Dear Comrade:

We are taking up in this lesson the study of the last important part of speech. We have spent some little time on the study of these parts of speech, but it has been time well spent. We cannot use good English and construct sentences that express our thoughts without an adequate knowledge of the words we use in sentence building. As soon as we finish the study of the parts of speech, we will spend several weeks in sentence building. This will give us a review of these lessons in which we have studied separate words.

The English language is one of the most interesting of all to study. It is the most truly international of all languages, for the English language contains words from almost every language in the world. Did you ever stop to think that we could have internationalism in language as well as in other things? We can be as narrowly patriotic concerning words as concerning anything else.

Nations have been prone to consider all those who do not speak their language as barbarians. Germany, perhaps, possesses as strong a nationalistic spirit as any country, and in Germany this spirit has found expression in a society formed for the purpose of keeping all foreign words out of the German language. They have published handbooks of native words for almost every department of modern life. They insist that the people use these words, instead of foreign importations. The German State takes great pride in the German language and considers it the most perfect of any spoken today. The rulers of Germany believe that it is a part of their duty to the world to see that all other nations speak the German language. In conquered Poland, only German is permitted to be taught in the schools or to be spoken as the language of commerce. The patriots in language seem to believe that there is some connection between purity of language and purity of race.

In English, however, we have the beginnings of an international speech. Our civilization is derived from various sources. Here in America we are truly the melting-pot of the nations, and this is mirrored forth in our language which is, in a way, a melting-pot also, in which have been thrown words from every tongue. Those for whom nationalism is an important thing will probably cling to the idea of a pure unmixed language, but to those of us to whom Internationalism is not an empty word, but a living ideal, an international language becomes also part of the ideal.

There is a wealth of wonderful literature open to us once we have gained a command of the English language. Pay especial attention to the quotations given in each lesson. These are quotations from the very best literature. If there are any of them that arouse your interest and you would like to read more from the same author, write us and we shall be glad to furnish you full information concerning further reading.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

CONJUNCTIONS

328. You remember that in Lesson 3, where we studied the parts of speech, we found that we had another connective word besides the preposition,—the conjunction.

A preposition connects two words and shows what one of them has to do with the other. The conjunction plays a different part as a connective, for it connects not only words but also phrases and clauses. Note the following sentences:

• Shall we be men or machines?
• We must struggle for ourselves and for our children.
• We pray for peace but furnish ammunition for war.

The use of the conjunction saves a great deal of tiresome repetition, for, by its use, where two subjects have the same predicate or two predicates have the same subject, we can combine it all into one sentence.

You will readily realize how important this part of speech is to us. If we did not have conjunctions our speech would be cumbersome and we would have to use a great many short sentences and a great deal of repetition. If we wanted to make the same statement concerning a number of things, without conjunctions, we would have each time to repeat the entire statement. Try to write a description of a scene and avoid the use of conjunctions and you will see what an important part these connective words play in our power of expression.

Without the use of the conjunction, you would necessarily use a great many short expressions and repeat the same words again and again, and your description would be a jerky, tiresome, unsatisfactory piece of writing.

Exercise 1

Rewrite the following sentences, writing in separate sentences the clauses that are united by the conjunctions:

1. The birds are singing and spring is here.
2. We talk of peace, but war still rages.
3. The unemployed cannot find work and they are dying of hunger.
4. We believed in war for defense and every nation is now fighting for defense.
5. We believe in education and we are struggling for universal education.
6. The old order is fast passing and the new order is rapidly appearing.
7. Profit is the keynote of the present, but service shall be the keynote of the future.
8. All children should be in school, but thousands must earn their bread.

Note that these sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences combined; and each of these simple sentences is called a clause, and each clause must contain a subject and a predicate.

Exercise 2

Rewrite the following simple sentences, using conjunctions to avoid a repetition of the same subject and predicate. Rewrite these into a paragraph, making as well written a paragraph as you possibly can:

• One hundred years ago the workers fought for universal education.
• As a result we have our public schools of today.
• Our public schools have been our chief bulwark against oppression.
• Our public schools are our chief bulwark against oppression.
• Our public schools are our greatest safeguard for the protection of such liberty as we enjoy.
• Our public school system embodies a socialistic ideal.
• Our public school system is the most democratic of our institutions.
• There has been a subtle subversion of the ideal.
• The public school system has been made to serve the master class.
• We have spent millions to make the ideal a reality.
• Have we realized the ideal?
• Is there universal education?
• Is there education for every child beneath the flag?
• The grounds of our public schools have cost millions.
• The buildings have cost millions.
• The courses of study are many.
• They are varied.
• They are elaborate.
• But the workers of the world do not enjoy this feast.
• The children of the workers do not enjoy this feast.

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS

329. Conjunctions are divided into classes, as are other parts of speech, according to the work which they do. Notice the following sentences and notice how the use of a different conjunction changes the meaning of the sentence.

