 1742, showed the superiority of the conical form, but it was not till about 1840 that round balls were generally discarded. The conical bullet was often used in grooves with an increasing twist, and gave wonderfully accurate results at short range. For long ranges, long bullets are necessary, and these require uniform twists, which are now generally used in military arms. Various forms of the elongated bullets were used. Most of these bullets had an expansive base, either hollow or plugged with wood; the design being to force the soft lead outward, so as to cause it to fit the grooves of the rifle, and thus give the bullet a rotation around its long axis during the motion forward. (See Small-arms.) This rotation, as is well known, increases the range and precision. Bullets were formerly cast, but now they are more frequently stamped in steel dies, and, as in breech-loading arms, the bullet takes the grooves by compression; the exploding base is omitted. The form of bullet now used in military arms is the cylindrical conoidal. The tendency recently has been to reduce the caliber. (See Projectiles.) Copper bullets are used by the Circassians. Bullets of stone were used in 1514; iron ones are mentioned in the Foedera, 1550, and leaden ones were made before the close of the 16th century.

Bullets, Explosive. Oblong bullets carrying a percussion-cap on the front end and sometimes containing a small charge of powder in a cavity, used to blow up caissons and magazines. There is a strong sentiment against the use of these bullets in firing at troops.

Bullets, Express-. An explosive bullet of great killing power, used in hunting large game. It is of large caliber but quite light, being much shorter than the ordinary rifle-bullet. A cylindrical cavity bored in at the point carries a small metallic cartridge-case filled with powder. It is fired with a large charge of powder, which, owing to its lack of weight, gives it a high initial velocity and a very flat trajectory up to about 200 yards, obviating the necessity for an elevating sight. The Winchester Express-bullet (a good type of those made in America) has a caliber of .50, weighs 300 grains, and is fired with 95 grains of powder, giving an initial velocity of 1640 feet. It is made of pure lead, the softness of which increases its deadliness. The shock from this bullet will bring down the largest game. See Express-Rifle.

Bullets, Grooved. Bullets having grooves, or cannelures. These grooves were originally used to increase the relative resistance of the air on the rear of the bullet, thus assisting the rotation in keeping the point to the front. In muzzle-loading arms they also increased the setting up of the bullet to take the grooves. They are now used to hold the lubricant, and to facilitate the swaging action of the grooves and lands in breech-loading guns. For the other form of modern bullets, see Bullets, Patched.

Bullets, Patched. One of the forms of modern rifle-bullets. The bullet has wrapped around its cylindrical portion a layer of thin paper called the patch. The bullet is perfectly smooth. The other form has grooves, or cannelures. (See Bullets, Grooved.) The lubricant for the patched bullet is a greased wad or disk of wax, placed between powder and bullet. The grooved bullet, carrying its own lubricant, is best adapted to shallow lands and grooves. The patched bullet to sharp lands. The grooved bullet would seem to be the best for military service, as the cartridge-case can be tightly crimped upon it, making the case waterproof. For very long range the best shooting has been done with patched bullets.

Bullets, Percussion-. See Bullets, Explosive.

Bullock. See Pack and Draught Animals.

Bull Run Battles. See Manassas.

Bull’s-eye. In gunnery and archery, is the centre of a target.

Bulwark. In fortification, a rampart or bastion; an outwork for defense; that which secures against an enemy; a shelter or means of protection.

Bunker Hill. A hill in Charlestown, now part of Boston, Mass., which gave its name to the first important battle of the American Revolution. The Americans learning that Gen. Gage, who was in command of the British forces in Boston, intended to fortify Bunker Hill, determined to forestall his design, and for this purpose a detachment of 1000 men under Col. Prescott was ordered on the night of June 16, 1775, to throw up a breastwork on the hill. After a consultation, however, it was decided to fortify instead another eminence which was nearer to Boston, known as Breed’s Hill. During the night they worked with such activity that by daybreak a strong redoubt was nearly completed. Upon its discovery by the British on the morning of the 17th, they opened fire on it from the ships in the harbor, and Gen. Gage sent about 3000 men under Howe and Pigot to attack it. They landed under cover of the fire from the guns, and setting fire to Charlestown, advanced to the attack. The Americans awaited their approach in silence until the whites of their eyes could be seen, then poured a deadly fire into their ranks, causing them to retreat in disorder. They were rallied by Howe, and again advanced over the same ground with a like result as on the first attack. Clinton now arrived with reinforcements, and an attack was made on three sides of the redoubt at once. The ammunition of the Americans being now exhausted they met their assailants with clubbed muskets, but the superiority of the British in numbers being so great, Col. Prescott ordered a retreat. This was effected across Charlestown Neck, where they were exposed to a galling fire from the ships in the harbor. During the retreat Gen. Warren was killed, and the Bunker Hill monument erected to commemorate this engagement now stands near the spot where he fell. The British loss was over 1000 killed and wounded; the Americans lost less than half that number.

Bureaux. See Military Departments throughout this work under appropriate headings.

Buren. A town of Switzerland, canton of Berne. It was the scene of several combats. The Spaniards under Gilles de Barlemont took possession of it in 1575.

Burford. A town in the county of Oxford, England. It is celebrated for a battle fought between Cuthred, king of the West Saxons, and Ethelbald, king of the Mercians; and for a victory by Fairfax in 1649 over the army of Charles I. at Edgehill, in its vicinity.

Burganet, or Burgonet. A kind of helmet used by the French.

Burgos. A city of Spain, capital of the new province of the same name, was founded in 844; sacked by the French in 1808; in 1812 the castle was four times unsuccessfully besieged by Wellington, who, however, took it in the following year, when the French blew it up, as well as the fortifications.

