BOSTON, MARCH, 1789.

An Enquiry into the Origin of the Words DOMESDAY, PARISH, PARLIAMENT, PEER, BARON; with Remarks, New and Interesting.

In the course of my etymological investigations, I hav been led to suspect that all the writers on the laws and constitution of England, hav mistaken the origin and primitiv signification of several words of high antiquity, and in consequence of the mistake, hav adopted some erroneous opinions, respecting the history of parliaments and trial by peers. Whether my own opinions are wel supported by history and etymology, must be hereafter decided by able and impartial judges of this subject.

Dome book, or domesday book, iz a word wel understood by English lawyers. Dome book, or dom bec, az it waz formerly spelt, waz the name given to the Saxon code of laws compiled by Alfred. Some other codes of local customs or laws were also denominated dom becs, but theze are all lost. After the conquest, a general survey of all the lands in England, except a few counties, waz made by order of William, and recorded in a volum which iz stil extant, and called domesday. This survey waz begun by five justices assigned for the purpose in each county, in the year 1081 and completed 1086.

Our pious ancestors were not a little frightened at the name of this book, which iz usually pronounced doomsday; supposing it to hav some reference to the final doom, or day of judgement. In order to quiet such apprehensions, lawyers of less credulity undertook to refute the common opinion. Jacob, after Cowel, very gravely asserts, that the termination day in this word does not allude to the general judgement. "The addition of day to this dome book, waz not ment with any allusion to the final day of judgement, az most persons hav conceeved, but waz to strengthen and confirm it, and signifieth the judicial decisiv record, or book of dooming judgement and justice."[67] The same author defines domesmen to be judges, or men appointed to doom.

Cowel, a compiler of considerable authority, says, "day or dey," (for dey iz the true spelling) "does not augment the sense, but only doubles and confirms the same meening. It does not, in this composition, really signify the mesure of time, but the administration of justice; so that domesday iz more emphatically the judicial decisiv record, the book of dooming judgement."[68] According to this author, then, domesday iz a judgement of judgements, for he quotes Dr. Hammond to proov that day, dies, ?e?a, in all idioms, signifies judgement. However tru this may be, I beleev our Saxon forefathers could find a better name for a code of laws, than a judgement of judgements.

"Domesday," says Coke, "dies judicii," day of judgement.[69] Such is the influence of sounds upon credulous, superstitious minds.

The truth seems to be this; domesday is a compound of dom, judgement, decree or authority; and dey, a law or rule.[70] Or domes, in the plural, may signify judges. The name of the book then will signify, ether the rules of judging, or deciding, in questions relating to the real property of England; or what is more probable, the rules and determinations of the judges who surveyed the lands in the kingdom.

That dom had the signification here explained iz capable of proof. The homager's oath, in the black book of Hereford, fol. 46, ends thus, "So helpe me God at his holy dome (judgement) and by my trowthe," (troth, that is truth.)[71] This explanation coincides with the meening of the same syllable in other languages, and confirms the hypothesis of the common origin of the languages of Europe, laid down in the Notes to my Dissertations on the English Tung. We see the syllable in the Greek daa?, the Latin dominus, (domo) and in the English word tame; az also in doom, deem, king dom.[72] In all theze words we observe one primitiv and several derivativ significations. Its primitiv sense is that of power or authority, az in Greek and Latin. In English, it stands for jurisdiction, a judge, or a sentence. In deem, it denotes the act of the mind in judging, or forming its determinations.

The other syllable dey iz probably the same word az ley, law, with a different prepositiv article; for etymologists tel us, that the radical syllable waz often found in the muther tung ey. Cowel informs us it waz not day, but dey; and another author writes it d'ey. The word daysman, or az it ought to be spelt deysman, stil used both in England and America, is composed of dey and man, and signifies an arbitrator or judge, appointed to reconcile differences. In this country I hav often heerd it applied to our Savior, az mediator between God and man.

The ancient lawyers translate the Saxon dom bec and domesdey by liber judicialis; words which seem not to convey the ful meening of the original. I should translate them, liber judicum, the Judges book; or lex judicum, the Judges law or rule.

The old Saxon word ley, before mentioned, waz, in different dialects, or at different periods, written ley, lah, lage, laga. It iz doubtless from the same root az the Latin lex, lege; and it is remarkable, that the same word anciently signified peeple; and from this are derived lay and laity, the peeple as opposed to the clergy.[73] It iz probable that the primitiv sense of the word, in remote antiquity, waz people; and az the peeple made the laws in general assembly, so their orders or decrees came to be called by the same name. This conjecture iz not groundless, and is no trifling proof of the ancient freedom of our Gothic ancestors. Tacitus says expressly of the Germans, "De minoribus rebus principes consultant; de majoribus omnes." De Mor Germ. 11. The princes deliberate upon small matters, or perhaps decide private controverses of small moment; but laws of general concern are enacted in an assembly of all the peeple.

The origin of Parishes haz puzzled all the lawyers and antiquaries of the English nation. Johnson, after his usual manner, recurs to the Greek, and derives the word from pa?????a, accolarum conventus, an assemblage or collection of peeple in a naborhood. Others content themselves with deriving it from the Latin parochia or French paroisse. These etymologies do not satisfy me. It is improbable that our ancestors went to the Greek for names of places or divisions of territory, that existed in England az erly az the Heptarchy; especially az the Greek word before mentioned waz never used in the sense of parish. Parochia cannot be the origin of parish; for it waz not a Roman word; on the other hand, it is merely a Gothic or Saxon word latinized by the erly writers on law; and to derive parish from the French paroisse is trifling; for we might as well derive paroisse from parish, which iz at leest az ancient.

