Dear Comrade:

You remember our definition of a word; a word is the sign of an idea. In our lessons we have been studying the different kinds of words which we use in the expression of our complete thoughts. Probably the first step in the development of language was to name the objects about us. Then the next logical step would be to invent words which would tell what these objects did. So we have our nouns, which are the names of things; our verbs, which tell what these things do; and in these we have the foundation for spoken and written speech. We soon found, however, that the constant repetition of a name was tiresome and annoying, so we invented words which we could use in place of these nouns; and we have pronouns.

All of the things about us possess certain qualities and our next great need was for words to describe these qualities; so we have adjectives. Each adjective is a sign of an idea. It adds its part to the expression of our complete thought. So we find that each part of speech comes logically in its place to fill a certain need. Without any one of them, we would be crippled in our power of expression. Each different word is the sign of an idea and the combination of these ideas as represented by the various signs gives us the complete expression of our thought.

So primitive man in the development of written speech had signs to express the various things about him. Naturally his first sign was a picture, as nearly as he could draw it, of the object itself. If he wanted to tell you about a tree he drew a picture of the tree; the picture of a man represented a man, and so on. You will notice among children that this is the first development in their endeavor to express their thoughts in writing. They draw pictures. The average small child cannot understand why you read those strange marks on the page. They want you to read the pictures. To their mind that is the only way to communicate ideas.

These early forefathers of ours grew to be very adept at this picture writing. We have examples of this among the Indians of our own country. There is a picture on the face of a big rock on the shores of Lake Superior which records an expedition across the lake led by a noted Indian chief. Canoes are shown in the picture with the crew denoted by a series of upright strokes and there is a picture of the chief on horseback. You or I would have great difficulty in reading this picture writing, but an Indian could read it right off just as we would read a written page. Aids to memory such as knotted strings and tally sticks were the first step toward written speech. This picture writing was the second step toward the development of written speech.

We owe a great deal to the work which these primitive ancestors of ours accomplished. It took them years and years to develop through these different stages and our rapid development of the last few centuries has only been made possible because of this slow and patient building of the foundation. An understanding of this helps us to appreciate the place we occupy in this great struggle of the ages. The power of written speech opens up to us such tremendous possibilities. Let us make the most of them, that we too may hand on worth while things to those who follow us.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES

242. Adjectives, like nouns and pronouns, are divided into classes. Adjectives are divided into two main classes, qualifying and limiting.

243. An adjective which qualifies a noun is one which names some quality which is possessed by the word which it modifies. When we say, Trees grow, we are making a general statement; that is, we are saying something that is true of any kind of trees. We have not described any particular tree. But when we say, The tall trees grow, The old trees grow, The young trees grow, the words tall, old and young describe certain qualities of the trees, which separate them into classes. So these adjectives are qualifying adjectives.

An adjective qualifies a noun when it attributes some quality to the noun, as, The brave man, The sweet apple, The pretty girl, The large house, etc.

244. But if we say, this tree, that tree, some trees, many trees, three trees, or four trees, we are not giving any quality of the tree, but are pointing out a particular tree or trees and limiting the word to the ones pointed out. So such adjectives as the, this, that, some, many, three and four are limiting adjectives. An adjective limits a noun when it restricts or limits its meaning as to quantity or number.

245. So adjectives are divided into two classes, qualifying adjectives and limiting adjectives.

Words that limit or qualify other words are called modifiers because they modify or affect the meaning of the words to which they are added. So adjectives are modifiers of the nouns and pronouns to which they are added because they modify or qualify or limit the meaning of the noun or pronoun.

The limiting adjectives answer the questions which and how many. The qualifying adjectives answer the questions which and what kind.

246. A qualifying adjective is an adjective which describes the noun it modifies by attributing to it some quality.

A limiting adjective is an adjective which merely shows which one or how many, without describing the noun it modifies.

HOW TO DISCOVER AN ADJECTIVE

247. Sometimes the noun may have several adjectives qualifying or modifying it; as,

• The beautiful, old elm tree shades the lawn.

