Dear Comrade:

Review Lesson 1 before taking up this lesson. Do not try to learn by rote the contents of these lessons. Our endeavor is to make you see the reason for every rule and definition before they are given. We want you to see unfolding before you the development of language and through this evolution you can catch a glimpse of the developing life of man. Language like customs, religion, government, has grown with the economic advancement of man. As man has evolved on the economic plane, the material plane, as he has improved his means of providing for himself food and clothes and shelter, he has developed a language suited to his needs.

So we can trace the growth of the race as we study the development of language from the sign language of the primitive savage to the language of the philosopher of today by which he makes known to us the story of the stars, and the innermost secrets of our hearts and minds. Civilization began with the invention of the phonetic alphabet and the use of writing. So the study of language becomes not a dull and stupid conning of useless rules and formulas, but an absorbing study of a living, growing, changing thing that mirrors forth the very life of man.

Think while you study. As you look for the definition of words in your dictionary and realize how many shades of meaning we can express in words, remember that this power is a heritage that comes to us from a long past of incessant struggle.

We of to-day are also writing history in words. By our efforts we are adding new words to the language and giving old words a richer meaning. Brotherhood, justice, for example! The world is coming to understand these glorious words more fully and giving them a new interpretation.

You will see a new beauty and glory in words after you have finished this course and you will have a mastery of this wonderful language of ours.

Watch carefully the use of words in your reading. Especially this week distinguish the nouns and verbs. Use your dictionary constantly and add a few words to your vocabulary every day.

Whenever there is a word used in these lessons which you do not thoroughly understand, look it up at once in your dictionary and master it then and there. Make a list in your note book of the words you look up and at the end of the week go over them again and see if you have them clearly in mind. Watch also the pronunciation of the words. Do not try to do everything all at once, nor should you be discouraged if your progress seems slow. We approach the goal one step at a time and each step takes us nearer and nearer. Just keep steadily at it, Comrade.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

KINDS OF SENTENCES

19. We have found that we use sentences to express our thoughts. But we also find that we use these sentences in different ways for different purposes. Can you notice any difference in the following sentences?

• Two classes have always existed.
• To which class do you belong?
• Join your class in the struggle.

When I say, Two classes have always existed, I am making a simple assertion, stating what I know or believe to be true.

When I say, To which class do you belong? I am asking a question.

When I say, Join your class in the struggle, I am giving a command or making a request.

20. These three kinds of sentences are called assertive, interrogative and imperative.

An assertive sentence states a fact or an opinion.

An interrogative sentence asks a question.

An imperative sentence gives a command, makes a request or expresses a wish.

21. Any of these three kinds of sentences may be exclamatory; that is, it may express surprise, excitement, impatience, or some other emotion. For example:

• Hurrah! Freedom is coming!

This is an assertion expressed as an exclamation.

• Oh! Why should war continue?

Here we have a question in the form of an exclamation.

• Come! Keep your courage up.

In this, we have a command, an imperative sentence, expressed in the form of an exclamation.

An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, excitement or some other emotion.

In these three forms of sentences, the assertive, the interrogative and the imperative, together with the exclamatory, we are able to express every thought and feeling which demands expression, either for practical or artistic purposes.

The sentence is the basis of spoken and written language and as we trace its development we trace the history of the evolution of man and the growth of his power of expression, as he has developed his powers of mind.

22. Every sentence must begin with a capital letter.

Every assertive and imperative sentence should end with a period.

Every interrogative sentence should end with a question mark.

The word in an exclamatory sentence which expresses strong emotion is followed by an exclamation point. The sentence itself if in interrogative form should be followed by a question mark; if in the assertive or the imperative form it may be followed either by an exclamation point or a period.

Exercise 1

Mark the assertive sentences among the following with an a in the blank space. Mark the interrogative sentences with a q for question; the imperative sentences with a c for command; and the exclamatory with an e for exclamation.

1. ...... Books are the true levelers.
2. ...... Put not your trust in princes.
3. ...... To err is human; to forgive divine.
4. ...... What are the rights of a child?
5. ...... Seize common occasions and make them great.
6. ...... Not until all are free, is any free.
7. ...... Freemen! Shall not we demand our own?
8. ...... Is a world of happiness but a Utopian dream?
9. ...... He who will not work, shall not eat.
10. ...... Strike at the polls for freedom!
11. ...... Do the majority want social justice?
12. ...... A friend is the hope of the heart.
13. ...... How beautiful is the vision of peace!
14. ...... Acquire the thinking habit.
15. ...... Is it glorious to die for our country?
16. ...... Lo! Women are waking and claiming their own!
17. ...... Claim your right to the best.
18. ...... What is the highest good?
19. ...... Workers of the world, unite!
20. ...... To remain ignorant is to remain a slave.

