Dear Comrade:

In this week's lesson we are finishing the study of adjectives, which adds another part of speech to those which we have studied. We can see in the study of each additional part of speech how each part has its place in the expression of our ideas. We could not express ourselves fully if we lacked any of these parts of speech. Each one is not an arbitrary addition to our language but has come to us out of the need for it. We see that there are no arbitrary rules but in language, as in all things else, growing needs have developed more efficient tools. With these have grown up certain rules of action so we can have a common usage and system in our use of these tools. It has taken years of effort to accomplish this. The changes have been slow and gradual, and this language which we are studying is the finished product.

This slow development in the use of language, even in our own lives, makes us realize how many thousands of years it must have taken our primitive ancestors to reach a point where they could use the phonetic alphabet. We have found that at first they used simple aids to memory, as knotted strings and tally sticks. Then they began to draw pictures of things about them and so were able to communicate with one another by means of these pictures. When a man was going away from his cave and wanted to leave word for those who might come, telling them where he had gone and how soon he would return, he drew a picture of a man over the entrance with the arm extended in the direction in which he had gone. Then he drew another picture of a man in a sleeping position and also one of a man with both hands extended in the gesture which indicated many. These two pictures showed that he would be away over many nights. In some such rude manner as this, they were able to communicate with one another.

But man soon began to think, and he needed to express ideas concerning things of which he could not draw pictures. He could draw a picture of the sun, but how could he indicate light? How could he indicate the different professions in which men engaged, such as the farmer and priest, etc.?

He was forced to invent symbols or signs to express these ideas, so his writing was no longer a picture of some object, but he added to it symbols of abstract ideas. A circle which stood for the sun written with the crescent which stood for the moon, indicated light. The bee became a symbol of industry. An ostrich feather was a symbol of justice, because these feathers were supposed to be of equal length. A picture of a woman stood simply for a woman, but a picture of two women stood for strife, and three women stood for intrigue. These old ancestors of ours became wise quite early concerning some things. The symbol for a priest in the early Egyptian picture writing was a jackal. Perhaps not because he "devoured widows' houses," but because the jackal was a very watchful animal. The symbol for mother was a vulture because that bird was believed to nourish its young with its own blood.

It naturally required a good memory and a clear grasp of association to be able to read this sort of writing. It required many centuries for this slow development of written speech.

The development of language has been a marvelous growth and a wonderful heritage has come to us. Let us never be satisfied until we have a mastery of our language and find a way to express the ideas that surge within us. A mastery of these lessons will help us.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS

258. From our study of the adjective, we know that it is a word used with a noun to qualify or limit its meaning. But a great many times we find these adjectives used without the noun which they modify. As, for example, I may say, This is mine, and the adjective this is used alone without the noun which it modifies, and you are able to tell only by what I have been saying or by some action of mine to what I am referring when I say this.

When adjectives are used in this manner, they are used like pronouns—in place of a noun. So sometimes we find an adjective used with a noun, and sometimes used as a pronoun, in place of a noun; and since we name our parts of speech by the work which they do in the sentence, an adjective used in this way is not an adjective, but a pronoun or word used in place of a noun.

So these words are pronouns when they stand alone to represent things—when they are used in place of a noun. They are adjectives when they are used with a noun to limit or qualify the noun. For example, I may say, This tree is an elm, but that tree is an oak. This and that in this sentence are adjectives used to modify the noun tree. But I may say, This is an oak and that is an elm, and in this sentence this and that are used without a noun, they are used as pronouns.

259. Our being able to name every part of speech is not nearly so important as our being able to understand the functions of the different parts of speech and being able to use them correctly. But still it is well for us to be able to take a sentence and point out its different parts and tell what each part is and the function which it serves in the sentence. So sometimes in doing this we may find it difficult to tell whether certain words are adjectives or pronouns. We can distinguish between adjectives and pronouns by this rule:

When you cannot supply the noun which the adjective modifies, from the same sentence, then the word which takes the place of the noun is a pronoun, but if you can supply the omitted noun from the same sentence, then the word is used as an adjective. Thus, we do not say that the noun is understood unless it has already been used in the same sentence and is omitted to avoid repetition. We make each sentence a law unto itself and classify each word in the sentence according to what it does in its own sentence. So if a noun does not occur in the same sentence with the word about which we are in doubt as to whether it is a pronoun or adjective, it is a pronoun or word used in place of a noun. For example, in the sentence, This book is good but that is better; book is understood after the word that and left out to avoid tiresome repetition of the word book. Therefore that is an adjective in this sentence. But if I say, This is good, but that is better; there is no noun understood, for there is no noun in the sentence which we can supply with this and that. Therefore in this sentence this and that are pronouns, used in place of the noun. And since this and that, when used as adjectives, are called demonstrative adjectives; therefore when this and that, these and those, and similar words, are used as pronouns they are called demonstrative pronouns.