The, beautiful, old and elm, all modify tree, telling something of the qualities or pointing out which tree we are speaking of. You can discover an adjective in a sentence by asking the questions, which, what kind, or how many; and the words that answer these questions will be the adjectives in the sentence. For example in this sentence:

• Those three immense factories employ thousands of men.

Factories is the noun, subject of the sentence. Which factory is indicated by the adjective those. How many factories is indicated by the adjective three. What kind of factories is indicated by the adjective immense. So we have three adjectives answering the three questions, which, what kind and how many.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences the adjectives are printed in italics. Study them carefully and determine which are qualifying and which are limiting adjectives. Note that the possessive nouns and possessive pronouns are not adjectives. Its in the phrases its cruel fangs and its savage claws, is a possessive pronoun, third person singular. In the last sentence beggar's, miser's, and Ingersoll's, are nouns in the possessive form.

• This terrible war in Europe is slaughtering the working-class.
• Gaunt famine follows war.
• A docile, meek, humble, working-class makes war possible.
• The shrieking shell snarls like a living thing; like some wild beast in ferocious glee it thrusts its cruel fangs in earth and rock and rends living flesh with its savage claws.
• Its fetid breath of poison powder scorches in the autumn winds.
• Shattered bones, torn flesh and flowing blood were mingled on the battlefield with broken swords and split rifles.
• The best modern rifles will force a bullet through five human bodies at a range of twelve hundred feet.
• The pitiful dead, slain in war, sleep under the solemn pines, the sad hemlock, the tearful willow and the embracing vines.
• A world without the beggar's outstretched palm, the miser's heartless stony stare, the piteous wail of want, the livid lips of lies, the cruel eyes of scorn, was Ingersoll's vision of the future.

QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES

248. Qualifying adjectives are also called descriptive adjectives because they describe the noun. They answer the questions which and what kind.

You remember we found in the beginning of our study of English, that words were grouped into classes according to the work which they do in the sentence, not according to the form of the word itself. For instance, we have already found that some words, without changing their form, may be used either as a noun or as a verb. Take the word oil, for instance. I may say, I oil the engine. Here I have used the word oil as a verb telling what I do. But I may say, The oil is gone. Here I have used the word oil as a noun, subject of the sentence. The part of speech to which a word belongs in the English language, always depends upon the work which it does in the sentence.

1. So we have nouns which are used as descriptive adjectives, for example the word oil, which we have found we can use either as a noun or a verb, may also be used as an adjective. For example; I may say, the oil tank. Here I have used the word oil as a descriptive adjective modifying the word tank. So also we may say, the oak tree, the stone curb, the earth wall. In these expressions oak, stone and earth are nouns used as descriptive adjectives.

2. We have descriptive adjectives derived from proper nouns, as French, English, American. These are called proper adjectives; and since all proper nouns must begin with a capital letter, these proper adjectives, also, should always begin with a capital letter.

3. We have also descriptive adjectives derived from verbs as active, talkative, movable, desirable, derived by the addition of suffixes to the verbs act, talk, move and desire.

LIMITING ADJECTIVES

249. Limiting adjectives are also divided into classes, the numerals, the demonstratives and the articles.

Numeral Adjectives

250. Numeral adjectives are those which limit nouns as to number or order. They are such adjectives as one, two, three, four, etc., and first, second and third, etc., as for example:

• Three men applied for work.
• The train ran at the rate of forty miles an hour.
• There have always been two classes in the world.
• The first martyr to anti-militarism was Jaures.
• The eighteenth day of March is the anniversary of the Paris Commune.

In these sentences the adjectives three, forty, two, first and eighteenth are all numeral adjectives. They limit the nouns which they modify as to number or order.

Adjectives that limit nouns as to number or order are called numeral adjectives. Numeral adjectives answer the question how many or in what order.

Demonstratives

251. We have also a class of adjectives which are used to point out some particular person or thing. These are called demonstrative adjectives. Demonstrate means literally to point out. So these adjectives point out from a number of things, one particular thing to our attention. These demonstrative adjectives are this, that, those, these, yonder, former, latter and same.

These and those are the plural forms of this and that. This and these are used to point out things near at hand. That and those are used to point out things more distant, as This is my book. These are my papers, meaning this book or these papers, close to me. By, That is my pencil and Those are my letters, I mean that pencil, and those letters, which are farther away from me.

