Means for conveying instruction—Method of teaching the alphabet in connection with objects—Spelling—Reading—Developing lessons—Reading lessons in Natural History—The Arithmeticon—Brass letters—Their uses.

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"Without things, words, accumulated by misery in the memory, had far better die than drag out a miserable existence in the dark. Without words, theirs stay and support, things unaccountably disappear out of the storehouse, and may be lost for ever; but bind a thing with a word, a strong link, stronger than any steel, and softer than any silk, and the captive remains for ever happy in its bright prison-house."—Wilson.

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The senses of children having revealed every object in its true light, they next desire to know its name, and then express their perceptions in words. This you have to gratify, and from the time you tell them the name of an object, it is the representative of the thing in the mind of the child; if the object be not present, but you mention the name, this suggests it to the infant mind. Had this been more frequently thought of by instructors, we should have found them less eager to make the child acquainted with the names of things of which it has no knowledge or perception. Sounds and signs which give rise to no idea in the mind, because the child has never seen or known the things represented, are of no use, and can only burden the memory. It is, therefore, the object of our system to give the children a knowledge of things, and then a knowledge of the words which represent those things. These remarks not only apply to the names of visible things, but more particularly to those which are abstract. If I would say, shew a child a horse, before you tell it the name of the animal, still more would I urge it on the teacher to let a child see what love, kindness, religion, &c. are, before it is told what names to designate those principles by. If our ignorance as to material things be the result of instructing the children in names, instead of enabling them to become acquainted with things, so, on the other hand, I believe we may account, in the same way to some extent, for virtue being so frequently a mere word, an empty sound, amongst men, instead of an active principle.

Our next endeavour is to teach the children to express their thoughts upon things; and if they are not checked by injudicious treatment, they will have some on every subject. We first teach them to express their notions, we then tell them ours, and truth will prevail even in the minds of children. On this plan, it will operate by its own strength, not by the power of coercion, which renders even truth disagreeable and repulsive; the children will adopt it from choice in preference to error, and it will be firmly established in their minds.

It will no doubt be perceived, that for the promotion of the course here recommended, it will be advisable to connect with our alphabetical and reading lessons, as much information as we possibly can. By so doing, the tedium of the task to the child will be considerably lessened, as well as much knowledge attained. The means of doing this in a variety of ways will, no doubt, suggest themselves to the intelligent teacher; but as an illustration of what we mean, the following conversational plan may not be useless.

We have twenty-six cards, and each card has on it one letter of the alphabet, and some object in nature; the first, for instance, has the letter A on the top, and an apple painted on the bottom. The children are desired to go into the gallery, which is formed of seats, one above the other, at one end of the school. The master places himself before the children, so that they can see him, and he them, and being thus situated, proceeds in the following manner:—

A.

Q. Where am I? A. Opposite to us. Q. What is on the right side of me? A. A lady. Q. What is on the left side of me? A. A chair. Q. What is before me? A. A desk. Q. Who is before me? A. We, children. Q. What do I hold up in my hand? A. A letter A.Q. What word begins with A? A. Apple. Q. Which hand do I hold it up with? A. With the right hand. Q. Spell apple.[A] A. A-p-p-l-e. Q. How is an apple produced? A. It grows on a tree. Q. What part of the tree is in the ground? A. The root. Q. What is that which comes out of the ground? A. The stem. Q. When the stem grows up straight, what would you call its position? A. Perpendicular. Q. What are on the stem? A. Branches. Q. What are on the branches? A. Leaves. Q. Of what colour are they? A. Green. Q. Is there any thing else beside leaves on the branches? A. Yes, apples. Q. What was it before it became an apple? A. Blossom. Q. What part of the blossom becomes fruit? A. The inside. Q. What becomes of the leaves of the blossom? A. They fall off the tree. Q. What was it before it became a blossom? A. A bud. Q. What caused the buds to become larger, and produce leaves and blossom? A. The sap. Q. What is sap? A. A juice. Q. How can the sap make the buds larger? A. It comes out of the root, and goes up the stem. Q. What next? A. Through the branches into the buds. Q. What do the buds produce? A. Some buds produce leaves, some blossoms, and some a shoot. Q. What do you mean by a shoot? A. A young branch, which is green at first, but becomes hard by age. Q. What part becomes hard first? A. The bottom.