• We are united and we shall win.
• When we are united, we shall win.

In the first sentence the conjunction and connects the two clauses, we are united and we shall win. They are both independent clauses, neither is dependent upon the other, and both are of equal importance. But by the use of the conjunction when, instead of the conjunction and, we have changed the meaning of the sentence. There is quite a difference in saying, We are united and we shall win, and When we are united we shall win.

By connecting these two statements with the conjunction when, we have made of the clause, we are united, a dependent clause, it modifies the verb phrase shall win. It tells when we shall win, just as much as if we had used an adverb to modify the verb phrase, and had said, We shall win tomorrow, instead of, We shall win when we are united.

So in these two sentences we have two different kinds of conjunctions, the conjunction and, which connects clauses of equal rank or order, and the conjunction when, which connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.

330. So the conjunctions like and are called co-ordinate conjunctions. Co-ordinate means literally of equal rank or order. Conjunctions like when are called sub-ordinate conjunctions. Sub-ordinate means of inferior rank or order. So we have our definitions:

331. A conjunction is a word that connects words or phrases or clauses.

A co-ordinate conjunction is one that joins words, phrases or clauses having the same rank.

A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.

CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

332. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses of equal rank. The most commonly used co-ordinate conjunctions are; and, but, or, nor.

333. But there are a number of words which we often use as adverbs, which may also be used as co-ordinate conjunctions. These words are not always conjunctions, for they are sometimes used as adverbs. When they are used as conjunctions they retain something of their adverbial meaning; but still they are conjunctions, for they are used to show the connection between two clauses of equal rank. Thus:

• I am not in favor of the motion, nevertheless I shall vote for it.
• The deputies voted for the war appropriation, notwithstanding they had carried on an extensive anti-war propaganda.
• I did not believe in the change, however I did not oppose it.

334. The co-ordinate conjunctions which we use with this adverbial meaning also, are; therefore, hence, still, besides, consequently, yet, likewise, moreover, else, than, also, accordingly, nevertheless, notwithstanding, otherwise, however, so and furthermore.

These conjunctions always refer to what has been said before and serve to introduce and connect new statements.

335. We often use these conjunctions, and also, and, but, or, and nor, at the beginning of a separate sentence or paragraph to connect it in meaning with that which has gone before. You will often see the use of these conjunctions as the first word of a new paragraph, thus relating this paragraph to that which has preceded it.

336. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words of equal rank.

NOUNS

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the subject of a verb. As:

• Death and disaster follow in the wake of war.

In this sentence, death is just as much the subject of the verb follow as is the word disaster, but no more so. You can omit either of these words and the other will make a subject for the sentence. They are both of equal importance, both of the same rank in the sentence, and neither depends upon the other. These two words taken together form the subject of the sentence. This is called the compound subject, for it consists of two simple subjects.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the object of a verb.

• He studies history and science.

In this sentence the words history and science are both used as objects of the verb studies.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the object of a preposition.

• He called for the letters and the papers.

In this sentence letters and papers are both objects of the preposition for, connected by the co-ordinate conjunction and.

Exercise 3

Note in the following sentences the nouns which are connected by conjunctions and decide whether they are used as the subject of the sentences or the object of verbs or of prepositions. Draw a line under compound subjects.

1. John and Henry are going home.
2. Music and painting are fine arts.
3. The grounds and buildings of our public schools have cost millions.
4. The time calls for brave men and women.
5. We struggle for truth and freedom.
6. Will you study English or arithmetic?
7. Education and organization are necessary for success.
8. We must learn the truth about production and distribution.
9. We demand justice and liberty.
10. The great struggle is between the working class and the ruling class.

PRONOUNS

337. Co-ordinate conjunctions may also connect pronouns.

These are used in the same way as nouns,—either as subject or object. Nouns have the same form whether used as subject or object. Pronouns, however, have different forms when used as the object. Here is where we often make mistakes in the use of pronouns. When the pronouns are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions they are of the same rank and are used in the same construction;—if they are used as subjects both must be used in the subject form;—if they are used as objects, both must be used in the object form. For example, it is incorrect to say, He told the story to her and I. Here her is properly used in the object form, for it is the object of the preposition to; the pronoun I connected with her by the use of the conjunction and is also the object of the preposition to, and the object form should be used. You would not say, He told the story to I. The sentence should read, He told the story to her and me. Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the subject of a sentence, as for example:

• She and I arrived today.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the object of the verb, as for example:

• Did you call her or me?

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the object of the preposition, as:

• He gave that to you and me.

Exercise 4

Study closely the following sentences and correct those in which the wrong form of the pronoun is used.