Former and latter are used to show which of two things already mentioned is referred to, and to point out things in point of time, not of place. For example, we may say:

• We no longer observe the former customs, but rather prefer the latter.
• He did not like his former job but this latter job pleases him.

You understand from this that we have been discussing and describing two kinds of work, and that the first in point of time was unpleasant and the second pleasant.

The demonstrative adjective same refers to something of which we have just spoken, as for example, He has gone to work, I must do the same thing. These demonstrative adjectives answer the question which, so when you wish to discover a demonstrative in a sentence, ask the question which, and the answer will be the demonstrative adjective.

Exercise 2

1. This study is very interesting.
2. These comrades will stand by us.
3. That solution will never deceive the people.
4. Those books have opened our eyes.
5. Yonder battle appals the world.
6. Former investigations have had no results.
7. This latter decision has reversed the former.
8. The class struggle has persisted through the centuries; we are engaged in the same struggle.

Make sentences of your own containing these demonstrative adjectives.

252. We have three adjectives which are used so commonly that we have put them in a class by themselves. These three little words are a, an and the, and we call them articles. The word article literally means a little joint or limb, and these three little words are so closely connected with the nouns with which they are used that they seem to be a part or joint or limb of the noun itself, and so we have called them articles.

A and an are called the indefinite articles because they point out an object in a very indefinite manner. The is called the definite article for it points out in a more definite way.

We use a before words beginning with a consonant sound, as a man, a tree, a book; and we use an before words beginning with a vowel sound, as an apple, an editor, an orange, an heir. In heir the h is silent, and we say an because the word begins with a vowel sound. A is used before words beginning with u because long u is equivalent in sound to a consonant, for the blending of the sounds of which long u is composed produces the initial sound of y, which is a consonant sound. For example, we say, a university, a useful work, etc., and not an university. Before words beginning with short u, use an, as, an upstart, etc.

In deciding whether to use a or an, watch the initial sound of the word, not the initial letter. If it is a vowel sound use an, if a consonant sound, use a.

Exercise 3

Underscore the correct article in the following sentences:

1. Bring me an—a apple.
2. He is a—an able orator.
3. A—an heir was born to the German King.
4. He built a—an house for his family.
5. He is an—a honest man.
6. He is a—an undertaker.
7. I had to take a—an upper berth.
8. He joined a—an union.
9. It is a—an unique book.
10. He is a—an unruly member of society.
11. He told a—an untruth.
12. He wears a—an uniform.
13. It is a—an honor to be chosen.

253. When a singular noun is modified by several adjectives, only one of the articles an or a must be used if the noun denotes but one object; but if the noun denotes more than one object the article must be repeated before each noun. For example, I say, A red, white and blue flag. You know I mean but one flag, containing the three colors, red, white and blue. But if I say, A red, a white and a blue flag, you know I mean three flags, one red, one white, and one blue.

Note the use of the article in the following sentences:

• He wears a black and white suit.
• He wears a black and a white suit.
• He sold a red and white cow.
• He sold a red and a white cow.
• He bought a gas and coal stove.
• He bought a gas and a coal stove.

The first sentences in each of the above series refers to only one object. The second sentences all refer to two objects.

254. There are some rules concerning the article the that it is well to know because we do not always say what we wish to say, if we do not observe these rules or customs of speech. For example, I say, The editor and publisher of this book is unknown. I have used the article the but once, and I mean that the editor and publisher is one person. But I may say, The editor and the publisher of this book are well known. In this sentence I have used the article the twice, the editor and the publisher, and I mean that the editor and the publisher are two different persons.

So when two or more nouns following each other denote the same person or thing, the article is not repeated, but when the nouns denote different persons or things, the article must be repeated before each noun. Be sure to use the proper form of the verb.

Note the following sentences and underscore the proper verb to complete the meaning:

• The secretary and treasurer were—was here.
• The secretary and the treasurer were—was elected.
• The singer and artist were—was with me.
• The singer and the artist were—was on the program.

Sometimes we have two things so closely associated in use that they may be considered as forming a single idea, so that we may use the article before the first one only. For example:

• The pen and ink is gone.
• He bought a horse and buggy.
• The bread and butter is on the plate.

INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES

255. You remember we found in the study of pronouns that we have interrogative pronouns which we use in asking questions when we do not know the name of the object concerning which we are asking. We also have adjectives which we use in asking questions when we do not know the number or quality of the object concerning which we are asking. For example:

• Which book did you enjoy most?
• What work are you doing now?
• What machine did you order?

Which and what are the interrogative adjectives in these sentences.

Interrogative adjectives are adjectives used in asking questions.

INDEFINITES

256. We have one more class of adjectives called indefinites.

An indefinite adjective is one that does not denote any particular person or thing.

All such adjectives as each, every, either, neither, some, any, many, much, few, all, both, no, none, several and certain are indefinite adjectives. We use them when we are not speaking of any particular person or thing, but are speaking in a broad, general sense and in an indefinite manner.

257. The interrogative adjectives are sometimes used in this indefinite way. They are sometimes used to modify nouns when a direct question is not asked, and they are then used, not as interrogative adjectives, but as indefinite adjectives. For example:

• He did not know which party to join.
• I have not learned what time he will go.

In these sentences which and what are not used to ask questions, but are used to describe an unknown object.

Exercise 4

All the words in italics are adjectives. Decide to which class each adjective belongs.

Note in this exercise the compound words used as adjectives, as: earth-born, self-made, new-lit, blood-rusted. Look up the meaning of these adjectives and see if you can use other adjectives in their places and keep the same meaning. Note the use of fellest.

Exercise 5

The following is from Oscar Wilde's story of The Young King. Oscar Wilde was a master of English, and if you have the opportunity, read all of this beautiful story and watch his use of adjectives. Mark the adjectives in this excerpt and use them in sentences of your own.

And as the young King slept he dreamed a dream, and this was his dream. He thought that he was standing in a long, low attic, amidst the whirr and clatter of many looms. The meager daylight peered in through the grated windows and showed him the gaunt figures of the weavers, bending over their cases. Pale, sickly-looking children were crouched on the huge crossbeams. As the shuttles dashed through the warp they lifted up the heavy battens, and when the shuttles stopped they let the battens fall and pressed the threads together. Their faces were pinched with famine, and their thin hands shook and trembled. Some haggard women were seated at a table, sewing. A horrible odor filled the place. The air was foul and heavy, and the walls dripped and streamed with damp.

The young King went over to one of the weavers and stood by him and watched him. And the weaver looked at him angrily and said, "Why art thou watching me? Art thou a spy set on us by our master?"

"Who is thy master?" asked the young King.

"Our master!" cried the weaver, bitterly. "He is a man like myself. Indeed, there is but this difference between us—that he wears fine clothes while I go in rags, and that while I am weak from hunger he suffers not a little from overfeeding."

"The land is free," said the young King, "and thou art no man's slave."

"In war," answered the weaver, "the strong make slaves of the weak, and in peace the rich make slaves of the poor. We must work to live, and they give us such mean wages that we die. We toil for them all day long, and they heap up gold in their coffers, and our children fade away before their time, and the faces of those we love become hard and evil. We tread out the grapes, another drinks the wine. We sow the corn, and our own board is empty. We have chains, though no eye beholds them; and are slaves, though men call us free."

"Is it so with all?" he asked.

"It is so with all," answered the weaver, "with the young as well as with the old, with the women as well as with the men, with the little children as well as with those who are stricken in years. The merchants grind us down, and we must needs do their bidding. The priest rides by and tells his beads, and no man has care of us. Through our sunless lanes creeps Poverty with her hungry eyes, and Sin with his sodden face follows close behind her. Misery wakes us in the morning, and Shame sits with us at night. But what are these things to thee? Thou art not one of us. Thy face is too happy." And he turned away scowling, and threw the shuttle across the loom, and the young King saw that it was threaded with a thread of gold.

And a great terror seized upon him, and he said to the weaver, "What robe is this that thou art weaving?"

"It is the robe for the coronation of the young King," he answered; "What is that to thee?"

And the young King gave a loud cry and woke and lo! he was in his own chamber, and through the window he saw the great honey-colored moon hanging in the dusky air.