Dear Comrade:

Did you ever tie a knot in your handkerchief to help you remember to get something you felt almost sure you would forget? Well, tying a knot in a cord was one of the first ways devised by our ancestors of long ago to aid them to remember. They also used this plan to send word to those at a distance or to keep track of things for succeeding generations. A relic of this old device of our forefathers is also found in the rosary on which the Roman Catholic counts his beads as an aid to memory.

There are some primitive tribes to-day who still use knotted strings as an aid to memory. These consist of a main cord, and fastened at given distances are finer cords of different colors. Each cord is knotted in different ways to mean different things and each color, too, has its own meaning. A red string stands for soldiers, a yellow for gold, and a green for corn, and so on, while a single knot may mean ten, two single knots twenty, a double knot 100, two double knots 200. In this way, they keep a record of things, transmit orders and use them for various purposes.

Only a generation ago the tax gatherers in the Island of Hawaii kept account of the assessable property on lines of cordage knotted in this manner, and these cords in some cases were three thousand feet long. The method of keeping track of things by means of a notched stick is easily within the memory of many people living today. For in England in the early part of the last century, accounts of debts to the government were kept by means of tally sticks, which were merely notched sticks.

Such methods as these were the only ways primitive man had of keeping track of things before he had discovered the art of written speech. And even after written speech was known and used, these old methods persisted.

Gradually, step by step, man has come along the path of progress. Adventurous spirits, not satisfied with the old way of doing things, sought new ways. The conservatives of their day thought them dangerous people, no doubt, and feared that they would destroy the very foundations of society. And this they oft-times did, but only that there might rise a more perfect form of society. It is the seeking, questioning mind that demands the reason for all things, that seeks ever better ways of doing things. They have always throughout the ages refused to bow to the authority of the past but have dared to live their own lives. To them we owe the progress of the world and we are the inheritors of their spirit.

Let us prove our kinship by daring to live our own lives and think our own thoughts.

Yours for Freedom,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

228. You recall that in our first lesson we studied concerning the four different kinds of sentences which we use in expressing our thoughts, the assertive, the interrogative, the imperative and the exclamatory. The interrogative sentence is the form which we use in asking a question, interrogative being derived from the Latin inter, meaning between, and rogare, to ask, meaning literally to ask between. The interrogative sentence differs from the assertive sentence in the arrangement of the words; for in order to ask questions, we usually place the predicate, or part of it at least, before the subject, thus:

• Can you use good English?
• Did you spell the word correctly?
• Has he studied grammar?

In these sentences, you note that the helping verbs, can, did and has, are placed first instead of the subject. It is by this arrangement that we put the sentence in the interrogative form.

229. Frequently, however, in asking questions we wish to ask concerning a person or thing whose name we do not know. So we need a word to refer to the unknown object. See how these uses of words grow out of our need! We have three interrogative pronouns, who and which and what, that we use to meet this need. Notice the use of these three pronouns in the following sentences:

• Who wrote the Communist Manifesto?
• Which of the two men is the better known?
• What are the closing words of this famous document?

In these sentences, who and which and what are the interrogative pronouns, used to ask questions concerning the unknown persons or objects.

230. Who refers only to human beings or to personified objects.

Which refers either to human beings, animals or things.

What refers only to things.

Which and what have the same form for both the subject and the object. Who has a different form for all three forms, the subject form, the possessive form, and the object form. It uses the same form, however, both in singular and plural.

Subject form	Possessive form	Object form
Who	Whose	Whom

231. We often make mistakes in the use of the different forms of the pronoun who. We often use the subject form for the object form, using who where we should have used whom. For example:

• Who did you see?

The correct form is:

• Whom did you see?

The pronoun whom is the object of the verb see, hence the object form should be used. However, the use of the subject form who instead of whom is coming into such general use today that some grammarians accept it as a permissible usage. The will of the people influences language, as it does all other human institutions, and gradually creates new rules.

Write three sentences, using who, which and what as interrogative pronouns.

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used to ask a question.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

232. There is one other class of pronouns which plays a great part in our speech and is a wonderful help to us. For example, suppose I want to tell you several things about this book. I say: I am reading this book. It interests me greatly. Now it would be a great advantage to me if I could put these two sentences together, and we have for this use a pronoun which makes it possible for us to combine these sentences, and so I say:

• The book which I am reading interests me greatly.

Thus I am able to unite two short sentences into a long sentence, which conveys my meaning better than the two short sentences and gives a smoother bit of reading. We have four pronouns which we use in this way, who, which, that and what and they are called relative pronouns because they refer or relate to some noun in the sentence and they also serve to connect two statements.

233. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates to an antecedent and at the same time connects two statements.

A relative pronoun always relates to its antecedent and at the same time connects the statement that it introduces with the one that contains the antecedent to which it relates, as in the sentence above, The book which I am reading, interests me greatly. Which is the relative pronoun; first, because it relates to the antecedent, book; and second, because it connects the statement, I am reading, with the rest of the sentence. Notice these sentences also:

• The man who thinks will not enlist in the army.
• We will destroy the system that enslaves us.

Who and that are the relative pronouns in these two sentences and their antecedents are man and system, and they connect the statements, who thinks and that enslaves us, with the rest of the sentence.

234. Who is used to relate to persons.

Which is used to relate only to animals and things.

That may relate to either persons, animals or things.

What relates to things. Note that which, as an interrogative, may refer to persons as well as to animals and things; but as a relative, which never refers to persons.

235. Note that we use the same pronouns who, which and what as both relative and interrogative pronouns. You will not be confused in this matter if you will remember that they are called interrogative pronouns only when they are used to ask questions. When they are used as interrogative pronouns they never have an antecedent. Who and which and what are always relative pronouns when used in an assertive sentence and referring to an antecedent.

That and what have the same form for both the subject and object forms. They have no possessive form. Who has a different form for the subject form and the possessive form and the object form. Which has the same form for subject and object forms, and a different form for the possessive form. Note the following:

Subject form	Possessive form	Object form
who	whose	whom
which	whose	which

• I know the man who called him.
• I know the man whose voice I hear.
• I know the man whom they called.

In these three sentences we have the pronoun who used in its three forms, subject, possessive and object form. We should be very careful not to confuse the subject and the object forms of the pronoun who.

• This is the book which tells the truth.
• This is the book whose author is in prison.
• This is the book which I wanted.

In these three sentences we have the pronoun which used in its three forms, subject form, possessive form and object form. In the first sentence the pronoun is the subject of the verb tells; in the second sentence, it is used in the possessive form with the noun author; in the third sentence, it is used as the object of the verb wanted.

236. What differs from the other relative pronouns in that its antecedent is never expressed, for it is implied in the word itself. What is always equivalent to that which, or the thing which. For example, the sentence, Do not tell what I have told you, is equivalent to saying, Do not tell that which I have told you, or the thing which I have told you.

237. Never use what in a sentence as a relative pronoun unless you can replace it and make good sense by using that which, or the thing which in place of what.

For example, do not say, I know that what he would say. This is incorrect. You should say, I know that which he would say, or I know what he would say, using what in place of that which. Here is a sentence that occurred in an English examination recently, which illustrates most aptly this point. A subject is that what something is said about. Here what is used incorrectly. A subject is that about which something is said, would have been the correct form. Watch for this in your speech for it is a most common error and to the educated ear is harsh and marks the speaker as uneducated. All of these mistakes which we make so commonly will require a considerable amount of effort to overcome, but the result is worth the effort, for even those about us who will not take the pains or give the required time and effort to acquiring an education for themselves, will give greater heed to the speech of those who do speak correctly, and will readily acknowledge the leadership of those who have given the time and effort to self-development.

238. The antecedent of who is sometimes omitted and understood; for example, Who follows the cause must endure hardship, He, is understood and omitted. He who follows the cause must endure hardship.

239. The relative pronoun itself is often omitted. For example:

• These are the men (whom) you must help.
• The words (that) you use and the deeds (that) you do, are your judges.

240. The relative pronouns have compound forms also, such as whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever and whatsoever, which are used in the same manner as the simple forms.

COMMON ERRORS

241. Here are a number of common errors which only constant practice and watchfulness can overcome. Study these over and watch your conversation closely. Force yourself to speak correctly for a time, and soon correct speech will become a habit.

1. Do not use both a noun and a pronoun as the subject of a sentence; as, John, he waited for me. Mary, she refused to go. Leave out the pronouns he and she in these sentences. They are unnecessary and incorrect.

2. Never use hern, ourn, hisn or yourn for hers, ours, his and yours; as, The book is hisn. Ourn stopped on the first. Did you get yourn? Say: This book is his. Ours stopped on the first. Did you get yours?

3. Never say hisself for himself. There is no such word as hisself. Do not say, He hurt hisself. Say, He hurt himself.

4. Do not say them for those; as, Did you bring them songs? Them things are not right. Say, Did you bring those songs? Those things are not right.