WORDS—THEIR USES

23. We have learned from our study that we use sentences to express our thoughts. These sentences are made up of words; therefore we call words parts of speech. Words are only fractions or parts of speech, and it is by combining them into sentences that we are able to express our thoughts.

There are many thousands of words in the English language. It would be impossible for us to study each word separately. But these words, like people, are divided into classes, so we can study each class of words. These thousands of words are divided into classes much as people are, or rather as people ought to be; for words are divided into classes according to the work which they do. In the Industrial Commonwealth there will be no upper or lower class, but men will be divided into groups according to the work which they do. There will be various industrial groups, groups of agricultural workers, groups of clerical workers, etc. So words are divided into classes according to the work which they do in helping us to express our ideas.

24. Words are divided into kinds or classes according to their use in sentences.

There are eight of these classes of words, called parts of speech.

THE NAMES OF THINGS

25. What a word does determines what part of speech it is. When primitive man, long ago, first began to use words, in all probability the first words which he invented were those used to name familiar objects about him. He invented a word for man, boy, tree, animal, etc. Gradually, all the things he met in his daily life received a name. About one half of the words in our language are of this class, the names of things.

Every word which is used as a name of something is called a noun. This word noun is derived from the Latin word which means name, so it is quite the same thing as saying name. Notice the following sentences:

• Boys run.
• Fish swim.
• Horses neigh.
• Soldiers march.
• Flags wave.
• Flowers fade.
• Girls study.
• Winds blow.
• Men work.

All of the words used like boys, girls, fish, horses, soldiers, flag, winds, flowers and men, are the names of objects, therefore all of these words are nouns. The subject of a sentence is always a noun or a word used as a noun. However, we may use in a sentence many nouns besides the noun which is used as the subject, the noun about which the statement is made. We will study the use of these nouns later in our lessons.

The famous palace of the kings of the Moors, at Granada, in Spain, was called the Alhambra. We have six nouns in this sentence, palace, kings, Moors, Granada, Spain and Alhambra, but the noun palace is the noun which is the subject—the noun which is the name of that about which something is said. Palace is the subject; and was called is the predicate in this sentence.

26. A noun is a word used as the name of something.

Now we want to learn to distinguish every word that is used as a name. Pick out the nouns as you read your books and papers until you are able to tell every word which is used as a noun, the name of something.

In the following paragraph, the nouns are printed in italics. Carefully study these nouns:

The fire in the grate, the lamp by the bedside, the water in the tumbler, the fly on the ceiling above, the flower in the vase on the table, all things have their history and can reveal to us nature's invisible forces.

Exercise 2

Underscore every noun in the following quotation:

The whole history of the earth has been one of gradual development, of progress, of slow and painful climbing through the ages. Not only have the hills and the mountains, the rivers and the stars, the trees and the cattle, the beasts and the birds, been developing; but man himself—his mind and his body—has been developing. Men are marvelous little creatures; they have weighed the sun in their balances, measured the stars and analyzed the light and beauty of the rainbow; they have sounded the depths of the ocean; they have learned how the sun and the mountains were born and the rivers were laid in their mighty beds; they have learned how the seas became salt, what the stars are made of. They have learned so much, and yet when it comes to matters of time and space, and law and motion, they still know so little. The only man who is conscious of his ignorance is he who has learned a great deal.—McMillan.

WORDS THAT ASSERT

27. After the primitive man had invented names for the things about him, probably his next step was to invent words of action. He very naturally wanted to tell what all of these various things did. So the words that tell what things do, the words of action, the words that assert, came into the language. A child follows much the same development. As you can readily observe, it first names the objects about it, then learns the words that tell what these objects do.

So the words that tell what things do, become the second class of words. These words we call verbs. The word verb, like the word noun, is taken into our language from the Latin. In Latin, the word verbum means the word; and the verb is practically the word in a sentence, for we cannot have a sentence without a verb. You may string a number of words together, but if you do not have an asserting word, you will not have a sentence.

Notice the following sentences:

• Men work.
• Flowers fade.
• Snow flies.
• Winds blow.

In these sentences, the words work, fade, flies and blow, are the words used to assert or say something of the subject, hence they are the verbs in these sentences.

28. Sometimes it takes more than one word to express the action or make the assertion. Notice the following sentences:

• The men are working.
• The boy has been studying.

In the first sentence it takes two words, are working, to make the assertion; in the second, three are required, has been studying. These groups of words are called verb phrases.