260. Be careful not to confuse the possessive pronouns with adjectives. Possessive pronouns modify the nouns with which they are used, but they are not adjectives, they are possessive pronouns. My, his, her, its, our, your and their are all possessive pronouns, not adjectives. Also be careful not to confuse nouns in the possessive form with adjectives.

ADJECTIVES AS NOUNS

261. Sometimes you will find words, which we are accustomed to look upon as adjectives, used alone in the sentence without a noun which they modify. For example, we say, The strong enslave the weak. Here we have used the adjectives strong and weak without any accompanying noun. In sentences like this, these adjectives, being used as nouns, are classed as nouns. Remember, in your analysis of a sentence, that you name every word according to the work which it does in that sentence, so while these adjectives are doing the work of nouns, we will consider them as nouns.

These words are not used in the same manner in which demonstrative adjectives are used as pronouns. There is no noun omitted which might be inserted, but these adjectives are used rather to name a class. As, for example; when we say, The strong, The weak, we mean all those who are strong and all those who are weak, considered as a class. You will find adjectives used in this way quite often in your reading, and you will find that you use this construction very often in your ordinary speech. As, for example:

• The rich look down upon the poor.
• The wise instruct the ignorant.

Many examples will occur to you. Remember these adjectives are nouns when they do the work of nouns.

ADJECTIVES WITH PRONOUNS

262. Since pronouns are used in place of nouns, they may have modifiers, also, just as nouns do. So you will often find adjectives used to modify pronouns. As, for example; He, tired, weak and ill, was unable to hold his position. Here, tired, weak and ill are adjectives modifying the pronoun he. 263. We often find a participle used as an adjective with a pronoun. As, for example:

• She, having finished her work, went home.
• They, having completed the organization, left the city.
• He, having been defeated, became discouraged.

In these sentences, the participles, having finished, having completed, and having been defeated, are used as adjectives to modify the pronouns she, they and he.

COMPARISON

264. We have found that adjectives are a very important part of our speech for without them we could not describe the various objects about us and make known to others our ideas concerning their various qualities. But with the addition of these helpful words we can describe very fully the qualities of the things with which we come into contact. We soon find, however, that there are varying degrees of these qualities. Some objects possess them in slight degree, some more fully and some in the highest degree. So we must have some way of expressing these varying degrees in the use of our adjectives.

This brings us to the study of comparison of adjectives. Suppose I say:

• That orange is sweet, the one yonder is sweeter, but this one is sweetest.

I have used the adjective sweet expressing a quality possessed by oranges in three different forms, sweet, sweeter and sweetest. This is the change in the form of adjectives to show different degrees of quality. This change is called comparison, because we use it when we compare one thing with another in respect to some quality which they possess, but possess in different degrees.

The form of the adjective which expresses a simple quality, as sweet, is called the positive degree. That which expresses a quality in a greater degree, as sweeter, is called the comparative degree. That which expresses a quality in the greatest degree, as sweetest, is called the superlative degree.

265. Comparison is the change of form of an adjective to denote different degrees of quality.

There are three degrees of comparison, positive, comparative and superlative.

The positive degree of an adjective denotes simple quality.

The comparative degree denotes a higher degree of a quality.

The superlative degree denotes the highest degree of a quality.

266. Most adjectives of one syllable and many adjectives of two syllables regularly add er to the positive to form the comparative degree, and est to the positive to form the superlative degree, as:

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
sweet	sweeter	sweetest
cold	colder	coldest
soft	softer	softest
brave	braver	bravest
clear	clearer	clearest

267. Adjectives ending in y change y to i and add er and est to form the comparative and superlative degree, as:

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
busy	busier	busiest
lazy	lazier	laziest
sly	slier	sliest
witty	wittier	wittiest

268. Many adjectives cannot be compared by this change in the word itself, since the addition of er and est would make awkward or ill-sounding words. Hence we must employ another method to form the comparison of this sort of words. To say, beautiful, beautifuller, beautifullest, is awkward and does not sound well. So we say beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful.