5. Do not use an apostrophe in writing the possessive forms of pronouns, as her's, our's, it's. Leave out the apostrophe and write hers, ours, its.

6. Do not use who to relate to animals or things; as, The dog who bit me was killed. Say, The dog that bit me was killed.

7. Do not use myself as the subject. It can be used only as an emphatic or reflexive pronoun. It is correct to say, I found the book myself, and I hurt myself. But do not say, They asked my friend and myself, or Myself and my wife will go. Say, They asked my friend and me. My wife and I will go. 8. Avoid the use of pronouns when the reference to the antecedent is not clear. Better repeat the nouns or re-write the sentence. For example:

• He said to his friend that if he did not feel better soon he thought he had better go home.

Now you can interpret this in at least four different ways. No one but the speaker can ever know to whom the pronouns he refer, whether to the speaker or to his friend. Or in the sentence,

• A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so short.

Who was short, A or B? John's father died before he was born. Did John's father die before John was born or did John's father die before John's father, himself, was born? Be careful in the use of pronouns in this way.

9. Remember that I, we, he, she, they and who are always used as subject forms and also as the complement of all forms of the verb be.

10. Remember that me, him, her, them, us and whom are always object forms. Never say, They charged he and I too much. Say, They charged him and me too much. In an attempt to speak correctly and follow the niceties of English, this mistake is so often made. Always use the object form as the object of a verb or preposition.

11. When a participle is used as a noun, and a pronoun is used with it, the pronoun should always be in the possessive form. We make this mistake so frequently. For example, we say: Us going there was a mistake. We should have used the possessive form, Our going there was a mistake. I have never known of him being absent from work. We should say: I have never known of his being absent from work. Did he tell you about me joining with them? This should be, Did he tell you about my joining with them? You talking to him set him to thinking. This should be, Your talking to him set him to thinking. Watch this and wherever you have used a participle as a noun, use the pronoun in the possessive form, as you would with any other noun.

12. Watch carefully that the number of the pronoun always agrees with the number of its antecedent. If you are speaking of one person or thing use a singular pronoun. If you are speaking of more than one person or thing in your antecedent, use the plural pronoun. For example: Each man must do his own work. The soldiers fully understood their danger.

13. When a singular noun, in the common gender (this means that it may name either a male or female being), is the antecedent of the pronoun, it is customary for us to use the masculine pronoun. For example:

• Every student should send in his examination paper promptly.
• Every member of the class may select his own subject.

Do not use the pronoun their when the antecedent is a singular noun.

SUMMARY

Pronoun—In Place of a Noun

CLASSES
Personal	{	Simple—	{	1st Person, speaking.
		Compound—		2nd Person, spoken to.
				3rd Person, spoken of.
Interrogative	{	To ask questions.
		Who, which and what.
Relative	{	To refer to another word and connect two statements.
		Who, which, that and what.

Exercise 1

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of I, me, or myself, in the blank spaces:

1. My partner and......joined the union.
2. They asked Henry and......to go.
3. May my friend and......call?
4. I will attend to that.......
5. Let my comrade and......go with you.
6. Are you sure it was......?
7. I blame......for joining with them.
8. They accused......of bothering them.
9. I am nearly beside......with grief.
10. The manager dismissed the men......among the rest.

Exercise 2

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of we, us or ourselves in the blank spaces:

1. They are better off than.......
2. The French as well as......claim a war of defense.
3. Can you blame......who have always stood by you?
4. We will do that for.......
5. Between......comrades there should be no differences.
6. They gave......men work.
7. Do not trouble;......will attend to this.......
8. They sent a special notice to our friends and.......

Exercise 3

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of thou, thee, thy or thyself in the blank spaces:

1. To......be true, and it follows as the night the day...... canst not then be false to any man.
2. Paul,......art beside......; much learning hath made ......mad.
3. ......shalt love......neighbor as.......
4. Trust....... Every heart vibrates to that iron string.

Exercise 4

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of he, him, or himself in the blank spaces:

1. ......and John are to blame.
2. I think it was.......
3. My friend and......called on you.
4. He blamed......for the accident.
5. You are no better than.......
6. I shall call for you and.......
7. You and......must come on time.
8. He found the place.......
9. There should be no quarrel between you and......who loves you.
10. If you were......would you go?