"It iz uncertain at what time England waz divided into parishes," say most of the law writers. Camden, in hiz Britannia, page 104, says, the kingdom waz first divided into parishes by Honorius, archbishop of Canterbury, in 636. This opinion iz controverted. Sir Henry Hobart thinks parishes were erected by the council of Lateran, in 1179. Selden, followed by Blackstone, supposes both to be rong, and shows that the clergy lived in common, without any distinction of parishes, long after the time mentioned by Camden; and it appeers by the Saxon laws, that parishes were known long before the council of Lateran.[74]

The truth probably iz, the kingdom was not divided into parishes at any one time, but the original ecclesiastical division grew, in a great measure, out of a prior civil division. Parish iz the most ancient division of the ecclesiastical state, and originally denoted the jurisdiction of a bishop, or what iz now called a diocese. For this opinion, we hav the authority of the Saxon laws and charters. "Ego Cealwulfus, dei gratia rex Merciorum, rogatus a Werfritho, Episcopo Hwicciorum, istam libertatem donavi, ut tota parochia Hwicciorum a pastu equorum, regis et eorum qui eos ducunt, libera sit, &c." Charta Cealwulfi regis, Anno 872. "Episcopus, congregatis omnibus clericis totius parochiÆ, &c." in a passage quoted by Cowel tit. parish. Here the bishoprick iz explicitly called a parish, parochia; and Blackstone remarks, "it is agreed on all hands, that in the erly ages of christianity in this island, parishes were unknown, or at leest signified the same az a diocese does now." Com. Vol. I. 112.

This, being a settled point, wil perhaps furnish a clue by which we may find the true origin of the word and of the division.

It iz certain that there waz an ancient word among the Gothic nations, and probably among the Celtic, which signified originally a man, afterwards a freeman, or landholder, in opposition to that class of men who had no real property. This word waz spelt by the Romans vir, and signified a man, by way of eminence, az distinguished from homo; az also a husband or householder. It answered to the a??? of the Greeks, az distinguished from a????p??, a word denoting the human race in general. The same word in the Gothic or ancient German waz spelt bar;[75] and probably in some dialects par, for the convertibility of b with p iz obvious to every etymologist.[76] In the Erse language, az Mc Pherson testifies, bar signifies a man. The word iz also pronounced fer or fear, which approaches nearer to the Latin vir: Fergus or Ferguth signifies a man of word or command. In modern Welsh, which iz the purest relict of the old Celtic, bar is a son, and barn a judge. In the ancient Irish, brehon or barhon, which iz merely baron with an aspirate, signified a judge. See Lhuyd, Mc Pherson, Ossian, p. 4. and Blackstone's Commentaries, Vol. I.

This word iz the root of the modern word baron; for in ancient manuscripts, it iz sometimes spelt viron, denoting its derivation from vir. For this we hav the authority of Camden and Du Cange under the word baron.

So far we tred on sure ground. That theze words hav existed or do stil exist in the sense above explained, wil not be denied; and it iz almost certain that they all had a common origin. The word Baron iz evidently derived from the German bar or par, and under the feudal system, came to signify the proprietors of large tracts of land, or thoze vassals of the Lord Paramount, who held lands by honorable service.[77]

I shall hereafter attempt to proov that several modern words are derived from the same root; at present I confine my remarks to the word parish, which, I conjecture, iz a compound of par, a landholder, and rick or rich, which haz been explained, az denoting territory or jurisdiction: Parick or parich, the jurisdiction of a par or baron. It iz true the words baron and parliament seem not to hav been used among the Saxons before the conquest; but they were used by most of the nations of the same original, on the continent; az in Germany, Burgundy, Sweden and Normandy: And the use of the word parochia in England, before the conquest, or at leest by the first lawyers and translators of the Saxon laws, iz to me the strongest proof that some such word az parick existed among the erly Saxons, or which waz latinized by thoze writers. Even if we suppose the word borrowed from nations on the continent, my supposition of the existence of such a word iz equally wel founded, for they all spoke dialects of the same tung.

The first knowlege we hav of the word parish or rather parochia, iz in the Saxon laws, copied and translated into Latin by thoze erly writers, Bracton, Britlon, Fleta, or others of an erlier date. In that erly period, parochia waz a diocese or bishoprick.

I suspect the jurisdiction of the bishop waz originally limited by an erldom, county shire, or territory of a great lord. This waz probably the general division; for sometimes a clergyman or bishop, in the zerude ages, had cure of souls in two or more adjoining lordships; and it often happened that a lord had much waste land on hiz demesne, which waz not comprehended in the original parish, and thus came, in later times, to be called extraparochial. But whatever particular exceptions there might be, the remark az a general one, will hold true, with respect to the original jurisdiction of a bishop.

The number of counties in England iz at present forty, and that of the dioceses, twenty four; but the number of counties haz been different at different times; and some changes, both in the civil and ecclesiastical state, hav doubtless, in a course of a thousand years, destroyed the primitiv division. It iz however some proof of my hypothesis, that most of the bishops in England are stil called by the names of counties, or of cities which are shires of themselves; az the bishop of Durham, of Worcester, of London, of Norwich, &c. or by the names of the cheef towns in counties; az bishop of Winchester, of Chichester, &c.

