Dear Comrade:

In this lesson we are completing the study of conjunctions. We have studied the conjunction last among the parts of speech and in the order of the development of language, the conjunction naturally comes last. The need of connective words does not come in any language until the language is quite well developed. You will notice that the connective words, such as prepositions and conjunctions are the last words the child begins to use. The child first begins to use the names of the things with which it comes in contact, then it learns the words that express what these things do. But it is not until the child begins to reason that it begins to use connective words. These become necessary when we have reached a stage of development where we can consider the relationship existing between things.

The use of conjunctions, however, can be greatly overdone. The long and involved sentences are more difficult to understand. If you will note the authors which you enjoy the most, it will probably be those who use short and crisp sentences. We have some authors who by the use of conjunctions can string one sentence out over several pages. You wonder how they manage to exist so long without stopping for breath. It is very easy for us to fall into this error when we are thinking rapidly and our thoughts all seem to be closely connected. But no mind can grasp many ideas at one time. Break your sentences up and express your ideas concisely and clearly. Use conjunctions rather sparingly, especially these subordinate conjunctions. Do not have too many subordinate clauses in one sentence.

Notice in your reading for this week those who use the short, crisp sentences and those who use the longer and more involved sentences. Notice which are understood more readily and which are more enjoyable to read. Take some of the paragraphs from those who write long and involved sentences and break them up into short sentences and see if these shorter sentences do not make the meaning simpler and clearer. This will be excellent practice also in gaining the power of expression.

Especially in the class struggle do we need those who can write clearly and simply of the great problems of the day. As the work of the world is conducted today, the workers have too little time for reading. They are apt, after a hard day's work, to be too tired to follow an author through long, winding, involved passages.

In the spoken word, this is also true. You will find your hearers much more in sympathy with you if you will use short sentences. Break your thought up so they can readily grasp your meaning and follow you to your conclusion.

Conjunctions are very important to save us from tiresome repetitions and short, jerky sentences, but we must avoid using them too frequently.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

347. We have found that co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases and also clauses that are entirely independent; that is, they do not depend in the slightest degree upon any other word, phrase or clause. Subordinate conjunctions connect inferior clauses to the main clauses of the sentence. These inferior clauses are dependent clauses. Subordinate conjunctions never connect words or phrases; but only dependent clauses, to the rest of the sentence. Note the following sentences:

• He came quickly.
• He came on time.
• He came when he was called.

In the first sentence the word quickly is an adverb modifying the verb came and answers the question when. It tells when he came. In the second sentence, the phrase on time is an adverb phrase modifying the verb came, and answers the question when. It tells when he came. In the third sentence, the clause when he was called, also answers the question when, and tells when he came. Therefore, it is a clause used as an adverb. It is different from the phrase on time, for the phrase on time does not contain a subject and a predicate.

348. The difference between the phrase and the clause is that the phrase does not contain either a subject or a predicate, while the clause always contains both a subject and a predicate. So in the clause, when he was called, he is the subject and was called is the predicate, and when is the subordinate conjunction, which connects this adverb clause to the verb came, which it modifies. The clause he came, and the clause when he was called, are not of equal rank and importance, because the clause, when he was called, simply modifies the verb contained in the clause he came, by describing the time of the action expressed in the verb came. So the clause, when he was called, is a subordinate or dependent clause, and the conjunctions which connect this class of clauses to the main clause are called subordinate conjunctions.

349. A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.

CLASSES OF SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

350. Most subordinate conjunctions are used to make adverb clauses. These clauses will answer some one of the questions answered by adverbs. They will tell how, when, where or why the action expressed in the verb in the principal clause occurred. There are six classes of these subordinate conjunctions which are used to introduce adverb clauses. They introduce:

351. Adverb clause of time. These clauses will answer the question when and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, before, since, as, while, until, when, after and as soon as. Notice in the following sentences the difference made in the meaning of the sentences by the use of the different conjunctions:

• We waited until you came.
• We waited after you came.
• We waited as you came.
• We waited before you came.
• We waited since you came.
• We left while you were gone.
• We left when you were gone.
• We left as soon as you were gone.

352. Adverb clause of place. These answer the question where, and are introduced by the conjunctions, where, whence, whither.

• I will go where you go.
• The wind blows whither it listeth.
• He went whence he came.

353. Adverb clauses expressing cause or reason. These will answer the question why. They are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, because, for, since, as, whereas, inasmuch as, etc.

Note the difference in the meaning of the following sentences expressed by the use of different conjunctions:

• I will come because you expect me.
• I will come since you expect me.
• I will come as you expect me.
• I will come for you expect me.
• I will come inasmuch as you expect me.

354. Adverb clauses of manner. These clauses will answer the question how, and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, as, as if, as though, etc.

• Study as though you were in earnest.
• Come as if you had been called.
• Do as I say, not as I do.

In these clauses of manner, introduced by as if, and as though, were is used in the present form with either singular or plural subjects. For example:

• He writes as if he were informed of the facts.
• They talk as though they were confident of success.
• You act as though I were your slave.