1. He and I are old friends.
2. Did you ask him or me?
3. They promised him and I that they would come.
4. Find the place for she and me.
5. Me and him will get it for you and she.
6. She and I will go with you.
7. You and I must decide matters for ourselves.
8. You will find him and her to be loyal comrades.

VERBS

338. Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect verbs. Verbs connected in this way have the same subject; and with the use of the conjunction to connect the verbs, we save repeating the subject.

• He reads and studies constantly.

In this sentence reads and studies are words of the same kind and of the same rank; either could be omitted and the other would make a predicate for the sentence. They are of equal importance in the sentence and are connected by the conjunction and. They have a single subject, the pronoun he.

This is called a compound predicate.

In the sentence, He reads constantly, we have a simple predicate, the single verb reads; but in the sentence, He reads and studies constantly, we have a compound predicate, compound of the two verbs reads and studies. A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate. As, for example:

• John and James read and study constantly.

In this sentence John and James is the compound subject of both the verbs, read and study. So we have a compound subject and a compound predicate.

Exercise 5

Notice the verbs in the following sentences connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Draw lines under each compound predicate.

1. The days come and go in a ceaseless round.
2. The brave man dreams and dares to live the dream.
3. The coward dreams but dares not live the dream.
4. We produce splendidly but distribute miserably.
5. The bought press twists and distorts the facts.
6. Only a traitor aids or supports the enemy.
7. We agitate and educate for the cause of liberty.

ADJECTIVES

339. Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect adjectives.

In this way we use a number of adjectives to modify the same word without tiresome repetition. When several adjectives are used to modify the same word, the conjunction is used only between the last two adjectives. As, for example:

A simple, clear and concise course has been prepared.

Exercise 6

In the following sentences, underscore the adjectives which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions.

1. The plains of France are covered with the dead and dying soldiers.
2. Education should be both universal and free.
3. They are faithful and loyal comrades.
4. This was only our just and legal right.
5. Old and hoary was the man who sat on the stool by the fireless and godless altar.
6. The service of humanity is a sweet and noble task.
7. We must be brave and true.
8. He lived a noble and courageous life.
9. All was old and cold and mournful.
10. Most powerful and eloquent is the voice of the disinherited.

ADVERBS

340. Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect adverbs. This gives us the power to describe the action expressed in verbs without the tiresome repetition of the verb. For example:

• He spoke fluently and eloquently.

Exercise 7

In the following sentences underscore the adverbs which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions:

1. Man selfishly and greedily prevents his fellow men from the enjoyment of nature's bounties.
2. She is wonderfully and gloriously brave.
3. He speaks eloquently and impressively, but very slowly.
4. Nature has provided lavishly and bountifully for her children.
5. Advice spoken truly and wisely is always in season.
6. We must resist injustice bravely and courageously.
7. He feels keenly and deeply the wrongs of his class.
8. He writes easily and rapidly.
9. The words, calmly and coolly spoken, were instantly opposed.
10. He reached that conclusion naturally and inevitably.
11. He was gently but unwaveringly firm.
12. The revolution comes slowly but surely.

PHRASES

341. Co-ordinate conjunctions are used, not only to connect words, but also to connect phrases.

Verb Phrases

342. Verb phrases may be connected by conjunctions. For example:

• The People's College is owned and controlled by the working class.
• We have made and are making a fierce struggle for a free press.

In this last sentence the two verb phrases, have made and are making are connected by the co-ordinate conjunction and. Often in using verb phrases, we use phrases in which the same helping verb occurs in both phrases. When this is the case the helping verb is quite often omitted in the second phrase and only the participle is connected by the conjunction. As, for example:

• The People's College is owned and controlled by the working class.

In this sentence the helping verb is belongs in both the phrases but is omitted in the second phrase in order to make a smoother sounding sentence. In the second phrase, only the past participle controlled is used. It is understood that we mean,

The People's College is owned and is controlled by the working class.

Exercise 8

Note the use of the conjunction in the following sentences to connect the verb phrases. Supply the helping verb where it is omitted.

1. Our system of education is rooted and grounded in outgrown dogmas.
2. We have written but have received no answer.
3. Will you come or stay?
4. Man must struggle or remain in slavery.
5. The workers are organizing and demanding their rights.
6. We must arouse and educate our comrades.
7. We have sought but have not found.

Prepositional Phrases

343. Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect prepositional phrases.

These phrases may be used as adjective phrases. For example:

• The books in the book case and on the table belong to me.

These phrases may be used as adverb phrases. For example:

• He works with speed and with ease.

Exercise 9

Note in the following sentences, the prepositional phrases which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Mark which are used as adjective and which as adverb phrases.