Selden's account of the ancient divisions of the kingdom, confirms this opinion. See Bacon's Selden, ch. 11. The province or jurisdiction of an archbishop, waz prior to the origin of diocesses or parishes. Selden haz given an account of a division of diocesses by archbishop Theodore in the seventh century; by which it appears, that in some instances, a diocese or parish waz one shire or county; and in others, a parochia covered two, three, or more shires: But in almost every instance, the limits of a parish were the limits of a shire or shires. And however strange the reader may think it, the word church and shire are radically the same. The Saxon word waz cyrick or cyrk;[78] and the Scotch pronounce and write it kirk. It iz, like shire, derived from the Saxon Sciran, cir, or seyre, to divide. The church or kirk waz the ecclesiastical division, answering to shire, and come to signify the jurisdiction of the cathedral church; the primaria ecclesia or mother church; and hence the Saxon term cyrick sceate, church scot or fees, paid by the whole diocese.

In later times, the original parochia or diocese was divided or extended by the Mickle-mote, Witenagemote or national assembly, by advice of the bishops, nobles, and cheef men.

From all I can collect respecting this subject, it appeers probable, that on the first conversion of the Saxons to christianity, each earle, earlederman, or erl, whoze manor or jurisdiction waz the origin of a county, had hiz clergyman or chaplain to perform divine service. Hiz residence waz probably in the vicinity of the erl; and this waz the origin of the cathedral, or mother church, primaria ecclesia, to which the tenants of the whole district or erldom afterwards paid tithes. On the first establishment of theze churches, the tenants paid tithes where they choze; but fraud or delay on the part of the tenant, and the encreasing power of the clergy, occasioned a law of king Edgar, about the year 970, commanding all the tithes to be paid to the mother church, to which the parish belonged.[79] This must hav augmented the welth of the cathedral churches, and given them a superior rank in the ecclesiastical state.

Previous, however, to this period, the thanes or inferior lords, had their chaplains and private chapels; and it waz a rule, that if such chapel had a consecrated cemetery or burying ground belonging to it, the lord might appropriate one third of the tithes to the support of hiz private chaplain. The clerks or bishops who belonged to the cathedral churches, and were the officiating ministers of the erls or princes, at that time the first ranks of noblemen, acquired an influence in proportion to their property and the extent of their jurisdictions. Hence the powers of modern bishops in superintending the clergy of their dioceses. In later times, they acquired large tracts of land, ether by purchase, gift or devise, and in right of their baronies gained a seet among the lords of the kingdom in parliament.

The inferior clergy were multiplied in proportion az the peeple wanted or could support them, and the jurisdiction of an earl's chaplain, being limited originally by his cure of souls, and being founded on a parrick or territory of a lord, afterwards gave name to all the jurisdictions of the inferior clergy. Hence the name of parish, as denoting the extent of a parson's[80] ecclesiastical authority.

The jurisdiction of a bishop lost the name of parish, parochia, at a very erly period; but stil the subordinate divisions of the ecclesiastical state continued to be regulated by prior civil divisions. For this assertion, we hav an indisputable authority, which confirms my opinion respecting the origin of parishes. "It seems pretty clear and certain," says the learned and elegant Blackstone, Com. vol. I, 114, "that the boundaries of parishes were originally ascertained by thoze of a manor or manors; since it very seldom happens that a manor extends itself over more parishes than one, tho there are often many manors in one parish." This iz the present state of facts, for originally the parish, like the modern diocese, covered many manors, or estates of the inferior feudatories.

Parliament iz said to be derived from the French, parlement, which iz composed of parler, to speak, and ment or mens, mind. Cowel tit. Parliament.

"Parliament," says Johnson, "parliamentuns, law Latin; parlement, French." Dict. fol. Edit. "It is called parliament," says Coke Litt. p. 110. Ed. Lond. 1778, "because every member of that court should sincerely and discretely parler le ment," (speek hiz mind) "for the general good of the commonwelth; which name it also hath in Scotland; and this name before the conquest waz uzed in the time of Edward the Confessor, William the Conqueror, &c. It waz anciently, before the conquest, called michel-sinath,[81] michel-gemote; ealla, witena-gemote; that is to say, the great court or meeting of the king and all the wisemen; sometimes of the king, with the counsel of hiz bishops, nobles and wisest of hiz peeple. This court, the French men call les estates; or l'assemble des estates. In Germany it is called a diet. For thoze other courts in France that are called parliaments, they are but ordinary courts of justice, and az Paulus Jovius affirmeth, were first established with us."

The late editor of Cokes Institutes, remarks, in a note on this passage, that the latter part of this etymology iz justly exploded, and apologizes for hiz author by saying, "it iz to be found in preceding authors of eminence." He discards the ment, and considers it, not az an essential, but an adventitious part of the word; deeming it sufficient to derive the word from parler, to speak. This opinion he receives from Lambard.

Such a definition, with great deference to theze venerable authorities, iz a disgrace to etymology. Coke waz a great lawyer, and Johnson a good Latin and Greek scholar; but neether of them waz versed in the Teutonic language and institutions, where alone we should look for the origin of our laws and the English constitution. Johnson indeed waz a mere compiler of other mens etymologies, and Cowel, Selden, Junius and others from whom he copied, tho deeply lerned, sometimes fell into very whimsical mistakes. I am bold to assert that the English derivation of parliament, or parlement from the French parler, haz no better authority than a mere whim or notion of theze writers. We might az well derive parler from parliament, and both from a parcel of gossips, because they are loquacious.