[Footnote A: It is not supposed that all or many of the children will be able to spell this or many of the subsequent words, or give such answers as we have put down. But some among the older or more acute of them will soon be able to do so, and thus become instructors to the rest. It may be proper to mention also that the information in Natural History, &c. &c., displayed in some of the answers, is the result of the instructions in Natural History which the children simultaneously receive, and which is spoken of in a subsequent chapter. Mr. Golt's simple arrangement of the Alphabet I much approve of, and no doubt it will come into general use.]

B.

Q. What is this? A. The letter B—the first letter in baker, butter, bacon, brewer, button, bell, &c., &e. [The teacher can take any of these names he pleases, for instance, the first:] Children, let me hear you spell baker. A. B-a-k-e-r. Q. What is a baker? A. A man who makes bread. Q. What is bread made of? A. It is made of flour, water, yeast, and a little salt. Q. What is flour made of? A. Wheat. Q. How is it made? A. Ground to powder in a mill. Q. What makes the mill go round? A. The wind, if it is a windmill. Q. Are there any other kinds of mills? A. Yes; mills that go by water, mills that are drawn round by horses, and mills that go by steam. Q. When the flour and water and yeast are mixed together, what does the baker do? A. Bake them in an oven. Q. What is the use of bread? A. For children to eat. Q. Who causes the corn to grow? A. Almighty God.

C.

Q. What is this? A. It is letter C, the first letter in cow, c-o-w, and cat, &c. Q. What is the use of the cow? A. The cow gives us milk to put into the tea. Q. Is milk used for any other purpose besides putting it into tea? A. Yes; it is used to put into puddings, and for many other things. Q. Name some of the other things? A. It is used to make butter and cheese. Q. What part of it is made into butter? A. The cream which swims at the top of the milk. Q. How is it made into butter? A. It is put into a thing called a churn, in the shape of a barrel. Q. What is done next? A. The churn is turned round by means of a handle, and the motion turns the cream into butter. Q. What is the use of butter? A. To put on bread, and to put into pie-crust, and many other nice things. Q. Of what colour is butter? A. It is generally yellow. A. Are there any other things made of milk? A. Yes, many things; but the principal one is cheese. Q. How is cheese made? A. The milk is turned into curds and whey, which is done by putting a liquid into it called rennet. Q. What part of the curd and whey is made into cheese? A. The curd, which is put into a press; and when it has been in the press a few days it becomes cheese. Q. Is the flesh of the cow useful? A. Yes; it is eaten, and is called beef; and the flesh of the young calf is called veal. Q. Is the skin of the cow or calf of any use? A. Yes; the skin of the cow or calf of any use? A. Yes; the skin of the cow is manufactured into leather for the soles of shoes. Q. What is made with the calf skin? A. The top of the shoe, which is called the upper-leather. Q. Are there any other parts of the cow that are useful? A. Yes; the horns, which are made into combs, handles of knives, forks, and other things. Q. What is made of the hoofs that come off the cow's feet? A. Glue, to join boards together. Q. Who made the cow? A. Almighty God.

D.

Q. What is this? A. Letter D, the first letter it dog, dove, draper, &c. Q. What is the use of the dog, A. To guard the house and keep thieves away. Q. How can a dog guard the house and keep thieves away? A. By barking to wake the persons who live in the house. Q. Is the dog of any other use? A. Yes; to draw under a truck. D. Does he do as his master bids him? A. Yes; and knows his master from any other person. Q. Is the dog a faithful animal? A. Yes, very faithful; he has been known to die of grief for the loss of his master. Q. Can you mention an instance of the dog's faithfulness? A. Yes; a dog waited at the gates of the Fleet prison for hours every day for nearly two years, because his master was confined in the prison. Q. Can you mention another instance of the dog's faithfulness? A. Yes; a dog lay down on his master's grave in a churchyard in London for many weeks. Q. How did the dog get food? A. The people who lived near noticed him, and brought him victuals. Q. Did the people do any thing besides giving him victuals A. Yes; they made a house for him for fear he should die with wet and cold. Q. How long did he stay there? A. Until the people took him away, because he howled dreadfully when the organ played on Sundays. Q. Is it right to beat a dog? A. No; it is very wrong to use any animal ill, because we do not like to be beaten ourselves. Q. Did Almighty God make the dog? A. Yes; and every thing else that has life.

E.