Many adjectives form the comparative and superlative degree by using more and most with the simple form of the adjective, as:

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
beautiful	more beautiful	most beautiful
thankful	more thankful	most thankful
sensitive	more sensitive	most sensitive
wonderful	more wonderful	most wonderful

269. Adjectives of two syllables, to which er and est are added to form the comparison, are chiefly those ending in y or le, such as:

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
happy	happier	happiest
noble	nobler	noblest
steady	steadier	steadiest
feeble	feebler	feeblest
able	abler	ablest
witty	wittier	wittiest

270. Some adjectives, few in number, but which we use very often, are irregular in their comparison. The most important of these are as follows: (It would be well to memorize these.)

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
good	better	best
well
bad	worse	worst
ill
much	more	most
many
little	less	least
late	later	latest
	latter	last
far	farther	farthest
(up) adv.	upper	uppermost
(in) adv.	inner	innermost

DESCENDING COMPARISON

271. The change in form of adjectives in the positive, comparative and superlative shows that one object has more of a quality than others with which it is compared. But we also wish at times to express the fact that one object has less of the quality than is possessed by others with which it is compared; so we have what we may call the descending comparison, by means of phrases formed by using less and least instead of more and most. Using less with the positive degree means a degree less than the positive, while using least expresses the lowest degree. For example:

Descending Comparison
Positive	Comparative	Superlative
beautiful	less beautiful	least beautiful
intelligent	less intelligent	least intelligent
sensitive	less sensitive	least sensitive
thankful	less thankful	least thankful

PARTICIPLES AS ADJECTIVES

272. You remember, when we studied the participle, that we found it was called a participle because it partook of the nature of two or more parts of speech. For example; in the sentence, The singing of the birds greeted us; singing is a participle derived from the verb sing, and is used as a noun, the subject of the verb greeted.

But participles are used not only as nouns; they may also be used as adjectives. For example; we may say, The singing birds greeted us. Here the participle singing describes the birds, telling what kind of birds greeted us, and is used as an adjective modifying the noun birds.

You will recall that we found there were two forms of the participle, the present participle and the past participle. The present participle is formed by adding ing to the root form of the verb; and the past participle in regular verbs is formed by adding d or ed to the root form, and in irregular verbs by a change in the verb form itself. These two simple forms of participles are often used as adjectives. 273. The present participle is almost always active; that is, it refers to the actor. As, for example; Vessels, carrying soldiers, are constantly arriving. Here the present participle carrying describes the noun vessels, and yet retains its function as a verb and has an object, soldiers. So it partakes of two parts of speech, the verb and the adjective.

274. The past participle, when used alone, is almost always passive, for it refers not to the actor, but to what is acted upon, thus:

• The army, beaten but not conquered, prepared for a siege.

In this sentence beaten is the past participle of the irregular verb beat, and conquered is the past participle of the regular verb conquer, and both modify the noun army, but refer to it, not as the actor, but as the receiver of the action. Hence, the past participle is also the passive participle.

Note in the following sentences the use of the present and past participle as adjectives:

• A refreshing breeze came from the hills.
• They escaped from the burning building.
• Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, onward through life he goes.
• The man, defeated in his purpose, gave up in despair.
• The child, driven in its youth to work, is robbed of the joy of childhood.
• The army, forced to retreat, destroyed all in its path.
• The children, neglected by society, grow up without their rightful opportunities.

Exercise 1

The adjectives and participles used as adjectives in the following sentences are printed in italics. Determine which adjectives are capable of comparison, and whether they are compared by adding er or est, or by the use of more and most.

In a community regulated by laws of demand and supply, but protected from open violence, the persons who become rich are, generally speaking, industrious, resolute, proud, covetous, prompt, methodical, sensible, unimaginative, insensitive and ignorant. The persons who remain poor are the entirely foolish, the entirely wise, the idle, the reckless, the humble, the thoughtful, the dull, the imaginative, the sensitive, the well-informed, the improvident, the irregularly and impulsively wicked, the clumsy knave, the open thief, and the entirely merciful, just and godly persons.—Ruskin.