Exercise 5

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of she, her, or herself in the blank spaces:

1. They asked Mary and......to go.
2. Mary and......went.
3. May......and I go with you?
4. Let......and Harry go.
5. Is that Mary? Yes, it is.......
6. There are many points of difference between......and me.
7. You are more beautiful than.......
8. She brought it to me.......
9. If......and I join you, will you go?
10. They must not quarrel over......and me.

Exercise 6

Complete the following sentences using the correct form of they, them, or themselves in the blank spaces:

1. They gave......up.
2. ......and I will finish the work.
3. I found......where......hath thrown......down to rest.
4. I am sure it was......for I saw......plainly.
5. The workers enslave......by their lack of solidarity.
6. ......must learn the lesson.......

Exercise 7

Cross out the wrong word in the following sentences:

1. Everybody do—does as he pleases—they please.
2. No one should waste his—their opportunities.
3. The jury rendered its—their verdict.
4. If anyone wishes war, let him—them do the fighting.
5. The audience displayed its—their approval by its—their applause.
6. The audience remained quietly in its—their seats.
7. The jury adjourned for its—their dinner.
8. Nobody willingly gives up his—their rights.
9. Each one may express his—their opinion.
10. Every man received his—their wages.

Exercise 8

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of the pronouns who, whose, or whom:

1. ......do you think I am?
2. I am the man......you taught yesterday.
3. With......are you going?
4. The contract was let to a man......we are sure cannot fulfill it.
5. The contractor......wishes to bid will come tomorrow.
6. On......are you depending?
7. The friends......counsel I took, stood by me.
8. He is a man......I am sure will succeed.
9. We tried to talk to those......we thought would understand us.
10. For......did you work?

Exercise 9

Insert who, whose, whom, which, that or what in the blanks in the following sentences:

1. Man is the only animal......uses a written speech.
2. Can you save......you earn?
3. Ricardo's law was that the workers always receive a wage......permits them to produce and reproduce.
4. Have you read the book "War, What For"......Kirkpatrick wrote?
5. Newspapers......distort the news......they print to serve the ruling class are dangerous foes to the workers.
6. The massacre at Ludlow was an event......aroused the working class.
7. They......live by the labor of others are drones in society and should be given the fate......they deserve.
8. The big machine gun......will destroy slavery is the printing press.
9. The man......leadership we should follow is he......preaches social equality.

Exercise 10

In the following quotations note the use of the pronouns and mark whether they are personal, relative or interrogative, whether they are used in the subject form, possessive form or object form:

1. "Camerado, I give you my hand,

   I give you my love more precious than money,

   I give you myself before preaching or law;

   Will you give me yourself, will you come travel with me,

   Shall we stick by each other as long as we live?"

2. "I think I could turn and live with animals they are so placid and self-contained,

   I stand and look at them long and long, they do not sweat and whine about their condition,

   They do not lie awake in the dark and weep for their sins,

   They do not make me sick discussing their duty to God;

   Not one is dis-satisfied, not one is demented with the mania of owning things.

   Not one kneels to another nor to his kind, that lived thousands of years ago,

   Not one is respectable or unhappy over the whole earth."

   —Whitman.

Exercise 11

Note the omission of the antecedent in the first sentence, also the use of the relative what in the last sentence of the first paragraph:

"Whoso would be a man, must be nonconformist. He who would gather immortal palms must not be hindered by the name of goodness, but must explore if it be goodness. Nothing is at last sacred but the integrity of our own mind. Absolve you to yourself, and you shall have the suffrage of the world. I remember an answer which, when quite young, I was prompted to make to a valued adviser who was wont to importune me with the dear old doctrines of the church. On my saying, "What have I to do with the sacredness of traditions, if I live wholly from within?" my friend suggested—"But these impulses may be from below, not from above." I replied, "They do not seem to me to be such; but if I am the devil's child, I will live then from the devil." No law can be sacred to me but that of my nature. Good and bad are but names very readily transferable to that or this; the only right is what is after my constitution; the only wrong what is against it.

A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines. With consistency a great soul has simply nothing to do. He may as well concern himself with his shadow on the wall. Out upon your guarded lips! Sew them up with pack threads, do. Else, if you would be a man, speak what you think today in words as hard as cannon balls, and tomorrow speak what tomorrow thinks in hard words again, though you contradict everything you said today. Ah, then, exclaim the aged ladies, you shall be sure to be misunderstood. Misunderstood! It is a right fool's word. Is it so bad then to be misunderstood? Pythagoras was misunderstood, and Socrates, and Jesus, and Luther, and Copernicus, and Galileo, and Newton, and every pure and wise spirit that ever took flesh. To be great is to be misunderstood."—Emerson.