Q. What letter is this? A. E, the first letter in egg. Q. What is the use of an egg? A. It is useful for many purposes; to put into puddings, and to eat by itself. Q. Should country children keep an egg if they find it in the hedge? A. No, it is thieving; they should find out the owner and take it home. Q. Do children ever throw stones at the fowls? A. Yes; but they are mischievous children, and perhaps do not go to school. Q. What ought children to learn by going to school? A. To be kind and good to every body, and every thing that has life.

F.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter F, the first letter in frying-pan, father, &c. Q. Let me hear you spell frying-pan. A. F-r-y-i-n-g-p-a-n. Q. What is the use of the frying-pan? A. To fry meat and pan-cakes. Q. Spell me the names of the different kinds of meat. A. B-e-e-f, p-o-r-k, m-u-t-t-o-n, l-a-m-b, h-a-m, &c. Q. Of what shape are frying-pans? A. Some circular, and some are like an ellipsis.[A] Q. Are there any other utensils into which meat is put that are circular? A. Yes, please, sir, my mother has some circular plates; and, please, sir, my mother has some elliptical dishes. Q. Any thing besides? A. Yes, please, sir, my mother has a circular table; and, please, sir, my mother has a rectangular one, and it is made of deal.

[Footnote A: It may possibly strike some of my readers as strange that a geometrical question should be put in a conversation on the alphabet, but it should be remembered that, according to the Infant School system, language is not taught exclusively, but in connection with number and form;—questions like the above, therefore are calculated to excite their memories, and induce an application of their geometrical knowledge.]

G.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter G, the first letter in goat, good, girl, &c. Q. Spell goat. A. G-o-a-t. Q. What is the use of the goat'? A. In some countries people drink the goat's milk; and the skin is useful to make the upper-leather of shoes. Q. Are goats fond of going into the valleys and low places? A. No; they are fond of going up hills and high places. Q. If a goat is coming down a hill which has only one narrow path merely wide enough for one goat to walk on without falling down, and another goat is coming up the same path, what do they do? A. The goat that is coming up lies down and lets the other goat walk over him. Q. Why does not one of the goats turn round and go back again? A. Because there would not be room, and the one which should try to turn round would fall down and be killed.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter H, the first letter in horse, house, &c. Q. What is the use of the horse? A. To draw carts, coaches, stages, waggons, fire-engines, &c. Q. Spell horse, and cart, and coach. A. H-o-r-s-e, c-a-r-t, c-o-a-c-h. Q. What is the difference between a cart and coach? A. A cart has two wheels, and a coach has four. Q. Tell me some other difference. A. The horses in a cart go before each other, but the horses in a coach go side by side. Q. What is the use of a fire-engine? A. To put the fire out when the house is on fire. Q. Is it right for children to play with the fire? A. No, very wrong; as many children are burnt to death, and many houses burnt down from it. Q. Should the horse be cruelly used? A. No; he should be kindly treated, as he is the most useful animal we have. Q. Who created him? A. Almighty God.

I.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter I, the first letter in iron, idleness, &c. Q. Spell iron. A. I-r-o-n. Q. What is the use of an iron? A. To iron the clothes after they are washed, and to make them smooth. Q. How do they iron the clothes? A. Make the iron hot, and then work it backwards and forwards on the clothes. Q. Should little children come with clean clothes to school? A. Yes; and clean hands and faces too. Q. Is not iron used for other purposes? A. Oh, yes; for a great many things, as knives, forks, &c.

J.

Q. What is this letter? A. J, the first letter in jug, John, &c. Q. What is the use of the jug? A. To hold water, or beer, or any other liquid. Q. What is a jug made of? A. Of clay, which is worked round into the shape of a jug, and then burnt, and that hardens it. Q. Should children be careful when they are carrying a jug? A. Yes; or else they will let it fall and break it. Q. Then it is necessary for children to be careful? A. Yes, every body should be careful.

K.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter K, the first letter in kite, &c. Q. What is the use of the kite? A. For little children to fly. Please, sir, my big brother has got a kite. Q. What does your brother do with his kite? A. Please, sir, he goes into the fields when he has got time, and flies it. Q. How does he fly it? A. Please, sir, he has got a long string, which he fixes to another called a loop, and then he unwinds the string, and gets some boy to hold it up. Q. What then? A. Please, sir, then he runs against the wind, and the kite goes up. Q. What is the use of the tail of the kite? A. Please, sir, it will not fly without a tail. Q. Why not? A. Please, sir, it goes round and round without a tail, and comes down. Q. Then what do you suppose is the use of the tail? Please, sir, I don't know. Another child will probably supply the answer. Please, sir, to balance it.