1. Education is the road out of ignorance and into the light.
2. The army charged over the plain and up the hill.
3. The first men lived in groups and in clans.
4. Democracy means government of the people and by the people.
5. Shall we take the path toward progress or toward barbarism.
6. They are not fighting for their country but for their king.
7. Human rights are not protected by the law nor by the courts.
8. The problem of the working class and of society is the problem of equitable distribution.
9. They are deceived by their leaders and by their press.
10. You can pay either by the week or by the month.
11. Our government is not the rule of the majority but of the minority.

Infinitives and Participles

344. Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect infinitives and participles.

Exercise 10

In the following sentences mark the infinitives and participles connected by co-ordinate conjunctions.

1. Those words will inspire us to dream and to dare.
2. We shall learn to produce and to distribute.
3. To be or not to be, that is the question.
4. Puffing and panting, the great engine pulled up to the station.
5. A cringing and trembling coward fears to demand his own.
6. The warped and twisted facts in the daily press deceive the masses.
7. Singing and dancing should be enjoyed by all children.
8. The exploiting and robbing of the people is made a virtue in ruling class ethics.

CLAUSES

345. Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect clauses of equal rank. For example:

• The floods came and the winds blew.

Each of these clauses is a complete sentence in itself, but they are combined into one compound sentence by the use of the co-ordinate conjunction, and. Clauses united in this way may have a compound subject and a compound predicate, but two complete clauses must be united by a co-ordinate conjunction in order to form a compound sentence. For example:

• The rain and snow fell, and the wind blew a mighty gale.

Here the first clause in the compound sentence, the rain and snow fell, contains a compound subject, rain and snow.

• The boys are running and shouting, and the girls are gathering flowers.

Here the first clause has a compound predicate, are running and shouting. The second and connects the two clauses forming the compound sentence.

CORRELATIVES

346. Certain co-ordinate conjunctions are used in pairs, such as both, and; either, or; neither, nor; whether, or. These pairs are called correlatives. The first word in the pair, as, both, either, neither, or whether, is used as an assistant conjunction helping the other to do the connecting. These are used in such sentences as:

• I have both seen and heard him.
• They will join us either in April or in May.
• Labor has received neither liberty nor justice.
• Whether to go forward or to retreat was the problem.

Note that nor is always the proper correlative to use with neither and also with the negatives not and never when they apply to what follows as well as to what precedes. For example:

• There are thousands in this country who can neither read nor write.
• Neither you nor I can foretell the future.
• He will not write nor should you.
• Capital punishment is nothing more nor less than legalized murder.
• We shall never lower our colors nor retreat.

Or is always used with the correlative either. For example:

• We will either come or write you.
• Either he was mistaken or he deliberately lied.

Exercise 11

Note the use of the co-ordinate conjunctions and, but, or and nor, in the following quotation. Mark especially the use of and as an introductory conjunction, introducing a new sentence, but connecting it with that which has gone before.

In my judgment slavery is the child of ignorance. Liberty is born of intelligence. Only a few years ago there was a great awakening in the human mind. Men began to inquire, "By what right does a crowned robber make me work for him?" The man who asked this question was called a traitor.

They said then, and they say now, that it is dangerous for the mind of man to be free. I deny it. Out on the intellectual sea there is room for every sail. In the intellectual air, there is space enough for every wing. And the man who does not do his own thinking is a slave, and does not do his duty to his fellow men. For one, I expect to do my own thinking. And I will take my oath this minute that I will express what thoughts I have, honestly and sincerely. I am the slave of no man and of no organization. I stand under the blue sky and the stars, under the infinite flag of nature, the peer of every human being.

All I claim, all I plead is simple liberty of thought. That is all. I do not pretend to tell what is true nor all the truth. I do not claim that I have floated level with the heights of thought, nor that I have descended to the depths of things; I simply claim that what ideas I have, I have a right to express, and any man that denies it to me is an intellectual thief and robber.

Every creed that we have today has upon it the mark of the whip or the chain or the fagot. I do not want it. Free labor will give us wealth, and has given us wealth, and why? Because a free brain goes into partnership with a free hand. That is why. And when a man works for his wife and children, the problem of liberty is, how to do the most work in the shortest space of time; but the problem of slavery is, how to do the least work in the longest space of time. Slavery is poverty; liberty is wealth.

It is the same in thought. Free thought will give us truth; and the man who is not in favor of free thought occupies the same relation to those he can govern that the slaveholder occupied to his slaves, exactly. Free thought will give us wealth. There has not been a generation of free thought yet. It will be time to write a creed when there have been a few generations of free-brained men and splendid women in this world. I don't know what the future may bring forth; I don't know what inventions are in the brain of the future; I don't know what garments may be woven, with the years to come; but I do know, coming from the infinite sea of the future, there will never touch this "bank and shoal of time" a greater blessing nor a grander glory, than liberty for man, woman and child.

Oh, liberty! Float not forever in the far horizon! Remain not forever in the dream of the enthusiast and the poet and the philanthropist. But come and take up thine abode with the children of men forever.—Ingersoll.