PARTICIPLE PHRASES

275. If you will refer now to Lesson 9 you will find that we studied in that lesson concerning participle phrases; that is, several words used as a participle. We found that these participle phrases may also be used as nouns; as, for example:

• His having joined the union caused him to lose his position.

Having joined is here a participle phrase used as a noun, subject of the verb caused. Participle phrases may also be used as adjectives. You remember that we had four participle phrases, as follows:

• Present perfect, active, having called.
• Present perfect, passive, having been called.
• Progressive, active, having been calling.
• Progressive, passive, being called.

These participle phrases are used as adjectives to describe and modify nouns, thus:

• The soldier, having joined his comrades, fought in the trenches.
• The nurse, having been watching for days, was nearly exhausted.

The passive phrases also are used as adjectives, thus:

• The woman, having been hired by the manager, went to work.
• The man, being attacked, fought bravely.

Here the participle phrases having been hired and being attacked are used as adjectives to modify the nouns woman and man.

Use the participles and participle phrases of the verbs see and obey in sentences of your own.

USES OF ADJECTIVES

276. In our use of adjectives, we find it convenient to use them in several different ways. The most common use is closely connected with the noun as a modifying word, seeming in a sense almost a part of the noun; as in the sentence, These brave men have bequeathed to us splendid victories. In this sentence these and brave are easily discovered to be adjectives, being used in such close connection with the noun.

But sometimes we find the adjectives a little farther away from the noun which it describes, and then it becomes a little more difficult to find. You will recall, in our study of the copulative verb be, that we found it was simply a connecting word, connecting that which followed the verb with its subject. So we often find an adjective used in the predicate with a copulative verb showing what is asserted of the subject. When an adjective is used in this way, it modifies the subject just as much as if it were directly connected by being placed immediately before the noun. For example:

• The lesson was long and difficult.

Long and difficult are used in the predicate after the copulative verb was, but are used to modify the subject lesson just as much as though we said instead, It was a long and difficult lesson. So watch carefully for adjectives used with the copulative verb be in all its forms, am, is, are, was, were; and the phrases, has been, will be, must be, etc.

277. You may find adjectives also used following the noun. As, for example: The man, cool and resolute, awaited the attack. Cool and resolute are adjectives modifying the noun man, but they follow the noun, instead of being placed before it.

COMMON ERRORS

278. There are a number of common errors which we make in comparison, which we should be careful to avoid.

1. A number of adjectives cannot be compared for they in themselves express the highest degree of quality, so they have no shades of meaning and will not admit of comparison. For example: full, empty, level, round, square. If a thing is full or empty or level or round or square, it cannot be more full, or more empty, or more level, or more round, or more square. So do not compare adjectives that already express the highest degree of a quality. Also such words as supreme, eternal, and infallible, cannot be compared for they also express the highest degree of quality.

2. Do not use more with the comparative form made by using er, or most with the superlative form, made by using est. For example: do not say, They cannot be more happier than they are. Say, They cannot be happier; or They cannot be more happy. Use either form but never both. Do not say, That is the most wisest plan. Say either, That is the wisest plan; or That is the most wise plan, but never use both forms. Never use most with a superlative form.

3. Do not use the superlative form in comparing two objects. The superlative form is used only when more than two are compared. For example; do not say, He is the smallest of the two. Say, He is the smaller of the two. Which is the largest end? is incorrect. Which is the larger end? is correct. Which is the oldest, John or Henry? is also incorrect. This should be, Which is the older, John or Henry? Use the comparative form always when comparing two objects.

4. In stating a comparison, avoid comparing a thing with itself. For example; New York is larger than any city in the United States. In this sentence, when you say any city in the United States, you are including New York; so you are really comparing New York with itself, and you are saying that New York is larger than itself. You should have said, New York is larger than any other city in the United States; or, New York is the largest city in the United States. When you compare an object with all others of its kind be sure that the word other follows the comparative word than.

5. When an adjective denoting one or more than one modifies a noun, the adjective and the noun must agree in number. For example; The house is 30 foot square. Thirty denotes more than one, so a plural noun should be used, and this sentence should be, The house is 30 feet square. We are traveling at the rate of 40 mile an hour. This should be, We are traveling at the rate of 40 miles an hour.