355. Adverb clauses of comparison. These clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions than and as. The verbs are often omitted in these dependent clauses introduced by than and as. For example: He is taller than I. The complete sentence would be: He is taller than I am. He is not so tall as I. Here the sentence would be: He is not so tall as I am.

When the pronoun occurs in these dependent clauses, be sure to use the proper form of the pronoun. It may be the subject or the object of the verb which is not expressed. For example; it is incorrect to say: I am not so tall as him. The correct form is: I am not so tall as he. The complete sentence would be: I am not so tall as he is, and the pronoun should be in the subject form, for it is the subject of the verb is, which is understood and omitted.

The use of the subject or of the object form may make a difference in the meaning of your sentence. For example, you say: I admire them as much as he. You mean that you admire them as much as he admires them. But if you say, I admire them as much as him, you mean that you admire them as much as you admire him. Quite a different meaning!

Be careful in the use of your pronouns in this way, for you can express quite a different meaning. For example, if you say, I care more for you than he, you mean, I care more for you than he cares for you. But if you say, I care more for you than him, you mean, I care more for you than I care for him. A mistake like this might mean a great deal to you some time, if the one to whom you had been speaking had been studying a course in Plain English!

356. Adverb clauses of condition. These clauses are introduced by such conjunctions as, if, provided, supposing, unless, except, otherwise, though, notwithstanding, albeit, and whether. For example:

• I will come if you need me.
• I will come provided you need me.
• I will go notwithstanding you need me.
• I will not go unless I am called.
• He will not go except he is called.
• He will not go though he is called.
• He came, otherwise I would go.
• He will go whether you go or stay.

When subordinate clauses beginning with if, though or unless are joined to clauses containing might, could, would or should, the verb were is sometimes used with a singular subject, in such sentences as:

• If this were true, I should know it.
• Unless I were positive, I would not say so.
• Though our leader were lost, yet we would not despair.
• If he were here, he would explain it himself.
• If I were with you, I might make you understand.

Sometimes in sentences like these, if is omitted in the clause, and the verb placed first. For example:

• Were he here, he would deny these slanders.
• Were he truly class-conscious, he would oppose this war.
• Were this fact known, the people would never submit.

These clauses express something which is uncertain, or which is to be decided in the future; a supposition contrary to a fact or a wish. Occasionally you will find the verb be used instead of is, in clauses of this kind introduced by if, though, unless, except, lest, etc. For example:

• If it be true, I will hear it.
• Though he be guilty, we will not desert him.

In subordinate clauses connected by if, unless, etc., with a principal clause which expresses future time, the present form of the verb is used in the subordinate clause. For example:

• If they are willing, we will join them.
• Unless he comes, I shall not leave.
• If it rains, we will not go.

357. Adverb clauses expressing purpose. These are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, that, in order that and lest. For example:

• Take good care that you understand this lesson.
• I will go today in order that I may meet him.
• Watch these carefully lest they be stolen.
• Read the labor press that you may know the truth.

Notice that that, when used in this way, as a pure conjunction, means in order that. For example, the sentence above might read:

• Read the labor press in order that you may know the truth.

358. Adverb clauses expressing result. These are introduced by the subordinate conjunction that, as for example:

• They were so late that I could not go.

SUMMARY

359. We have then adverb clauses introduced by subordinate conjunctions expressing:

1. Time. Answer the question when.
2. Place. Answer the question where.
3. Cause or reason. Answer the question why.
4. Manner. Answer the question how.
5. Comparison. Used to compare.
6. Condition. Answer the question on what condition.
7. Purpose. Answer the question for what purpose.
8. Result. Answer the question to what result.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences, mark the conjunctions and tell to what class they belong; ask the question when, where, why, how, on what condition, for what purpose, to what result. Underscore the subordinate clauses. The subjects of the subordinate clauses are printed in italics.

1. Speech was developed that we might be able to communicate with one another.
2. The International failed in the crisis because it had no definite war program.
3. We will fail if we have no definite program.
4. If labor were united, we could destroy wage slavery.
5. When the people understand, they will no longer submit.
6. Labor cannot win until it learns solidarity.
7. After the terrible war is over, the workers in all countries may come closer together.
8. We are convinced of the folly of nationalism since the war has been declared.
9. If we knew the facts we could not be misled.
10. Inform yourself before you seek to teach others.
11. We must unite in order that we may possess power.
12. It is more than the heart can bear.
13. May you have courage to dare ere you have ceased to dream.
14. If we remain ignorant, we shall remain enslaved.
15. We sometimes fear to trust our own thought because it is our own.
16. Though we should lose the strike we will not despair.
17. The battle waged so fiercely that thousands were slain.

PHRASE CONJUNCTIONS

360. There are certain phrases which have come to be used together as conjunctions so commonly that we may consider them as conjunctions. They are:

As if, as though, but also, but likewise, so that, except that, inasmuch as, notwithstanding that, in order that, as well as, as far as, so far as, as little as, provided that, seeing that, etc.

Exercise 2

Write sentences using these phrase conjunctions to introduce clauses.