L.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter L, the first letter in lion, &c. Q. Spell lion. A. L-i-o-n. Q. What is the size of a full grown lion? A. A full grown lion stands four feet and a half high, and is eight feet long. Q. How high do you stand? A. Please, sir, some of us stand two feet, and none of us above three. Q. Has the lion any particular character among beasts? A. Yes, he is called the king of beasts on account of his great strength. Q. When he seizes his prey, how far can he leap? A. To the distance of twenty feet. Q. Describe some other particulars concerning the lion. A. The lion has a shaggy mane, which the lioness has not. Q. What other particulars? A. The lion's roar is so loud that other animals run away when they hear it. Q. Where are lions found? A. In most hot countries: the largest are found in Asia and Africa.

M.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter M, the first letter in Monday, mouse, &c. Q. What is the use of the mouse? A. To make the servants diligent and put the things out of the way. Q. How can mice make servants diligent? A. If people do not put their candles in a proper place the mice will gnaw them. Q. Are mice of any other service? A. Please, sir, if the mice did not make a smell, some people would never clean their cupboards out.[A]

[Footnote A: This answer was given by a child four years old; and immediately afterwards another child called out, "Please, sir, if it were not for bugs, some people would not clean their bedsteads."]

N.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter N, the first letter in nut, &c. Q. What is a nut? A. A thing that is hard, and it grows on a tree. Q. What shape is it? A. Something in the shape of a marble. Q. How can it be eaten, if it is like a marble? A. Please, air, it is the kernel that we eat. Q. flow are nuts produced? A. They grow on trees.

O.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter O, the first letter in orange. Q. Of what colour is an orange? A. An orange is green at first, but afterwards becomes of a colour called orange-red. Q. Do they grow in the ground like potatoes? A. No, they grow on trees like apples. Q. Can you tell me anything in the shape of an orange? A. Yes, the earth on which we live is nearly of that shape. Q. On what part of the earth do we live? A. The surface. Q. What do you mean by the surface? A. The outside. Q. Who formed the earth, and preserves it in its proper motions? A. Almighty God.

P.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter P, the first letter in pig, plum-pudding, &c. Q. What is the use of the pig? A. Its flesh is eaten, and is called pork. Q. What is the use of the hair or bristles? A. To make brushes or brooms. Q. What is the use of a brush? A. Some brushes are to brush the clothes, and others to brush the dirt out of the corners of the room. Q. Does a good servant ever leave the dirt in the corners? A. No, never; a good servant or any clean little girl would be ashamed of it.

Q.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter Q, the first letter in quill, &c. Q. How are quills produced? A. From the wings of geese and other large birds. Q. What is the use of the quill? A. To form into pens and many other things. Q. What is the use of the pen? A. To dip into ink and write with it. Q. What do you write upon? A. Paper. Q. What is paper made of? A. Rags.

R.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter R, the first letter in rabbit, &c. Q. What is the use of the rabbit? A. The flesh of the rabbit is eaten, and is very nice. Q. What does the rabbit eat? A. Corn, grass, cabbage-leaves, and many different herbs. Q. What is the use of the skin? A. To make hats, and to trim boys' caps. Q. Are they very numerous? A. They are to be found in almost all countries.

S.

Q. What is this? A. Letter S, the first letter in shoe, &c. Q. What is the use of shoes? A. To keep the feet warm and dry. Q. Should children walk in the mud or in the kennel? A. No, because that would spoil the shoes, and wear them out too soon. Q. And why should little children be careful not to wear them out any more than they can help? A. Because our parents must work harder to buy us more.

T.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter T, the first letter in tea-kettle. Q. What are tea-kettles made of? A. Some are made of tin, and some of copper, and some of iron. Q. Why are they not made of wood? A. Because the wood would burn. Q. What thing is that at the top? A. The handle. Q. What is underneath the handle? A. The lid. Q. What is in the front of it? A. The spout. Q. What is the use of the spout? A. For the water to come out. Q. What is the use of the handle? A. To take hold of. Q. Why do they not take hold of the spout? A. Because it is the wrong way.