Burguete. A town of Navarre, Spain. Here the army of Charlemagne was defeated in 778.

Burgundy. A large province in France, derives its name from the Burgundians, a Gothic tribe who overran Gaul in 275, but were driven out by the Emperor Probus; they returned in 287, and were defeated by Maximin. In 413 they established a kingdom, comprising the present Burgundy, large parts of Switzerland, with Alsace, Savoy, Provence, etc., Gondicaire, their leader, the first king. It was conquered by the Franks, 534. Annexed to France, 1477.

Burhampoor. A town of Hindostan, in the province of Bengal. It is one of the military stations of the British government; and the cantonments, consisting of a grand square inclosing a fine parade ground, command the notice of the traveler. It was captured by the English troops under Col. Stevenson in 1803.

Burial Honors. See Funeral Honors.

Burich. A small town in the circle of Lower Rhine; its fortifications were burned by the French in 1672.

Burkersdorf. A village of Austria, where a combat took place between the Prussians and Austrians, July 21, 1762, in which the former were victorious.

Burley. The butt end of a lance.

Burlington Heights. Here a fierce contest took place between the British and the U.S. forces, June 6, 1813. The British carried the heights.

Burmah, Burma, or Birmah. Also called the Burmese empire, or kingdom of Ava, formerly the most extensive and powerful state in Farther India. The most celebrated ruler of the country was Alompra, the founder of the present dynasty, who reigned about the middle of the 18th century. The Burmese became involved in a war with the English 1824-26, which terminated in the curtailment of their power and the loss of several provinces.

Burning, Quickness of. The relative quickness of two different powders may be determined by burning a train laid in a circular or other groove which returns into itself, one-half of the groove being filled with each kind of powder, and fire communicated at one of the points of meeting of the two trains; the relative quickness is readily deduced from observation of the point at which the flames meet.

Burnish. In a military sense, is to give a peculiar lustre to a gun-barrel or other part of a rifle by rubbing it with a piece of steel. It is generally forbidden as injurious to the gun.

Burque (Fr.). A kind of cuirass which was worn with the brigantine.

Burr. In gunnery, a round iron ring, which serves to rivet the end of the bolt, so as to form a round head.

Burrel-shot. Small shot, nails, stones, pieces of old iron, etc., put into cases to be discharged from any piece of ordnance. Very seldom used.

Bursting. The simplest method of bursting open strong gates is, to explode a bag of gunpowder containing 50 or 60 pounds suspended near the middle of the gate upon a nail or gimlet, by means of a small piece of port-fire inserted at the bottom, and well secured with twine.

Busaco. A hamlet in the province of Beira, Portugal. Here the British under Wellington repulsed an attack of the French under MassÉna, September 27, 1810. The French lost about 4000 killed and wounded; the English loss did not exceed 1300.

Busby. A military coiffure, or cap, or bear-skin; the French colbach.

Bushiere (on the Persian Gulf). Attacked by sea by Sir H. Leeke, and by land by Gen. Stalker, was taken December 10, 1856. The place proved stronger than was expected, and was bravely defended.

Bushing a Gun. Inserting a piece of metal about an inch in diameter (near the bottom of the bore) through the centre of which the vent has been previously drilled. It is screwed in. The object of bushing a piece is to prevent deterioration of the vent, or provide a new one, when this has already occurred. In bronze pieces pure copper is always used in bushing, as it is not so liable to run from heat as gun-metal. Only rifled and bronze pieces are bushed.

Bushwhackers. This term was used during the civil war to designate a class of men who claimed to be non-combatants in the presence of a superior force, and who, to outward appearance, pursued their peaceful avocations, but who did not hesitate, when an opportunity offered, to slay stragglers, and pick off soldiers from ambush. When caught in the commission of such acts they were treated with merciless severity.

Buskins. A kind of shoe, or half-boot, adapted to either foot, formerly part of the Roman dress. They are now worn by some European armies.

Butin (Fr.). Booty or pillage. At the beginning of the French monarchy, and for a long time after its establishment, a particular spot was marked out by the prince or general, to which all persons belonging to the victorious army were directed to bring every species of booty that might have fallen into their hands. This booty was not divided, or appropriated according to the will and pleasure of the prince or general, but was thrown into different lots, and drawn for in common. The soldiers who distributed these spoils were called Butiniers.

Butler Projectile. See Projectile.

Butrinto. A fortified maritime town of European Turkey, opposite Corfu. The town and fortress are of Venetian construction; taken by the French from the Venetians in 1797.

Butt. In gunnery, is a solid earthen parapet, to fire against in the proving of guns, or in practice.

Butt, or Butt-end. That extremity of a musket which rests against the shoulder when the piece is brought up to a position of firing.

Button. In gunnery, is a part of the cascabel, in either a gun or howitzer, and is the hind part of the piece, made round in the form of a ball.

Buttress. A sustaining wall at right angles to the main wall, which it is intended to strengthen.

Buxar. A town in Bengal near which, on October 23, 1764, Major, afterwards Sir Hector, Munro (with 857 Europeans and 6215 Sepoys) gained a great victory over the troops of the nabob of Oude, 40,000 in number; 6000 of these were killed, and 130 pieces of cannon taken.

Byblos. An ancient town of Egypt, on the Delta of the Nile. Here the Athenians sustained a memorable siege against the Persians, 456 B.C.

Byrnie. Early English for body-armor.

Byssa. An ancient cannon for throwing stones.

Byzantium. See Constantinople.