Dear Comrade:

As we begin the study of the story of the alphabet and the evolution of written speech, we discover that primitive man imagined the art of writing to have had divine origin, to have been handed down from the powers above.

It is natural for us to personify and envelop in mystery the things that we do not understand. So these primitive people have attributed the discovery of the art of writing to the gods and have looked upon the parchment containing the written word which they cannot understand, as possessing magical power; but as we come to learn the origin and causes of things, they are divested of their mystery and become no longer gods and enslavers of men. We understand the laws that govern their action and they become our servants. Take lightning for example. Primitive people personified the lightning or called it the thunder bolts of Jove or attributed it to an act of divine providence. We have learned the laws that govern the action of electricity and so this mighty giant is no longer a god to whom we bow in submission, and who slays us at his whim. He has become our most faithful servant who travels along the wires at our behest and obeys our every bidding. So in the early stages, the art of writing belonged only to the favored few and was made the means of enslavement of the common people instead of the means of liberation.

Knowledge has always been power and the ruling classes of the world, desiring power over the people, have striven to keep knowledge within their own circle; so the art of writing was known only to the few. The few books in circulation were laboriously written by hand and circulated, largely among the clergy, who used it as priests have ever used their power—from medicine man to Pope,—for the enslavement of the people and the protection of the privileges of a few. This is aptly illustrated in the law which was known as "the benefit of clergy" which was not entirely repealed until the year 1827. Under this statute, exemption from trial for criminal offenses was given to the clergy and also to any man who could read. If a person were sentenced to death for some criminal offense, the bishop of that community might claim him as a clerk and if, when given a Latin book, he could read a verse or two, the court would declare "he reads like a clerk" and the offender was only burned in the hand and then set free.

The invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century which made possible the diffusion of knowledge among the people, was the beginning of the emancipation of the workers of the world. But while we realize, perhaps, what this art of writing means to us and by the knowledge of its growth and development no longer ascribe it to divine origin or consider it a blessing designed by a supreme being for a favored few, still most of us know very little of the interesting evolution which made possible the alphabet which is the basis of our written and spoken language of to-day. When we realize how through all these long centuries man has been struggling, striving, evolving, developing, reaching out toward fuller, freer and richer life, it gives us courage in our struggle and makes us see ourselves, not as individuals alone, but as links in a mighty chain clasping hands with that primitive man of the past, from whom we have inherited the power we now possess, and reaching forth also to clasp the hands of those who shall come and handing on to them the things for which we have struggled and added to the inheritance of the past.

Next week we will have the story of man's first beginning in the art of writing.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

THE VERB "BE"

185. The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master because it has more form changes than any other part of speech.

In this lesson we are going to emphasize the most important things to remember in the study of the verb and also call attention to the most common mistakes.

186. First, master that little verb be in all its forms. The only way to do this is to commit to memory these forms. Say them over and over until any other form does not sound right.

Present	Past	Future
Singular	Singular	Singular
1. I am.	I was.	I shall be.
2. You are.	You were.	You will be.
3. He is.	He was.	He will be.
Plural	Plural	Plural
1. We are.	We were.	We shall be.
2. You are.	You were.	You will be.
3. They are.	They were.	They will be.

Pres. Perf.	Past Perf.	Fut. Perf.
Have been.	Had been.	Shall have been.

187. Do not use aint for is not or am not. Do not say, He aint here, or I aint going. Say, He isn't here; I am not going.

A FREQUENT MISTAKE

188. Perhaps one of the most frequent mistakes is the confusion in the use of the past time form and the past participle. Remember that the past time form is never used except in expressing past time; never use it in forming a verb phrase. Take the verb do, for example—say, He did the work, never, He done the work; but we should say, He has done the work, never, He has did the work. Say and seen are confused in the same manner. Watch this carefully.

Exercise 1

Underline the correct word in the following:

1. Who did—done it?
2. He sung—sang well.
3. He sunk—sank before we could reach him.
4. She written—wrote him a letter.
5. He taken—took the book.
6. They swum—swam the river.
7. I saw—seen him do it.
8. They drank—drunk too much.
9. He soon began—begun to fail.
10. The lad ran—run home.
11. They come—came yesterday.

WITH HELPING VERBS

189. Never use the past time form with the helping verbs has, had, was and were. Always use the past participle. Watch this carefully. For example, never say, He has went. Went is the past time form. Say, He has gone.

Exercise 2

Underscore the correct word in the following sentences:

1. He had tore—torn the book.
2. Have you ever sang—sung this tune?
3. They have showed—shown us how to win.
4. She has went—gone away.
5. The trees were shook—shaken by the wind.
6. He was chose—chosen for leader.
7. He has rose—risen from the ranks.
8. It was wrote—written by him.
9. He has took—taken the prize.
10. He was gave—given the money.
11. I have forgot—forgotten the rule.
12. The river was froze—frozen over.
13. The machine was broke—broken.
14. It was wore—worn out.
15. The meal was ate—eaten in silence.