U.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter U, the first letter in umbrella, &c. Q. Is letter U a vowel or consonant? A. A vowel. Q. What is the use of the umbrella? A. To keep the rain off any body. Q. What are umbrellas made of? A. Some of silk and some of cotton. Q. Which are the best? A. Those that are made of silk. Q. Is there any thing else in an umbrella? A. Yes; whalebone. Q. Where does whalebone come from? A. Out of a large fish called a whale. Q. Who made the whale? A. Almighty God.

V.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter V, the first letter in vine, &c. Q. What is a vine? A. A thing that grows against the wall and produces grapes. Q. Why does it not grow like another tree, and support its own weight? A. Because it is not strong enough. Q. Then it cannot grow and become fruitful in this country without man's assistance? A. No; and, please, sir, we cannot grow and become fruitful without the assistance of Almighty God.[A]

[Footnote A: This answer was given by a child five-years of age.]

W.

Q. What letter is this? A. It is Letter W, the first letter in wheel. Q. Spell wheel. A. W-h-e-e-l. Q. What is the use of wheels? A. To make it easier for horses to draw. Q. How do you know that? A. Please, sir, I had a little cart full of stones, and the wheel came off; and, please, sir, I found it much harder to draw. Q. Then if it was not for wheels, the horses could not draw so great a weight? A. No, and, please, sir, people could not go into the country so quick as they do. Q. What trade do they call the persons that make wheels? A. Wheel-wrights.

X.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter X, the first letter in Xenophon, a man's name. Q. What was the particular character of Xenophon? A. He was very courageous. Q. What does courageous mean? A. To be afraid to do harm, but not to be afraid to do good, or anything that is right. Q. What is the greatest courage? A. To conquer our own bad passions and bad inclinations. Q. Is he a courageous man that can conquer his bad passions? A. Yes; because they are the most difficult to conquer.

Y.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter Y, the first letter in yoke, &c. Q. Is it a vowel or consonant? A. When it begins a word it is called a consonant, but if not, a vowel. Q. What is a yoke? A. Please, sir, what the milk people carry the milk pails on. Q. What is the use of the yoke? A. To enable the people to carry the milk easier.

Z.

Q. What letter is this? A. Letter Z, the first letter in Zealander. Q.
What is a Zealander? A. A man that lives on an island in the Southern
Ocean, called Zealand. Q. How do they live? A. Principally by hunting
and fishing. Q. What is hunting? A. Following animals to catch them.
Q. Who made all the animals? A. Almighty God.

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The method above described is adapted to the large room, where the children may be taught all together; but it is necessary to change the scene even in this; for however novel and pleasing a thing may be at first, if it be not managed with prudence it will soon lose its effect. It is here to be observed, that the mode of teaching described, is not practised every day, but only twice or thrice a week. The children will take care that the teacher does not altogether forget to teach them in any way that they have been accustomed to. After letting the above plan lie by for a day or two, some of the children will come to the teacher, and say, "Please, sir, may we say the picture alphabet up in the gallery?" If the other children overhear the question, it will go through the school like lightning: "Oh yes—yes—yes, sir, if you please, do let us say the letters in the gallery." Thus a desire is created in the children's minds, and it is then especially that they may be taught with good effect.

Another plan which we adopt, is in practice almost every day; but it is better adapted to what is called the class-room: we have the alphabet printed in large letters, both in Roman and Italic characters, on one sheet of paper: this paper is pasted on a board, or on pasteboard, and placed against the wall; the whole class then stand around it, but instead of one of the monitors pointing to the letters, the master or mistress does it; so that the children not only obtain instruction from each other, but every child has a lesson from the master or mistress twice every day.

Before they go to the reading lessons, they have the sounds of all the words in spelling: thus the sound of a—ball, call, fall, wall; then the reading-lesson is full of words of the same sound. In like manner they proceed with other letters, as i—the sound of which they learn from such words as five, drive, strive, until, by a series of lessons, they become acquainted with all the sounds; and are able to read any common book.

I have observed in some instances the most deplorable laxity in this particular. Cases have occurred in which children have been for two years at school, and yet scarcely knew the whole alphabet; and I have known others to be four years in an infant school, without being able to read. I hesitate not to say that the fault rests exclusively with the teachers, who, finding this department of their work more troublesome than others which are attractive to visitors, have sometimes neglected it, and even thrown it entirely aside, affirming that reading is not a part of the infant system at all! Such a declaration is, however, only to be accounted for from the most lamentable ignorance, preverseness, or both. Had it been true, we should not have had a single infant school in Scotland, and throughout that country the children read delightfully.

