Dear Comrade:

We have practically finished the study of the different parts of speech. We are now in possession of a knowledge of the tools which we need to use in expressing ourselves. We are ready to make practical application of this knowledge in writing and speaking. We will find that with our increasing ability to express ourselves there comes also the power to think clearly. The analysis of language has meant a growing power to think on the part of the people.

We sometimes imagine that simplicity of language was a part of primitive life, but this is not true. Simplicity of language is the product of high civilization. Primitive life was marked, not by simplicity of language, but by the scarcity of language. They made one word stand for an entire sentence, and if they wished to express a little different meaning, an entirely different word had to be used, as for example, in the primitive language: I said to her, would be one word, and I said to him, would be another, entirely different, word.

But as the power of thought began to develop, we began to analyze our meaning and we found that this thought was identical except the him and the her. So as we analyzed our thought our expression of it became more simple. In most languages, the different meaning of the verb, for example, is expressed by an arbitrary change in the verb form. This is called the inflection of the verb. In English we would use several words to express the same thing. For example, the Latin word Fuissem requires four English words to express the same meaning; I should have been, we say in English. So instead of having to learn a great number of different changes in the verb form, we, by the use of auxiliary verbs, have, shall, do, be, etc., are able to express all these shades of thought much more simply and clearly.

Most other languages also have changes for gender. Every noun has a gender of its own and sometimes this form gives the wrong gender to living beings and attributes sex to sexless objects and the only way to know the gender of the noun is simply by memory. Then the adjectives, possessive pronouns and the articles a and the have gender also and have to be changed to suit the gender of the noun; this involves a great effort of memory. So while the English may seem somewhat involved to you, it is, after all, much simpler than other languages. It has been freed from many superfluous endings and unnecessary complications.

Take a little time each day to read something out of the best literature. The quotations given in each of these lessons are from our very best writers. A study of these will be a wonderful help and inspiration to you and bring you in touch with some of the great thinkers of the revolution. They are our comrades and are putting into words the thoughts and hopes and dreams of our lives.

Yours for the Revolution,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

367. In our study of subordinate clauses, we have studied subordinate clauses used as adverbs and as nouns. We have found that adverb clauses can be used in the same way as adverbs, to describe the time, place, manner, cause, condition or purpose of the action expressed in the verb. We have found, also, that a noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun can be used, as the subject of the sentence, the object of a verb or preposition or as the predicate complement. But these are not the only uses to which the subordinate clause may be put. Note the following sentences:

• Wealthy men desire to control the education of the people.
• Men of wealth desire to control the education of the people.
• Men who are wealthy desire to control the education of the people.

Do you see any difference in the words which are used to modify the noun men? In the first sentence, wealthy is an adjective, modifying the noun men. In the second sentence, of wealth is a prepositional phrase, used as an adjective modifying the noun men. In the last sentence, who are wealthy is a clause used in exactly the same way that the adjective wealthy and the adjective phrase of wealth are used, to modify the noun men.

We have expressed practically the same meaning in these three ways: by a word; by a phrase; by a clause.

368. A word used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective.

A phrase used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective phrase.

A clause used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective clause.

Note the difference between a phrase and a clause.

369. A prepositional phrase, used as an adjective, consists of the preposition and the noun which is its object, together with its modifiers. A phrase never has either a subject or a predicate. Who are wealthy, is a clause because it does contain a subject and a predicate. The pronoun who is the subject in the clause, and the predicate is the copulative verb are with the predicate complement, the adjective wealthy.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences change the adjective into a phrase and also into a clause, if possible. For example:

• A fearless man always defends his rights.
• A man without fear always defends his rights.
• A man who is fearless always defends his rights.

1. The unemployed men are becoming desperate.
2. The uneducated masses are demanding equal opportunity.
3. The discovery of gold was an important discovery.
4. Unorganized labor is helpless.
5. The revolution needs intelligent rebels.
6. A few wealthy men are striving to control education.
7. This will be a progressive movement.
8. Labor-saving inventions throw men out of employment.
9. Scientific men prophesy a great advance for the mass.

THE INTRODUCING WORD

370. You will notice that these adjective clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns who, which and that. These relative pronouns fulfil something of the office of a conjunction, because they are serving as connecting elements; they join these subordinate clauses to the words which they modify. But you will note, also, that these relative pronouns not only serve as connecting elements, but they also play a part in the subordinate clause, as either the subject or object. For example:

• The man who has no education is handicapped in the struggle.
• Are these the books that you ordered?

In the first sentence, who has an education is an adjective clause modifying the noun man, introduced by the relative pronoun who, which is also the subject of the verb has.