PAST TIME FORMS

190. Watch your speech to see if you use an incorrect verb form for the past time form. Study the table of irregular verbs and refer to it frequently. We often make the mistake of forming the past time form by adding ed when properly it is formed irregularly. For example: we often say drawed for drew, throwed for threw, etc.

Exercise 3

Draw a line under the correct form in the following:

1. He grew—growed rapidly.
2. He knew—knowed better.
3. He catched—caught the ball.
4. He drew—drawed the water.
5. They threw—throwed him over.
6. I drinked—drank the water.
7. I climbed—clumb the tree.
8. I seed—saw him do it.
9. She teached—taught school.

VERBS OF SIMILAR FORM

191. Do not use one verb for another of similar form but different meaning. The following are the most common of these:

Lay (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to place or to put; as, to lay the book down. Principal parts: Present, lay; Past, laid; Past participle, laid.

Lie (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to recline, to rest; as, to lie in bed. Principal parts: Present, lie; Past, lay; Past participle, lain.

Set (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to place or to put; as, to set the table. Principal parts: Present, set; Past, set; Past participle, set.

Sit (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to rest, as, to sit in a chair. Principal parts: Present, sit; Past, sat; Past participle, sat.

Raise (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to cause to rise, to lift up. Principal parts: Present, raise; Past, raised; Past participle, raised.

Rise (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to get up, to ascend. Principal parts: Present, rise; Past, rose; Past participle, risen.

192. NOTE—These three verbs need an object to complete their meaning:

Present	Past	Past Participle
set	set	set
lay	laid	laid
raise	raised	raised

193. NOTE—These three verbs need no object:

Present	Past	Past Participle
sit	sat	sat
lie	lay	lain
rise	rose	risen

Exercise 4

Fill in the following blanks with the correct form of the verbs sit, set, lay, lie, raise and rise:

1. I......it on the table and there it.......
2. They......the battle ship, Maine.
3. Where did you......it?
4. A mile of pipe has been.......
5. The miners......a large strike fund.
6. She......down to sleep.
7. The body......in state three days.
8. The farmers of the U. S.......an enormous wheat crop.
9. The city......on the right bank.
10. We have......the corner stone.
11. When wages are......, prices are......too.
12. He......in bed all morning.
13. ......down Fido.
14. The sun......at six this morning.
15. She has been......there all day.
16. The ship......to during the storm.
17. They have been......new tracks.
18. The hen is......on the eggs.
19. Somebody said, "Early to bed and early to......, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise."
20. He......motionless for an hour.
21. He......out the trees in rows.
22. He will......in his position.
23. The court will......in May.
24. Where did he......?
25. She......the table while he......there.
26. He......the clock for six o'clock.
27. The water has......two feet since the rain.
28. He......the book down and......on it.
29. The hen has been......a week.
30. ......it on the table.
31. He......in the shade and watched her......the plants.

COMMON ERRORS

194. Remember that in the present time form the third person singular takes the s-form, but the s-form is never used except with the third person singular. We often make the mistake of using the s-form with a plural subject. Notice carefully the following sentences, and correct the errors. All of the sentences are wrong.

1. The days is getting shorter.
2. The men has struck.
3. The trains was late.
4. These papers is written for you.
5. You was disappointed, wasn't you?
6. There is several coming.
7. The nights was dark and cloudy.
8. The clouds has gathered.
9. They was anxious to come.

195. When two subjects are connected by and, the s-form of the verb must not be used, unless both subjects refer to one person; as:

• The president and the secretary (two persons) were late.
• The president and secretary (one person) was elected.

196. But when the two subjects are connected by or or nor then use the s-form of the verb; as:

• Neither Germany nor Russia admits a war of offense.
• Either the House or the Senate rejects the bill.

197. Never use the infinitive sign to by itself; as:

• I have not written and do not expect to.
• He has not gone nor does he intend to.

198. Never use don't for doesn't. The use of don't for doesn't is a very common mistake. Don't is a contraction of do not and doesn't of does not. When you are in doubt as to which to use, think or speak the two words in full and see if the verb agrees with the subject. Do not is used with a plural subject, and does not with a singular subject. For example: He don't believe me. This sentence in full would be, He do not believe me, which is incorrect. He does not (doesn't) believe me is correct. Or, They doesn't believe me. This sentence in full would read, They does not believe me, which is incorrect. They do not (don't) believe me is correct.

199. Do not use has got, or have got for must. For example, do not say, We have got to go. Say, We must go. Not, He has got to do what I say; but, He must do as I say.

200. Do not say had ought. For example: You had ought to know better. Omit the had; it is unnecessary and incorrect. Say, You ought to know better.