The great importance of full instruction in reading will be apparent from the following considerations.

1. If the parents do not find the children learn to read, they will discontinue sending them. This they consider essential, and nothing else will be deemed by them an adequate substitute.

2. Children cannot make desirable progress in other schools which they may enter, unless they obtain an ability to read at least simple lessons.

3. Neglect in this respect impedes the progress of the infant system. Such an obstacle ought not to exist, and should at once be removed.

4. In manufacturing districts children go to work very soon; and if they are not able to read before, there is reason to fear they will not afterwards acquire the power; but if they have this, Sunday schools may supply other deficiencies.

5. Want of ability to read prevents, of course, a knowledge of the Word of God.

To prevent this evil, I have arranged a series, denominated "Developing Lessons," the great object of which is to induce children to think and reflect on what they see. They are thus formed: at the top is a coloured picture, or series of coloured pictures of insects, quadrupeds, and general objects. For instance, there is one containing the poplar, hawk-moth, and wasp. The lesson is as follows: "The wasp can sting, and fly as well as the moth, which does not sting. I hope no wasp will sting me; he is small, but the hawk-moth is large. The moth eats leaves, but the wasp loves sweet things, and makes a round nest. If boys take the nest they may be stung: the fish like the wasp-grubs." On this, questions are proposed: Which stings? Which is small and which large? Which eats leaves? Which makes a round nest? &c. &c.

To take another instance. There is a figure of an Italian, to which is appended the following: "The Italian has got a flask of oil and a fish in his hand, and something else in his hand which the little child who reads this must find out. Any child can tell who makes use of the sense of seeing. In Italy they make a good deal of wine; big grapes grow there that they make it with. Italians can sing very well, and so can little children when they are taught." Questions are likewise proposed on this, as before.

Of these lessons, however, there is a great variety. All schools should possess them: they will effectually prevent the evil alluded to, by checking the apathy of children in learning to read, and calling the teacher's powers into full exercise. They are equally adapted to spelling and reading.

I will give several specimens of reading lessons in natural history, each of which has a large, well-engraved and coloured plate at the top, copied from nature.

THE EAGLE.

How glad some poor children would be if they could read about the eagle. He is a big strong bird, and has such great wings, and such long sharp claws, that he can dig them into the lamb, hare, rabbit, and other animals, and thus fly away with them to feed his young ones, and to eat them himself. Eagles make such a large nest on the side of some high rock, where nobody can get at it. There used to be eagles in Wales, and there are some now in Scotland, but very few in England, for they do not like to be where there are many people. The Almighty gave man dominion over the birds of the air, as well as over the other animals, and as he gave man power to think, if the eagles become troublesome, men catch them, though they can fly so high; and as the eagle knows this, he likes to keep out of our way, and go into parts of the world where there are not so many people. There are many sorts of eagles: the black eagle, the sea eagle, the bald eagle, and others. They have all strong bills bent down in front, and strong claws. This bird is mentioned in the Bible.

Questions are proposed after this is read, and thus the examination proceeds:—Q. What is that? A. An eagle. Q. What sort of a bird is he? A. He is big and strong. Q. What are those? A. His feathers. Q. What else are they called? A. His plumage. Q. Is the eagle a small bird? A. No, very large. Q. Are his claws long and sharp? A. Yes. Q. What animals could he carry away? A. A lamb, a hare, a rabbit, or other small animals. Q. What does he do with those? A. Feed his young ones. Q. Where does the eagle make his nest? A. On the side of some rock. Q. Why does he make it there? A. That no one may get at it. Q. Used there to be eagles in Wales? A. Yes. Q. Where are there a few still? A. In England, Scotland, and Ireland. Q. Why are they not as plentiful as they were? A. Because they do not like to be where many men live. Q. Did the Almighty give man dominion over the birds of the air? A. Yes. Q. What other power did he give man? A. Power to think. Q. As men can think, when the eagles became troublesome, what did they do? A. They caught them. Q. And what did the eagles that were not caught do? A. They went to places where men were not so plenty. Q. Are, there many different kinds of eagles? A. Yes. Q. Name some. A. The black eagle, the bald eagle, the sea eagle, and others.