In the second sentence, that you ordered is an adjective clause, modifying the noun books, introduced by the relative pronoun that, which is also the object of the verb ordered.

371. There is no need to be confused in this matter of clauses. If the clause is used as a noun, either as the subject or the object or in any other way in which a noun can be used, it is a noun clause. If it is used as an adverb and will answer any of the questions why, when, where, or how, etc., it is an adverb clause. If it is used as an adjective,—if it modifies a noun or pronoun,—it is an adjective clause.

You will note that the only way in which a noun is used that does not have its corresponding clause is as a possessive. We do not have possessive clauses. The clause used as an adjective always modifies a noun or pronoun.

372. An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective and hence always modifies a noun or pronoun.

An adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns, who, which or that. The use of this clause is a great help to us in the expression of our ideas, for it enables us to combine several sentences containing related thoughts into one sentence so we have it all presented to the mind at once.

Exercise 2

In the following sentences, note which are the noun clauses and which are the adjective clauses and which are the adverb clauses. The verb in the subordinate clause is in italics.

1. Life is what we make it.
2. We acquire the strength that we overcome.
3. While he slept the enemy came.
4. All that he does is to distribute what others produce.
5. When faith is lost, when honor dies, the man is dead.
6. Thrice is he armed who hath his quarrel just; he is naked though he be locked up in steel whose conscience with injustice is corrupted.
7. When strength and justice are true yoke fellows, where can we find a mightier pair than they?
8. You will gain a good reputation if you endeavor to be what you desire to appear.
9. Live as though life were earnest and life will be so.
10. He that loveth makes his own the grandeur that he loves.
11. Who does the best his circumstance allows does well; angels could do no more.
12. He is not worthy of the honeycomb that shuns the hive because the bees have stings.
13. We always may be what we might have been.
14. Rich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind.
15. Let me make the songs of the people and I care not who makes the laws.
16. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of.
17. A great writer has said that grace is beauty in action; I say that justice is truth in action.
18. If we do not plant knowledge when young it will give us no shade when we are old.
19. You can no more exercise your reason if you live in constant dread of laughter than you can enjoy your life if you live in constant dread and terror of death.

WHICH RELATIVE PRONOUN TO USE

373. We are sometimes confused as to which relative pronoun to use in introducing an adjective clause. We hesitate as to whether we should use that or who or which. Remember that who always refers to persons, which refers to animals or things, and that may refer to either persons, animals or things.

So when referring to a person, we may use either who or that, and when referring to animals or things, we may use either which or that. As, for example, we may say, either, The man who was here yesterday came back today, or The man that was here yesterday came back today. Either is correct, for who and that both refer to persons.

374. We may make a little distinction in the use of who and that when referring to persons, however. A clause introduced by that is usually a restrictive clause. It limits or restricts the meaning of the noun which it modifies. When you say, The man that was here yesterday, you mean that man and no other, limiting your meaning to that particular man. On the other hand, when you say, The man who was here yesterday, there is no restriction or limitation expressed in the use of the clause, but it is merely a descriptive clause, adding a new fact to our knowledge concerning that particular man.

The same is true when we are speaking of things using either that or which. The clause introduced by which is presumably a descriptive clause. We do, however, often use who or which when the sense of the clause is restrictive, but we should never use that to introduce an adjective clause, unless the sense is restrictive. When in your sentences you can use, instead of the relative pronoun who or which, the conjunction and, you can know that the use of the pronoun who or which is correct. As, for example:

• I have read the book, which I found very interesting.

You could say instead:

• I have read the book and I found it very interesting.

This would express the same meaning. But if you say: I have read the book that I found very interesting, you mean that you limit your idea to this particular book.

375. We do not always observe these niceties in our spoken and written speech, but it is interesting to know the shades of thought and meaning which you can express by the proper use of the language. The man who runs an engine and learns to know and love his machine almost as though it were a human being, can easily recognize the slightest change in the action of his machine. His ear catches the least difference in the sound of the running of the machine, a difference which we, who do not know and love the machine, would never notice.

So it is in language. Once we have sensed its beauty and its wondrous power of expression, we notice all these slight differences and shades of meaning which may be expressed by the use of words. In just the same manner the musician catches the undertones and overtones of the music, which we, who possess an uneducated ear, cannot know; and the artist also has a wondrous range of color, while we, who are not sensitive to color, know only a few of the primal colors.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH CONJUNCTIONS

376. The adjective clauses which we have been studying so far have been introduced by relative pronouns. Adjective clauses may also be introduced by conjunctions, such as, where, when, whence, or why. As, for example:

• Antwerp is the place where a terrible battle was fought.
• No man knows the hour when opportunity will be his.
• Each group has a different reason why this world-war was precipitated.