201. Do not say says I or thinks I.

• Says I, "Will you go?"
• Says he, "That's what will happen."
• Thinks I to myself, "I'll show you."

These are incorrect. Say instead:

• I said, "Will you go?"
• He said, "That's what will happen."
• I thought, "I'll show you."

Exercise 5

Mark all the verbs in the following quotations and note carefully their use.

• 1. Speak properly and in as few words as you can but always plainly; for the end of speech is not ostentation but to be understood.—Penn.

• 2. "Freedom's battle, once begun,

  Bequeathed from bleeding sire to son,

  Though baffled oft, is ever won."

Note the use of may and can in this quotation:

• 3. Knowledge cannot be stolen from us. It cannot be bought or sold. We may be poor, and the sheriff may come and sell our furniture, or drive away our cow, or take our pet lamb and leave us homeless and penniless; but he cannot lay the law's hand upon the jewelry of our minds.—E. Burritt.

Note the use of shall and will and would and should in the following. Richard Grant White says: "I do not know in English literature another passage in which the distinction between shall and will and would and should is at once so elegantly, so variously, so precisely, and so compactly illustrated."

• 4. "How long I shall love him I can no more tell,

  Than, had I a fever, when I should be well.

  My passion shall kill me before I will show it,

  And yet I would give all the world he did know it;

  But oh how I sigh, when I think, should he woo me,

  I cannot refuse what I know would undo me."

• 5. I want it said of me by those who know me best that I always plucked a thistle and planted a flower where I thought a flower would grow.—Abraham Lincoln.

Exercise 6

Note the nouns as well as the verbs in the following quotation. Note also the use of infinitives and participles. Mark every verb and use it in a sentence of your own.

Faith and Truth

You say "Believe;" I say "Trust."

Between those two words is a great gulf fixed.

The idea that there can be a moral obligation to believe external facts is unworthy of a freeman, but to trust is as much the true nature of man as it is that of a babe to draw in its mother's milk.

You say "Creed;" I say "Faith."

A creed at best is but a sorry caricature of a faith.

Faith is the proper atmosphere of man, trust is his native buoyancy, and his only obligation is to follow the highest law of his being. You have one supreme duty above all creeds and conventions—namely, to think honestly, and say what you think.

Have you doubts about your creed? say so; only thus has the true faith ever advanced.

It is not God, but the devil, who whispers: "Think at your peril!"

Do you see flaws in the ancient structure of respectability and law and order? Say so; only thus has the condition of man ever improved.

Have courage to be the heretic and traitor that you are by nature, and do not worry about the consequences.

Be a creator, as you were born to be, and spurn beyond all infamies the wretched role of a repeater and apologist.

The world lives and grows by heresy and treason.

It dies by conformity to error and loyalty to wrong.
Ernest Crosby.

Exercise 7

In the following paragraph, the predicates are printed in italics, and the participles and infinitives in italic capitals. Study carefully.

If it were taught to every child, and in every school and college, that it is morally wrong for anyone TO LIVE upon the COMBINED labor of his fellowmen without CONTRIBUTING an approximately equal amount of useful labor, whether physical or mental, in return, all kinds of GAMBLING, as well as many other kinds of useless occupations, would be seen TO BE of the same nature as direct dishonesty or fraud, and, therefore would soon come TO BE CONSIDERED disgraceful as well as immoral. Alfred Russel Wallace.

Exercise 8

Underscore all the verbs in the following and note the participles, the infinitives and the various time forms; also the helping verbs:

What, speaking in quite unofficial language, is the net purport of war? To my knowledge, for example, there dwell and toil, in the British village of Dumrudge, usually some five hundred souls. From these, by certain 'natural enemies' of the French, there are selected, say thirty able-bodied men; Dumrudge, at her own expense, has suckled and nursed them; she has, not without difficulty and sorrow, fed them up to manhood and trained them in the crafts, so that one can weave, another build and another hammer. Nevertheless, amidst much weeping and swearing, they are selected; all dressed in red and shipped away, at the public charges, some two thousand miles, or, say only to the south of Spain, and fed there till wanted. And now to that same spot in the south of Spain are thirty similar French artisans, in like manner, wending their ways; till at length the thirty stand facing the thirty, each with his gun in his hand. Straightway, the word 'Fire' is given, and they blow the souls out of one another; and in the place of the sixty brisk, useful craftsmen, the world has sixty dead carcasses, which it must bury and anew shed tears for.

Had these men any quarrel? Busy as the devil is, not the smallest! They lived far enough apart; were the entirest strangers; nay, in so wide a universe, there was even, unconsciously, by commerce, some mutual helpfulness between them.

How then?

Simpleton! Their governors had fallen out; and instead of shooting one another, had these poor blockheads shoot. —Carlyle.