THE VULTURE.

The vulture is like the eagle in size, and some of its habits; but it is so very different from it in many ways, that there is little danger of confusing the two together: the greatest distinction between them is, that the head of the vulture is either quite naked, or covered only with a short down, while the eagle's is well feathered. This is the chief difference in appearance, but in their habits there is a much greater. Instead of flying over hills and valleys in pursuit of living game, the vultures only search for dead carcasses, which they prefer, although they may have been a long time dead, and therefore very bad, and smelling very offensively. They generally live in very warm countries, and are useful in clearing away those dead carcasses which, but for them, would cause many dreadful diseases. In some countries, indeed, on account of this, the inhabitants will not allow any one to injure them, and they are called for this reason scavengers, which means that they do the business for which scavengers are employed. Vultures are very greedy and ravenous; they will often eat so much that they are not able to move or fly, but sit quite stupidly and insensible. One of them will often, at a single meal, devour the entire body of an albatross (bones and all), which is a bird nearly as large as the vulture itself. They will smell a dead carcass at a very great distance, and will soon surround and devour it.

Vultures lay two eggs at a time and only once a year: they build their nests on the same kind of places as eagles do, so that it is very hard to find them.

What does the vulture resemble the eagle in? A. In size and in some of its habits. Q. In what does it differ from the eagle? A. In having a neck and head either naked or covered with short down. Q. What is the difference in the manner in which they feed? A. The eagle seeks its food over hill and valley, and lives entirely on prey which he takes alive, while the vulture seeks out dead and putrid carcasses. Q. For what reason do you suppose is the vulture's neck not covered with feathers as the eagle's is? A. If they had feathers on their necks, like eagles and hawks, they would soon become clotted with blood. Q. Why would this happen? A. Because they are continually plunging their necks into decayed flesh and bloody carcasses. Q. How do vultures sit? A. In a dull, mopeing manner. Q. Where do they generally sit? A. On tall dead trees. Q. Do they continue thus long? A. Yes, for several hours. Q. What is the cause of their thus sitting so dull and inactive? A. The great quantity of food they have eaten. Q. Is there any description of vulture forming an exception to the general character of those birds? A. Yes, that particular kind called the snake eater. Q. Where is this bird a native of? A. Of Africa. Q. Why is it called the snake eater? A. On account of its singular manner of destroying serpents, on which it feeds. Q. Describe the manner in which this bird kills its prey. A. He waits until the serpent raises its head, and then strikes him with his wing, and repeats the blow until the serpent is killed. Q. What do the natives of Asia and Africa call the vulture? A. The scavenger. Q. Why? A. Because they are so useful in eating dead carcasses. Q. How is this useful? A. It clears the ground of them; otherwise, in those warm places, they would be the cause of much disease. Q. What does this shew us? A. That the good God has created nothing without its use. Q. What is the largest bird of the vulture kind? A. The great condor of South America. Q. What does its wing often measure from tip to tip? A. Twelve feet when spread out. Q. How do the natives of South America often catch the vulture? A. The dead carcass of a cow or horse is set for a bait, on which they feed so ravenously that they become stupid, and are easily taken.

THE CROCODILE.

I hope you will not put your dirty hands on this picture of the crocodile. The live ones have hard scales on their backs, and such a many teeth, that they could bite a man's leg off; but there are none in our land, only young ones that sailors bring home with them. The crocodile can run fast; those are best off who are out of his way. He lives by the water; he goes much in it; and he can swim well. Young ones come out of eggs, which the old ones lay in the sand. Some beasts eat the eggs, or else there would be too many crocodiles. The crocodile can run fast if he runs straight, and those who wish to get out of his way run zigzag, and he takes some time to turn; the poor black men know this, and can get out of his way; but some of them can fight and kill him on the land or in the water. I think the crocodile is mentioned in Scripture. Ask your teacher what Scripture means. When you learn geography you will know where many of the places are that are mentioned in the Bible, and you will see where the river Nile is. There are such a many crocodiles on the banks of that river that the people are afraid to go alone. What a many wonderful animals our great Creator has made! How humble and thankful we should be to see so many great wonders!