6. Only two adjectives, this and that change their form when modifying a plural noun. These and those are the plural forms of this and that. So remember always to use this and that with singular nouns and these and those with plural nouns. For example; do not say, These kind of people will never join us. You should say, This kind of people will never join us. Or, Those sort of flowers grows easily. You should say, That sort of flowers grows easily. 7. Place your adjectives where there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Put the adjective with the noun which it modifies. For example; do not say, a fresh bunch of flowers, a new pair of shoes, a salt barrel of pork, an old box of clothes, a cold cup of water, a new load of hay. Put the adjective with the noun which it modifies, and say, a bunch of fresh flowers, a pair of new shoes, a barrel of salt pork, a box of old clothes, a cup of cold water, a load of new hay.

8. Adjectives are usually placed before the nouns they qualify, but sometimes, especially in poetry or in the use of participles, they follow the nouns. They should not, however, be placed too far away from the noun which they modify or be unnecessarily separated from the noun. Where there are two or more adjectives used to qualify the same noun, place nearest the noun the adjective most closely connected with the object described and place farthest from the noun the adjective least closely connected with the noun. If they are all of the same rank, place them where they will sound best, usually according to their length, naming the shortest adjective first.

Correct the following sentences by arranging the adjectives in the proper order:

• The summer sky was a blue, soft, beautiful sky.
• He bought a brown, fine, big horse.
• A gold, beautiful, expensive watch was given her.
• The new, beautiful apartment building is on the corner.
• He advertised for a young, intelligent, wide awake man.

9. Never use them as an adjective. Them is a pronoun. One of the worst mistakes which we can make is to use such phrases as them things, them men, them books. Say, those things, those men, those books.

10. Do not use less for the comparative form of few. The comparative form of few is fewer. Less refers only to quantity, fewer to number. For example:

• He raised less grain this year than last, because he has fewer horses now than he had then.
• He uses fewer words because he has less to say.
• There are but few people here today; there were still fewer (not less) yesterday.

Exercise 2

Correct the adjectives in this exercise:

1. Hand me the little knife.
2. He claims to be more infallible than anyone else.
3. Mary is the oldest of the two.
4. He was the bestest boy in school.
5. The barn is forty foot long.
6. Yonder is a happy crowd of children.
7. Which is the largest end?
8. I found the bestest book.
9. This is the most principal rule.
10. Give me a cold cup of water.
11. These kind of books will not do.
12. Give me them books.
13. Who is the tallest, you or John?

Exercise 3

Mark all the adjectives in this poem. Note especially the participles used as adjectives.

THE COLLECTION

I passed the plate in church.

There was a little silver, but the crisp bank-notes heaped themselves up high before me;

And ever as the pile grew, the plate became warmer and warmer, until it fairly burned my fingers, and a smell of scorching flesh rose from it, and I perceived that some of the notes were beginning to smolder and curl, half-browned, at the edges.

And then I saw through the smoke into the very substance of the money, and I beheld what it really was: I saw the stolen earnings of the poor, the wide margin of wages pared down to starvation;

I saw the underpaid factory girl eking out her living on the street, and the over-worked child, and the suicide of the discharged miner; I saw the poisonous gases from great manufactories, spreading disease and death;

I saw despair and drudgery filling the dram-shop; I saw rents screwed out of brother men for permission to live on God's land;

I saw men shut out from the bosom of the earth and begging for the poor privilege to work, in vain, and becoming tramps and paupers and drunkards and lunatics, and crowding into almshouses, insane asylums and prisons;

I saw ignorance and vice and crime growing rank in stifling, filthy slums;

I saw shoddy cloth and adulterated food and lying goods of all kinds, cheapening men and women, and vulgarizing the world; I saw hideousness extending itself from coal-mine and foundry over forest and river and field;

I saw money grabbed from fellow grabbers and swindled from fellow swindlers, and underneath the workman forever spinning it out of his vitals;

I saw the laboring world, thin and pale and bent and care-worn and driven, pouring out this tribute from its toil and sweat into the laps of the richly dressed men and women in the pews, who only glanced at them to shrink from them with disgust;

I saw all this, and the plate burned my fingers so that I had to hold it first in one hand and then in the other; and I was glad when the parson in his white robes took the smoking pile from me on the chancel steps and, turning about, lifted it up and laid it on the altar.

It was an old-time altar, indeed, for it bore a burnt offering of flesh and blood—a sweet savor unto the Moloch whom these people worship with their daily round of human sacrifices.

The shambles are in the temple as of yore, and the tables of the money-changers waiting to be overturned.

—Ernest Crosby.