The true etymology of the word iz par, or bar, a landholder or baron, and le mote, the meeting. I say mote, for this waz the Saxon spelling of the word, after the prepositiv ge waz dropped. It waz originally gemote, az in witena-gemote; afterwards the ge waz disused, az in falk-mote. What the original French orthography waz, I am not certain; but the word came to England from France, and we find the French article prefixed, par-le-ment; a meeting of the barons. The same sound waz used in Germany, Burgundy, and other parts of Europe, and in all, it had the same meening, which it, in some mesure, retains in France to this day.

The commune concilium of England, before the conquest, consisted of the witena, or wise men. It retained the name of witena-gemote, til after the Norman invasion. It iz perhaps impossible, at this distance of time, to ascertain exactly the manner of summoning this national assembly, or whether the commons or lesser nobility were entitled to a seet. In old charters, the king iz said to hav passed laws by advice of the archbishops, bishops, abbots, erls and wise men of the relm; seniorum sapientium populi. But we are not able to determin whether theze seniores sapientes were admitted on account of their age and wisdom; or whether possession of real estate waz a requisit qualification. So much iz certain, that in France and Germany, where we first heer of parliaments, all the barons, that iz, all the nobility, were entitled to a seet in the national council, in right of their baronys; and this iz asserted to hav been the case in England.[82] This fact, so well attested in history az to be undeniable, ought long ago to hav led the critical enquirer to the true origin of the French word, parlement. The name of parliament took its rise under the feudal system, when the assembly of men, so called, consisted solely of barons or bars. It iz from this circumstance that the provincial assemblies of France are properly denominated parliaments. The erly Norman princes, who introduced the name into England, summoned none to their council but the clergy and nobility, and sometimes a few only of the greater barons. The house of lords iz strictly a parliament, according to the original of the word, altho since the commons hav made a part of the legislature, the name iz extended to the whole body.

The word peer iz said to be derived from the Latin par equal; and this circumstance haz been the occasion of innumerable encomiums on the English trial by peers. So far az equality in the condition of judges and parties, iz an excellence in any judicial system, the present practice of trial by jury iz esteemable among a free peeple; for whatever may be the origin of the word peer, a trial by men of the naborhood may often proov a capital security against a court devoted to party. But it iz at least doubtful whether peers, az used for jurors, came from the Latin par; for it iz almost certain that the word peer, az used for nobles, iz derived from the German par, a landholder, and this iz undoubtedly the tru primitiv sense of the word. That there waz such a word in ancient Germany, iz unquestionable; and paramount, which signifies the lord of highest rank, iz from the same root; par-amount, the par or baron above the rest. The jurists on the continent latinized the word, calling the lords pares; and this, in later ages, waz mistaken for the plural of the Latin par.

Az the pares or barons claimed almost exclusiv jurisdiction over their manors, and held courts of justice, ether in person or by their bailiffs, they came to be considered az the supreme judges in the last resort of all civil and criminal causes. Pares or barons became equivalent to judges. Hence the house of peers in England iz the supreme judicatory of the nation. Hence the parliaments (meetings of peers) in France are supreme courts of justice.

Twelv waz a favorit number with our Saxon ancestors, and the king, or lord paramount, with twelv judges, constituted the supreme court or council among the ancient Germans. It will hardly be considered a digression to examin this institution with more attention; for if I mistake not, the rudiments of it are visible az far back az the Christian era; or even az the Gothic migrations to the west and north of Europe.

In the Edda, or system of Gothic mythology, compiled by Snorro Sturleson, supreme judge of Iceland, about the year 1220, we may discern the principles which would naturally giv rise to the practice of trial by twelv men. The Edda will indeed be said to be a collection of fables. To this I answer, fable iz generally, perhaps always, founded on fact; whatever additions may be made in a course of time by imperfect tradition. The Edda iz acknowledged to contain an authentic account of the opinions of the northern nations at the time it waz written. This iz all I ask.

Snorro, and TorfÆus the historian of the north, inform us that even in Scythia, "Odin, the supreme god of the Goths, performed the functions of cheef preest, assisted by twelv pontiffs, who distributed justice."[83]

Let us attend to a fact confirming the account. Mallet, a historian of credit, testifies that the hall or seet of justice, may be stil seen in different parts of Sweden and Denmark. "Theze monuments, whoze rude bulk haz preserved them from the ravages of time, are only vast unhewn stones, commonly twelv in number, set upright, and placed in form of a circle. In the middle iz a stone, much larger than the rest, on which they made a seet for their king. The other stones served az a barrier to keep off the populace, and marked the place of thoze whom the peeple had appointed to make the election (of king.) They treeted also in the same place of the most important affairs."[84] There iz one neer Lunden,[85] in Scania, another at Leyra, in Zealand, and a third neer Viburg, in Jutland.