Note in these sentences the clauses, where a terrible battle was fought, when opportunity will be his, why this world-war was precipitated, are all adjective clauses modifying the nouns place, hour and reason, and are introduced by the conjunctions where, when, and why. These are adjective clauses because they modify, by either limiting or describing, the nouns with which they are used. You will note that we could omit the nouns in the first two of these sentences and these clauses would become noun clauses, for they would be used in the place of a noun. As, for example:

• Antwerp is where a terrible battle was fought.
• No man knows when opportunity will be his.

377. We determine whether a clause is an adjective or an adverb or a noun clause just as we determine whether a word is an adjective, adverb or noun, by the work which it does in a sentence. Noun clauses are used in the place of a noun; adverb clauses modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs; adjective clauses modify nouns and pronouns.

THE LITTLE WORD "AS"

378. Adjective clauses may also be introduced by as. As is a very convenient word and may be used in several different ways; sometimes as an adverb, sometimes as a conjunction; and it may also be used as a relative pronoun after such, same and many. For example:

• Such books as you should read are listed here.
• No such person as he ever came here.
• We are facing the same crisis as our comrades faced.
• This is the same as you gave before.
• He has made as many mistakes as you have.

In these sentences as is really used as a relative pronoun, connecting these adjective clauses to the words which they modify. As may also be used as an adverb. I am as tall as you are.

Here the first as modifies tall and is used as an adverb; the second as is a conjunction connecting the subordinate clause you are, with the principal clause. Note that in making comparisons, as is always used when the comparison is equal, so when it is unequal, thus:

• I am as tall as you are.
• She is not so tall as you are.

We have found that as is also used as a conjunction to introduce an adverb clause. For example:

• She is as beautiful as she is good.

The clause, as she is good, is an adverb clause, modifying the adjective beautiful. In the sentence, Do as I say, as I say is an adverb clause of manner, modifying the verb do.

CONNECTIVE WORDS

379. Let us not be confused in this matter of connectives. There are just four classes of connective words:

1. Copulative verbs.
2. Relative pronouns.
3. Prepositions.
4. Conjunctions.

380. The copulative verb is not a pure connective, for it serves another purpose in the sentence. For example, in the sentence, The book is interesting, the copulative verb is connects the adjective interesting with the noun book, which it modifies; but it also is the asserting word in the sentence. So it fulfils a double function. It is an asserting word and also a connective word. 381. The relative pronoun also is not a pure connective, for it serves two purposes in the sentence. It not only connects the clause which it introduces, with the word which it modifies, but it also serves as either the subject or object in the clause. For example: The man who was here has gone. The clause, who was here, is introduced by the relative pronoun who, which connects that clause with the noun man, which the clause modifies. Who also serves as the subject of the verb was.

In the sentence, The men whom we seek have gone, the clause, whom we seek, is introduced by the relative pronoun whom, which connects the clause with the word men, which it modifies. Whom also serves as the object of the verb in the clause, the verb seek.

382. A preposition is not a pure connective, since it serves a double function. It shows the relation of its object to the rest of the sentence and also governs the form of its object. As, for example, in the sentence: The man before me is not the culprit, the preposition before connects its object me with the noun man, which the prepositional phrase modifies, showing the relation between them; and it governs the form of its object, for the pronoun following a preposition must be used in the object form.

383. Even co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered pure connectives unless it be the co-ordinate conjunction and. Co-ordinate conjunctions such as but, yet, still, however, etc., not only connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, but in addition to connecting the words and expressions they also indicate that they are opposite in thought.

384. Co-ordinate conjunctions like therefore, hence, then, etc., connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, and also introduce a reason or cause. Co-ordinate conjunctions like or, either, nor, neither, whether, etc., connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, and also express the choice of an alternative. Thus these co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered as pure connectives.

385. Subordinate conjunctions are most frequently used to introduce adverb clauses and have an adverbial meaning. They express, as do adverbs, place, time, manner, cause, reason, purpose, condition or result. Some authorities indicate this double function by calling such words as these conjunctive adverbs, because, even when they are used as conjunctions, they retain some of their adverbial force.

But according to our rule that every word in the sentence is classified according to the function which it performs in that sentence, all words that perform the function of a conjunction are called conjunctions, although we understand that these conjunctions which introduce dependent clauses do still retain some of their adverbial meaning.

Exercise 3

In the following sentences the connectives are in italics. Determine whether they are copulative verbs, relative pronouns, prepositions, co-ordinate conjunctions or subordinate conjunctions.