NOUN CLAUSES

361. We have found that there are two kinds of clauses, principal clauses and subordinate clauses.

A principal clause is one that does not depend on any word.

A subordinate clause is one that depends upon some word or words in the principal clause.

We have found, also, that these principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, for they are of equal rank and importance; neither is dependent upon the other.

Subordinate clauses are always connected with the principal clause by a subordinate conjunction. The subordinate clauses which we have been studying have all been adverb clauses which are used to describe the action expressed in the verb contained in the principal clauses.

The subordinate clause in a sentence may also be used as a noun. When the subordinate clause is used as a noun it is called a noun clause.

362. A noun clause is a clause used as a noun.

A noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun is used, except as a possessive. It may be used as a subject, an object, a predicate complement, or in apposition with a noun. These noun clauses may be introduced by either relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns or by conjunctions. For example:

• I know who he is.
• He asked, "what do you want?"
• I know where it is.

In the first sentence, who he is, is a noun clause used as the object of the verb know. It tells what I know, and is the object of the verb know,—just as if I had said; I know the facts. In this sentence the noun, facts, is the object of the verb know.

In the second sentence, He asked, "what do you want?" the noun clause what do you want is the object of the verb asked, and is introduced by the interrogative pronoun what.

We will study in a subsequent lesson the use of noun clauses introduced by relative pronouns. In this lesson we are studying the conjunctions.

In the last sentence, I know where it is, the noun clause where it is, is the object of the verb know, and is introduced by the conjunction where.

363. Noun clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions, where, when, whence, whither, whether, how, why, and also by the subordinate conjunction that. For example:

• I know where I can find it.
• I inquired when he would arrive.
• We do not know whence it cometh nor whither it goeth.
• Ask whether the train has gone.
• I don't know how I can find you.
• I cannot understand why he does so.
• I believe that he is honest.

In all of these examples the noun clauses are used as the objects of the verb. Noun clauses may also be used as objects of prepositions. As, for example:

• You do not listen to what is said.
• He talked to me about what had happened.
• He told me to come to where he was.

364. Noun clauses may also be used as the subject of a sentence. As for example:

• That he is innocent is admitted by all.
• That he was guilty has been proven.
• Why he should do this is very strange.
• How we are to live is the great problem.

In all of these sentences, the noun clause is used as the subject of the verb. You will note that most frequently the noun clause used as subject of the verb is introduced by the subordinate conjunction that. But quite often we write these sentences in a somewhat different way. For example:

• It is admitted by all that he is innocent.
• It has been proven that he was guilty.

You will notice in these sentences we have expressed practically the same thought as in the sentences where the noun clause was used as the subject of the verb.

But now we have this little pronoun it used as the subject, instead of the clause, which is the real subject of the sentence. It is simply used as the introductory word in the sentence. The noun clause is in reality the subject of the sentence.

365. Noun clauses may also be used as the predicate complement with a copulative verb. For example:

• The general opinion is that he is innocent.
• The problem is how we may accomplish this quickly.
• The question was why any one should believe such statements.

In all of these sentences the noun clause is used as the complement of the incomplete verbs is and was, to complete the meaning, just as we use a noun as the predicate complement of a copulative verb in such sentences as, Socialism is a science. War is murder.

366. A noun clause may also be used in apposition to a noun to explain its meaning. Apposition means to place alongside of. Note in the following sentences:

• The fact, that such a law had been passed, alters the situation.
• His motion, that the matter should be laid on the table, was adopted.

In the first sentence, the clause, that such a law had been passed, is placed beside the noun fact and explains what that fact is. The clause, that the matter should be laid on the table, is in apposition to and explains the noun motion.

These noun clauses are used in apposition.

Exercise 3

Complete the following sentences by inserting the appropriate conjunctions and pronouns in the blank spaces:

1. Can you tell......Germany has a million fighting men?
2. Would you be pleased......the United States should intervene in Mexico?
3. The Mexican revolution will continue......the people possess the land.
4. No one may vote in the convention......he has credentials.
5. ......Debs was in Woodstock jail, he became in Socialist.
6. ......the treaty was signed, hostilities ceased.
7. We shall win......we have the courage.
8. ......we have lost this battle we shall not cease to struggle.
9. All are enslaved......one is enslaved.
10. Humanity will be free......labor is free.
11. Let us do our duty......we understand it.
12. Man will never reach his best......he walks side by side with woman.
13. We must struggle......we would be free.
14. ......we shout for peace, we support war.
15. All our sympathies should be with the man......toils,......we know......labor is the foundation of all.
16. ......all have the right to think and to express their thoughts every brain will give to all the best......it has.
17. ......man develops he places greater value upon his own rights.
18. ......man values his own rights he begins to value the rights of others.
19. ......all men give to all others the rights......they claim for themselves this world will be civilized.

Exercise 4

Note all the co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions in the following verses from "The Ballad of Reading Gaol." Underscore the subordinate clauses. Are they adverb or noun clauses? Do the co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses?

I know not whether Laws be right,

Or whether Laws be wrong;

All that we know who lie in gaol

Is that the wall is strong;

And that each day is like a year,

A year whose days are long.