This being a well attested fact, we are disposed to beleev what iz related in the Edda, Fable 7th, where it iz asked, "what the universal father did when he bilt Asgard, (the divine abode.") It iz answered, agreeable to the receeved opinion of the Goths, "he in the beginning established governors, and ordered there to decide whatever differences should arize among men, and to regulate the government in the plain, called Ida, wherein are twelv seets for themselves, besides the throne which iz occupied by the universal father."[86]

On this passage, the translator of Mallets History haz the following note. "Theze judges were twelv in number. Waz this owing to there being twelv primary deities among the Gothic nations, az there were among the Greeks and Romans? This I shall not take upon me to decide; but I think one may plainly observe here the first traces of a custom, which hath extended itself to a great many other things. Odin, the conqueror of the north, established a supreme court in Sweden, composed of twelv members, to assist him in the functions of the preesthood and government. This doubtless gave rise to what waz afterwards called the senate. And the same establishment in like manner took place in Denmark, Norway, and other northern States. Theze senators decided in this last appeal, all differences of importance; they were, if I may say so, the assessors of the prince; and were in number twelv, az we are expressly informed by Saxo, in hiz life of king Regner Lodbrog. Nor are other monuments wanting, which abundantly confirm this truth. We find in Zealand, in Sweden, neer Upsal, and if I am not mistaken, in the county of Cornwal, large stones, to the number of twelv, ranged in the form of a circle, and in the midst of them, one of a superior height. Such in thoze rude ages, waz the hall of audience; the stones that formed the circumference, were the seets of the senators; that in the middle, the throne of the king. The like monuments are found also in Persia, neer Tauris. Travellers frequently meet there with large circles of hewn stones; and the tradition of the country reports, that theze are the places where the caous or giants formerly held their councils.[87] I think one may discover vestiges of this ancient custom, in the fable of the twelv peers of France, and in the establishment of twelv jurymen in England, who are the proper judges, according to the ancient laws of that country."

It iz certain that some outlines of this mode of deciding controversies by twelv, may be seen in the customs of the Cimbri and Teutones, long before the Christian era. But I cannot find that the idea of equality ever entered into the original institution. On the other hand, every old authority that I hav consulted confirms me in the opinion, that the twelv men were chosen from among the landholders or better classes of peeple; that they were the judges of the court, and that the distinction between judges and jury, law and fact, iz a refinement or improovment on the original constitution, and comparativly of modern date.

It iz certain that a difference of rank existed among the Germans in the time of Tacitus. "Reges ex nobilitate, duces ex virtute sumunt."[88] The same writer expressly declares, that matters of inferior concern and private justice came within the jurisdiction of their princes. "De minoribus rebus principes consultant, de majoribus, omnes."[89] In another passage, he is more explicit: "Principes jura per pagos vicosque reddunt."[90] Cesar iz still more explicit: "Principes regionum atque pagorum inter suos jus dicunt, controversiasque minuunt."[91] Theze principes regionum atque pagorum, Blackstone says, we may fairly constur to be lords of hundreds and manors;[92] they were originally electiv, az we are informed by Tacitus, "eliguntur in conciliis principis," and each had a hundred comites, or assistant judges, who were chosen from among the peeple. "Centeni singulis, explebe comites, concilium simul et auctoritas, adsunt."[93] Theze hundred assistants, or companions, were chosen ex plebe; but when chosen formed the concilium principis. The prince waz their president, chosen by themselves, eliguntur in conciliis principes, and had auctoritatem, authority or jurisdiction in the town or district. The idea of equality iz no where suggested; on the contrary; the hundredors when chosen became a court or legislature in the district, competent to the general purposes of government. No mention iz made of a distinction between the legislativ and judicial departments; on the other hand, we may safely conclude, from the passeges of Cesar and Tacitus before quoted, that the powers of making laws and deciding causes were vested in the same men. Cesar says, "nullus est in pace communis magistratus," nor could the Germans, in their primitiv simple mode of living, need such a magistrate. The princes jus dicunt, controversiasque minuunt, distributed justice, by the assistance of their comites, and according to the circumstances of the peeple.[94] This at leest waz the case with respect to matters of small magnitude. The number of comites principis, or assistants, waz originally a hundred. This gave name to the district which they governed, and which afterwards consisted of any indefinit number, still retaining the primitiv name. In later ages, the number of assistant judges waz reduced; a grand jury still consists of twenty four; a petit jury commonly consists of twelv, but on certain occasions, and by the custom of particular places in England, may be composed of sixteen, eight or six.[95]

Such waz the constitution of the ancient Germans, in which we may discover the principles of the system which they every where established, after their conquests in Gaul, Spain, Italy and Britain.

Twelv waz a favorit number, not only with the Saxons, but with all the nations of northern original. They had twelv principal deities; they numbered the units up to twelv, instead of stopping at ten, like other nations;[96] they had twelv judges to assist their kings or princes; their hall for the election of their kings consisted of twelv huge stones, placed in a circle. Hence we discover the origin of the twelv senators of Sweden,[97] Denmark and Norway; the twelv counsellors of state in ancient times; the fable, az it iz called, of the twelv peers in France; the twelv judges in England, and the trial by twelv peers or jurors, which waz formerly common to all the northern nations of Europe.[98]

On the Gothic establishments in the south and west of Europe, government took a military complection. The kings parcelled out the conquered lands among their generals, called duces or principes, by the Latin writers; and by the Saxons, heretoga. The generals of first rank receeved or acquired whole provinces, az Burgundy, and the principalities of Germany. Theze territories they distributed among their inferior officers and comites or retainers, of whom every lord had great numbers about hiz person. Theze constituted a secondary, but very numerous class of nobility; and altho there might be differences of rank and property among them, they were called by one general appellation. In England, they were called thanes, from a word signifying to serve, because they held their lands by the condition of military service. On the continent, they were called barons, that is freemen, or tenants of land, upon condition of rendering certain military and honorable service to their superior lord, who waz called lord paramount.