1. They are slaves who dare not be in the right with two or three.
2. In the twentieth century war will be dead, dogmas will be dead, but man will live.
3. The abuse of free speech dies in a day, but its denial slays the life of the people and entombs the race.
4. Liberty for the few is not liberty.
5. Liberty for me and slavery for you means slavery for both.
6. The greatest thing in the world is for a man to know that he is his own.
7. Nothing can work me damage except myself.
8. He that loveth maketh his own the grandeur which he loves.
9. My life is not an apology, but a life.
10. I cannot consent to pay for a privilege where I have intrinsic right.
11. It is difficult to free fools from the chains which they revere.
12. Desire nothing for yourself which you do not desire for others.
13. All our liberties are due to men who, when their conscience compelled them, have broken the laws of the land.

14. "It takes great strength to live where you belong,

    When other people think that you are wrong."

15. If the truth shall make you free, ye shall be free indeed.
16. He is true to God who is true to man.

Exercise 4

In the following sentences underscore all the connectives—copulative verbs, prepositions, relative pronouns, co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions.

"There was a bird's egg once, picked up by chance upon the ground, and those who found it bore it home and placed it under a barn-yard fowl. And in time the chick bred out, and those who had found it chained it by the leg to a log lest it should stray and be lost. And by and by they gathered round it, and speculated as to what the bird might be.

One said, "It is surely a waterfowl, a duck, or it may be a goose; if we took it to the water it would swim and gabble." But another said, "It has no webs to its feet; it is a barn-yard fowl; if you should let it loose it will scratch and cackle with the others on the dungheap." But a third speculated, "Look now at its curved beak; no doubt it is a parrot, and can crack nuts."

But a fourth said, "No, but look at its wings; perhaps it is a bird of great flight." But several cried, "Nonsense! No one has ever seen it fly! Why should it fly? Can you suppose that a thing can do a thing which no one has ever seen it do?" And the bird, with its leg chained close to the log, preened its wings.

So they say about it, speculating and discussing it: and one said this, and another that.

And all the while, as they talked, the bird sat motionless, "Suppose we let the creature loose to see what it will do?"—and the bird shivered. But the others cried, "It is too valuable; it might get lost. If it were to try to fly it might fall down and break its neck." And the bird, with its foot chained to the log, sat looking upward into the clear sky; the sky, in which it had never been—for the bird—the bird, knew what it would do—because it was an eaglet!"

—Olive Schreiner.

Exercise 5

These stirring lines are taken from Arturo Giovannitti's "Arrows in the Gale" and are a part of the poem "The Sermon on the Common." Note the use of the conjunctions. Mark all of the clauses.

Ye are the power of the earth, the foundations of society, the thinkers and the doers of all things good and all things fair and useful, the makers and dispensers of all the bounties and the joys and the happiness of the world, and if ye fold your mighty arms, all the life of the world stands still and death hovers on the darkened abodes of man.

Ye are the light of the world. There was darkness in all the ages when the torch of your will did not blaze forth, and the past and the future are full of the radiance that cometh from your eyes.

Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal, and no power of time and dissolution can prevail against you.

Ages have come and gone, kingdoms and powers and dynasties have risen and fallen, old glories and ancient wisdoms have been turned into dust, heroes and sages have been forgotten and many a mighty and fearsome god has been hurled into the lightless chasms of oblivion.

But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and abide forever.

Therefore I say unto you, banish fear from your hearts, dispel the mists of ignorance from your minds, arm your yearning with your strength, your vision with your will, and open your eyes and behold.

Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait.

Think, dare, do, rebel, fight—ARISE!

It is not true that ye are condemned to serve and to suffer in shame forever.

It is not true that injustice, iniquity, hunger, misery, abjection, depravity, hatred, theft, murder and fratricide are eternal.

There is no destiny that the will of man cannot break.

There are no chains of iron that other iron cannot destroy.

There is nothing that the power of your arms, lighted by the power of your mind, cannot transform and reconstruct and remake.

Arise, then, ye men of the plow and the hammer, the helm and the lever, and send forth to the four winds of the earth your new proclamation of freedom which shall be the last and shall abide forevermore.

Through you, through your united, almighty strength, order shall become equity, law shall become liberty, duty shall become love and religion shall become truth.

Through you, the man-beast shall die and the man be born.

Through you, the dark and bloody chronicles of the brute shall cease and the story of man shall begin.

Through you, by the power of your brain and hand,

All the predictions of the prophets,

All the wisdom of the sages,

All the dreams of the poets,

All the hopes of the heroes,

All the visions of the martyrs,

All the prayers of the saints,

All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of the ages, and all the glorious destinies of mankind shall become a triumphant and everlasting reality in the name of labor and bread and love, the great threefold truth forever.

And lo and behold, my brothers, this shall be called the revolution.