Q. What have crocodiles on their backs? A. Hard scales. Q. Have they many teeth? A. Yes, a great many. Q. Could they bite off a man's leg? A. They could. Q. Are there any in our country? A. None wild, but a few that sailors bring in ships. Q. Can the crocodile run fast? A. Yes. Q. Where does he live? A. In the water. Q. What do their young ones come out of? A. Out of eggs, which the old one lays in the sand. Q. How do people run that wish to get out of the crocodile's way? A. Zigzag, like the waved line in our lesson. Q. What do some men do? A. Fight and kill them in the water. Q. Where do most of those animals live? A. In the river Nile. Q. Where is this river? A. In Egypt.

The spelling lessons contain words capable of explanation, such as white, black, round, square; others are classed as fleet, ship, brig, sloop, &c.; and others are in contrast, as hot, cold, dark, light, wet, dry, &c.

In this department we use the tablet placed beneath the arithmeticon, the invention and improvement of which are described in the volume entitled "Early Discipline Illustrated, or the Infant System Successful and Progressing." A clear idea of the whole apparatus is given by the wood-cut on the next page, and it ought certainly to be found in every infant school. The sense of sight is then brought into full action to aid the mind, and that with results which would not easily be conceived. We shall take another opportunity of explaining the use of the upper part of the apparatus, the lower demanding our present attention.

[Illustration]

To use the tablet, let the followings things be observed. It is supposed the children know well there are twenty-six letters in the alphabet; that twenty are called consonants, and that six are vowels. We take first one perpendicular row of letters in the figure. Now point to D, and say, What is that'? and the answer will be, D. Ask, Is it a vowel or consonant, and they will reply, A consonant; but ask, Why do you know it is D, and the answer will probably be, It is so because it is. Hide the circular part of the letter, and ask, What is the position of the other part, and they will say, having previously learnt the elements of form which will shortly be explained, A perpendicular line; hide that, and ask them what the other part is, telling them to bend one of their fore-fingers in the same form, and they will say, A curved line. If they are then asked how they may know it is D, they will say, Because it is made of a perpendicular line and has a curved line behind. Further information may then be given. Turn the D letter up thus [Illustration: The character D turned on its side], and say, I want to teach you the difference between concave and convex: the under part of the curve is concave and the upper part of it is convex. Then say, I shall now take the letter away, and wish you to shew me concave and convex on one of your fingers; when they will bend the forefinger and point them both out on it. Go on with the other letters in the same way: shew them the vowels after the consonants and analyze each one. For example, A is formed of two inclined lines and a horizontal line to join them in the centre; and the top of that letter is an acute angle, and were a line placed at the bottom it would be a triangle. A brass letter may be moreover shewn to be a substance: its properties may be described as hard, smooth, bright, &c., and its coming from the mineral kingdom may be noticed, and thus the instruction may be indefinitely varied.

The power of letters may then be pointed out. Ask them to spell M R, and they will give you the sound of R, or something like it, and so in reference to other letters. But place the A against the M as it appears in the figure, and you may teach them to say A, M, AM; and thus all the way down the left side of the row of consonants. If then you carry the vowel down on the other side of them, you will change the lesson, and by such means go on almost ad infinitum. Double rows of consonants may be placed with a vowel between them, and when well practiced in this, they will ask for the vowel to be omitted that they may supply it, which they will do very readily and with great pleasure, while there is a tasking of the mind which cannot but prove beneficial.

Again, turn the frame with the balls round, so that the wires are perpendicular instead of horizontal, raise a ball gently, and say, To ascend, ascending, ascended; let it fall gently, saying, to descend, descending, descended; with a little explanation these words will then be understood, and others may be taught in the same way. To fall, falling, fallen; to rise, rising, risen; to go, going, gone, will readily occur, and others will easily be supplied by the ingenuity of the instructor. The frame may also be applied to grammar.

It is to be used as follows:—Move one of the balls to a part of the frame distinct from the rest. The children will then repeat, "There it is, there it is." Apply your finger to the ball, and set it running round. The children will immediately change from saying, "There it is," to "There it goes, there it goes."

When they have repeated "There it goes" long enough to impress it on their memory, stop the ball; the children will probably say, "Now it stops, now it stops." When that is the case, move another ball to it, and then explain to the children the difference between singular and plural, desiring them to call out, "There they are, there they are;" and when they have done that as long as may be proper, set both balls moving, and it is likely they will call out, "There they go, there they go." I do not particularize further, because I know that good teachers will at once see the principle aimed at, and supply the other requisite lessons: the object of this book being rather to shew the principle of the thing, than to go into detail.