Blackstone remarks, that "a baron's iz the most general and universal title of nobility; for originally every one of the peers of superior rank had also a barony annexed to hiz title."[99] The origin of this title haz occasioned great enquiry among antiquaries; but the difficulty vanishes upon my hypothesis, which derives the word from bar, a landholder and freeman; for on the establishment of the feudal tenures, all the lands were held by a few men; the proprietors were all called barons, and this accounts for the universality of the title just mentioned. Thus the bishops, after they had obtained gifts of large tracts of land or manors, resigned them to the conqueror, William; accepted them again subject to the conditions of lay fees, claimed rank with the nobility, and took their seets in the English house of lords. Actual possession of a barony waz originally requisit to constitute a lord of parliament; but the title iz now granted by the king without the possession.

Blackstone mentions the difficulty of tracing the word baron to its primitiv sense; but confirms the foregoing explanation when he says, "the most probable opinion iz that barons were the same az our lords of manors."[100] The name indeed waz not used in England (so far as can be collected from English writers) till after the conquest. But it iz certain that the feudal system, tho not in all its severity, waz established in England before that period; and degrees of nobility were cotemporary with the Saxon establishments in the island. The first class were called in Saxon heretoga, that iz generals or military commanders. But the most ancient and perhaps the most important civil title waz that of earles or ealdormen. Theze erls were called also in Saxon schiremen, for they exercised supreme jurisdiction in the shires. After the conquest they were called by the corresponding Norman title counts, from comites, because they were the king's companions in war; and their jurisdiction waz called a county.[101]

Inferior to theze in rank were the Saxon thanes, who were so called from the Saxon thanian ministrare, because they were the comites or attendants of the ancient kings or earls. Theze were numerous, and after the conquest called by the equivalent continental title, barons. Of theze there were different ranks, thani majores or thani regis, who served the king in places of high importance, and took rank next to the bishops and abbots. Theze had inferior thanes under them, called thani minores, who were also lords of manors.[102] The word peer I suppose to be derived from the same root az baron, bar or par, and to be equivalent in sense. It iz cleer to me that landholder, or man by way of eminence, waz its original meening; and that it iz a proper name of the ancient nobility, given them az proprietors of vast tracts of land, and that it had no reference to equality of rank.

But there are better proofs of this point than that drawn from this supposed derivation. The true original signification of the word we hav in the phrases, house of peers, peers of the relm, peerage. And for this assertion we hav the best authorities in the language. Cowel, from whom Johnson and most modern lawyers have borrowed their definitions of law terms, after explaining the word peer az denoting jurors, says expressly, "but this word iz most principally used for thoze that be of the nobility of the relm and lords of the parliament." Here the author haz mentioned a well supported fact, and quotes ancient authorities. But he immediately leevs fact, and runs into conjecture, az to the reezon of this appellation, which he deduces from a preconceeved, but probably erroneous, opinion. "The reezon whereof iz, that altho there be a distinction of degrees in our nobility, yet in all public actions they are equal; az in their votes of parliament, &c." Here the author takes it for granted that the word peer signifies equal, and assigns, az a cause of its most principal appropriation to the nobility, that the men, tho of different ranks, hav an equal vote in parliament. This a curious reason indeed! A man must be more credulous than I am, to beleev this slight circumstance would giv rise to such a particular appropriation of a name. One would think that the same reezon would hav given the name to the clergy in convocation and other ecclesiastical courts. Yet the learned and candid Blackstone haz copied the same reezon. "The commonalty, like the nobility, are divided into several degrees; and, az the lords, tho different in rank, yet all them are peers in respect of their nobility; so the commoners, tho some are greatly superior to others, yet all are in law peers, in respect of their want of nobility."[103] This appeers very extraordinary, that an equality of suffrage should giv an appellation in preference to difference of rank, which iz, so much more obvious and more flattering to the haughty barons. But if the commoners are peers or equals in suffrage az well az the lords; that iz, on the same principle; or as Blackstone states it, if the lords are peers because they are noble, and the commoners are peers, because they are not noble, why hav not the commoners the same appellations of peers of the relm? The lords are not equally noble, by Blackstone's own statement, for they are of very different ranks; and the commons are not equally ignoble, (this word iz used merely for contrast) for they are of different ranks: Yet the vote of one commoner iz az good in the house of commons, az that of another; and the vote of one lord, in the other house, iz az good az that of another. If the equality of suffrage iz a proper ground for the title of peers in one house, the reezon extends to the other. Yet commoners are not peers of the relm; and until a good reezon can be assigned for the distinction of titles between the houses, I shall beleev that the word peer had originally no reference to equality.[104] But say the English lawyers and antiquaries, "the bishops are not in strictness held to be peers of the relm, but only lords of parliament."[105] Why not? What is the distinction? Here our authors leev us in the dark; but perhaps the foregoing clu will leed us to the light. Bishops were not the original proprietors of baronies; they were not bars or pars, the hereditary lords of manors, consequently not peers of the relm. This iz such an obvious solution of the question, that I am surprized it should hav been overlooked. Under the papal hierarchy, the clergy gained vast influence over the minds of men, and by a variety of expedients, became possessed of large estates, and some of them, of ancient baronies. But their acquisitions were comparativly of modern date, and many of them usurpations, altho in consequence of their estates they obtained a seet in the house of lords. They are therefore lords of parliament; but the ancient peers, priding themselves upon the antiquity of their families, and claiming certain prescriptiv rights, would not admit the clergy to an equal share of authority and honor; for to this day, a vote of the temporal lords iz good against every vote of the clergy.[106]