29. A verb is a word that asserts.

A verb phrase is a group of words used as a single verb.

The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master. It is not hard to find the verb in short sentences, but in longer sentences it is sometimes difficult.

For example:

• The sun shines.
• The man walks.
• The boys strike.

We very easily see that shine, walk and strike are the verbs in these sentences. But let us add other words, as for example:

• The sun shines brightly.
• The man walks for his health.
• The boys strike the dog.

Now we are very apt to confuse the verb with the words which state how and why the action is performed, or the object towards which the action is directed. But in these sentences, shine and walks and strike are still the verbs, just as in the first sentences. The verb asserts the action; the other words merely give additional information about how or why or upon what the action is performed.

30. Another thing which makes it difficult for us to distinguish verbs in English is that the same word may be used both as a noun and as a verb; but always remember that words are separated into classes according to the work which they do. When a word is used as a name it is a noun; when it is used as an asserting word it is a verb. Note the following sentences:

• The play made the child tired.
• The children play in the yard.

In the first sentence play is a noun, the subject of the verb made. In the second sentence play is the verb, telling what the children do. Always classify words according to the work which they perform in the sentence. This will help you very much in finding your verb.

31. Then we have some verbs which do not assert action but express rather a connection or relation between the subject and some other word or words. For example:

• The dog belongs to the man.
• The girl is happy.

In these sentences belongs and is are the verbs. Belongs asserts or shows the relation between the dog and the man. Is shows the relation between the girl and happy. If we simply say girl and happy, we do not show any connection between them or make any statement relating the two, but when we say, The girl is happy, we are asserting something, and the word is makes the assertion.

Or when we say, The girl was happy, or The girl will be or may be happy, in each of these cases, it is the verb or verb phrase was or will be or may be, that asserts or shows the relation between the subject girl and the descriptive word happy. You will observe that the verbs will be and may be are composed of more than one word and are verb phrases.

We will study the verb in succeeding lessons, but let us remember from this lesson that the word or group of words that makes the assertion in the sentence is the verb. Remember too that every sentence must contain a verb.

Get this basic principle firmly fixed in mind that what a word does decides what it is—to what part of speech it belongs, and that every class of words fulfills its own function in sentence building.

32. Remember:—

Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate.

Every sentence must express a complete thought. Every sentence must contain a verb.

A noun is the name of something.

A verb is a word that asserts.

What a word does determines what it is.

Study carefully the following quotation. The verbs are printed in italics.

Slowly, painfully, proceeds the struggle of man against the power of Mammon. The past is written in tears and blood. The future is dim and unknown, but the final outcome of this world-wide struggle is not in doubt. Freedom will conquer slavery, truth will prevail over error, justice will triumph over injustice, the light will vanquish the darkness; and humanity will rise in the glory of universal brotherhood.—Warren.

Exercise 3

Underscore all verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation:

The Dream of Labor: Ours is not the cause of one class, of one sex, of one tribe, of one city, of one state, of one continent.

It is the wish for a better world where Man shall be Man; where the beast shall become subdued; where everything shall lead to complete development; where the good of each shall be bound up in the good of all; where all shall feel the sorrows of each and shall run to his rescue.

A glimpse of this ideal takes us into the Land of Promise, where peace and plenty shall reign supreme; where brothers shall no longer battle among themselves, but for one another; where the atmosphere shall be laden with love, the love that saves; where the hate that kills shall be unknown; where heart and brain shall work together and shall make life better and more complete; where the fullness of life shall be for all and where men and women shall be as happy at their work as little children at their play.

The mere glimpse into that land makes life worth living, makes work worth doing, makes dreams worth dreaming, gives us hope and faith—the faith we need in the labor for our cause, the faith which shall help us win.—Oscar Leonard.

Exercise 4

We have found that there are a number of words in English which may be used either as nouns or verbs, depending upon the function they serve in the sentence. In the following sentences underscore the nouns with a single line, the verbs with two lines:

1. They man the boats.
2. The man has a boat.
3. The women pass this way.
4. They held the pass for hours.
5. Little children work in the mines.
6. The work of the world is done by machinery today.
7. The armies will cross the bridge.
8. He built a cross of rude stones.
9. The leopard cannot change its spots.
10. We will force a change in the law.

Exercise 5

In the following poem, mark every noun and every verb and verb phrase. You will find the verb phrases in several places divided by the word not, as in I do not obey. Do obey is the verb phrase. We will learn to what part of speech not belongs a little later.

I DO NOT OBEY, I THINK.

—Ernest Crosby.