"The appellation peer," says Cowel, "seems to be borrowed from France, and from thoze twelv peers that Charlemagne instituted in that kingdom." The same word waz used by other nations. Theze twelv peers constituted a great council or supreme court, and the members were all barons, or of the nobility.[107] Can the word, applied to the members of this council, signify equal? By no meens. Here we trace the word to a remote period of antiquity, and find it used by the emperor of Germany; or at leest an appellation given to one of the first councils in hiz dominions. This iz the pure primitiv sense of the word peers, barons, that iz, in the full latitude of its signification, all the ancient nobility; who held lands of him ether immediately or mediately; who formed hiz supreme judicial court, and in some countries, hiz legislativ assembly; who were hereditary councillors of the crown; and cheef judges of all causes arising on their own manors, except such az were of great consequence.

This explanation accounts for what Selden has remarked, chap. 65, that "the barons of England, before the reign of Edward I, were rather the great and richer sort of men, than peers, altho they were of the number." That iz, the Saxon thanes, who were great landholders, but inferior to the erls, had, after the conquest, receeved the appellation of barons from the continent; but, being a secondary class of nobility, had not claimed or acquired the power and privileges of the German and French princes and nobles who had the title of peers, until the Norman kings had introduced, into the kingdom, the oppressiv and invidious distinctions of the feudal tenures, in the full extent of the system.

It will be enquired, if this iz the sense of the word, how came juries of common freeholders to be called peers? The answer iz eesy; the jurors were the judges of the inferior courts, and not merely the equals of the parties, az iz commonly supposed. The erl or baron, in strictness; but more commonly, the vice-comes, sheriff or lords deputy, waz the president or cheef justice, and the jurors, the assistant judges. For this opinion, numberless authorities may be produced. The barons were the assistant judges, peers, in the court of the lord paramount or king, and thus became judges by prescription; so the word peer or baron, in time, became equivalent to judge. Az the nobles were judges in the kings court, and decided on appeels in the last resort, so the freeholders who constituted the court in the county, hundred or manor, came to be denominated peers, that iz, judges.

Reeve, in hiz history of the English Law, remarks, that "the administration of justice in the days of William the conqueror, waz so commonly attendant on the rank and character of a baron, that baro and justiciarius were often used synonimously." Blackstone says, "it iz probable the barons were the same az our lords of manors, to which the name of court baron (which iz the lords court, and incident to every manor) givs some countenance." Vol. I. 398. It iz surprizing, theze writers should approach so neer the tru original and meening of the word, baron, and not reech it.

Most writers on the ancient state of government in Europe, hav remarked that the nobility held the office of judges. "Les mesmes comtes," says Mezeray, "et ducs, qui jugeoint les FranÇois, les menoient a la guerre." tom. I. p. 118. The counts and dukes were both judges and generals.

"Duo—comitum munera fure; unum videlicet justitiÆ populis ministrandÆ, alterum militiÆ sibi subjectÆ, quando in bellum eundum erat, educendÆ atque regendÆ." Muratori. Antiq. Ital. tom. I. p. 399. The counts had two offices or departments of business; the administration of justice, and command of the troops in war.

Stuart, in hiz English Constitution, remarks, "that the erls presided in the courts of law. Their jurisdiction extended over their feefs: In all causes, civil and criminal, they judged without appeel, except in cases of the utmost consequence." Part 3. Sect. 3.

I presume it iz needless to multiply authorities. The strongest argument in favor of my opinions iz drawn from the supreme judiciary powers of the house of lords in England. The lords are peers of the relm; that iz, the ancient prescriptiv judges or barons, who claim the privilege by hereditary right or immemorial usuage. The house of peers, iz literally and in fact, a house of judges; an assembly of all the ancient judges in the kingdom. So Selden relates of the Saxons, whom he supposes to be descended from the same original az the Greeks, and long prior to the ages of Roman glory; "their country they divided into counties or circuits, all under the government of twelv lords, like the Athenian territory under the Archontes. Theze, with the other princes, had the judicial power of distributiv justice committed to them, with a hundred commoners out of each division." Tit. Saxons. The same writer declares, chap. 58, that the nobles "were in their most ordinary work, meetings of judges, or courts of judicature; that the king and hiz barons made many laws and constitutions which hav obtained the name of statutes," (which he supposes may hav been equitable decisions of new causes, which afterwards had the force of laws) "that the judges of this supreme court are the baronage of England; and that the house of lords still retain their supreme judiciary powers by ancient prescriptiv right."

In addition to this authority, I would remark that the modern supreme judiciary of Scotland iz copied almost exactly from the ancient Saxon trial by laghmen or thanes. The lords of session, or president and fourteen judges, are a court of law and fact, without a jury; and this iz exactly the old trial by peers.

The parliaments in France are justly said by lord Coke, to be ordinary courts of justice; another striking evidence of what I hav advanced. The word parliament came from France, where it denotes that assembly of barons, which constitutes the supreme court of justice in each of the several provinces. This iz the original import of the word, and the parliaments in France still retain that signification. This name waz introduced into England, under the Norman princes, and superseded the Saxon name of the national assembly, witena-gemote. Indeed, during the depression of the peeple, under the first princes of the Norman line, when the military tenures were established with rigor, national assemblies were called but seldom, and when summoned, consisted principally of the bishops and peers (barons) of the relm. They however acquired the name of parliament, and retain it to this day; altho one branch of that body iz composed of commoners. The tru meening of parliament iz a meeting of barons or peers, and their principal business waz to decide controversies: They had original jurisdiction over causes in which the nobles were parties, az men of rank would not seek redress before an inferior tribunal; and they had an appellate jurisdiction over other causes in the last resort. The parliament of England iz a legislativ body; but the house of lords retains the primitiv privilege of finally deciding controversies. This branch of the legislature alone answers to the parliaments in France, which approach neer the ancient institution.[108]

So in England, the house of lords, and even the temporal lords alone, were called formerly a parliament. Blackstone, b. IV, c. 19, upon the authority of ancient books and records, repeetedly denominates the house of peers, when acting az a court of supreme judicature, a parliament, a full parliament; and the spiritual lords are not permitted to giv any vote upon gilty or not gilty, for they are not ancient peers (that iz, barons, prescriptiv judges) of the relm. It haz been douted whether the spiritual lords had a right to sit in the house on the trial of a peer; but by a determination of the lords in the erl of Danby's case, 1679, they were permitted "to stay and sit in court in capital cases, till the court proceeds to the vote of gilty or not gilty." Still they form no part of the court; the temporal lords constituting a full parliament, that iz, az I hav explained the tru primitiv meening of the word, a meeting of barons or judges.[109] I would just add on this head, that the institution of twelv judges in England, iz copied from the ancient mode of trial in Germany. The old Curia Regis consisted of the king, hiz grand justiciary, the officers of hiz palace and his barons. This court followed the kings person wherever he went. Out of this were formed the several courts now established at Westminster. But the title of barons of the exchequer and barons of the cinque ports, who are judges, furnishes an additional argument in favor of my opinions.

The foregoing explanation of the words, baron and peer, leeds to a probable account of the trial by peers. It can be prooved that the jurors were the judges of the county, hundred and manor courts, and the probability iz that the suitors in theze courts receeved the appellation of peers, from the circumstance of their being landholders. Several authorities seem at leest to favor this opinion.

"Concerning the institution of this court by the laws and ordinances of ancient kings, and especially of Alfred, it appeereth that the first kings of this relm had all the lands of England in demesne, and les grand manors et royalties, they reserved to themselves; and of the remnant, they, for the defence of the relm, enscoffed the barons of the relm, with such jurisdiction az the court baron now hath, and instituted the freeholders to be judges of the court baron."[110]

"The manor courts are of two sorts. The first iz by the common law, and iz called the court baron, az some hav said, for that it iz the freeholders or freemens court, (for barons in one sense signifie freemen) and of that court the freeholders, being suitors, be judges. The second iz the copyholders court, which iz called a court baron, because among the laws of king Edward the confessor, it iz said: "Barones vero qui suam habent curiam de suis hominibus," taking the name of the baron who waz lord of the manor, or for that properly in the eye of the law, it hath relation to the freeholders who are judges of this court. And in ancient charters and records, the barons of London and the cinque ports do signify the freemen of London and the cinque ports."[111] Theze passages are express to my purpose. Indeed it must hav been that the freeholders, now called jurors, were judges; for the lord of the manor waz cheef judge or president merely, and we heer nothing, at this erly period of Saxon jurisprudence, of a distinction between law and fact.

Horne, in the Mirror of Justices, asserts[112] "that by the constitutions of Alfred, the free tenants in every county, hundred and manor, were to meet together and judge their nabors." "Every free tenant hath ordinary jurisdiction in theze courts." "The lords and tenants shall incur certain penalties by the judgement of the suitors." "Theze courts are called county courts, where the judgement iz by the suitors, if there be no writ, and iz by warrant of ordinary jurisdiction." That iz, when there waz no special court held by the justices in eyre.[113] So also in a book called the "Diversity of Courts," written in Henry the eighth's time, it iz said, "in the court baron the suitors are the judges, and not the steward."

Cowel tels us, "the court baron iz more properly curia baronum, i. e. the court of freeholders, (for so barones does also signify) over whom the lord of the manor presides. In this court the freeholders are judges."[114]

Selden's authority confirms this fact. He says, "neether waz the bishops nor sheriffs work, in the folk-mote or county court, other than directory or declaratory; for the freemen were judges of the fact, and the other did but edocere jura populo."[115] Here a distinction iz cleerly made beetween the freemen and the populus; the freemen were the judges, and the bishop or sheriff edocuit jura, proclaimed the decision to the multitude. The freemen, or landholders, then were the peers of the court; they were not the equals of the multitude, for the populus, the laborers of all descriptions, were considered az belonging to an inferior class of men, and had no voice in the folk-mote.

To sum up the whole, we hav the authority of the correct and judicious Blackstone, who expressly asserts, book III. chapters IV and V, that in the court baron, the hundred court and county court, the freeholders or suitors are the judges, and the steward in the two former, and the sheriff in the latter, are the registrars or ministerial officers. Now it iz well known that before the conquest, theze included all the courts that were in the kingdom, except the witena-gemote, in which there waz nothing like a jury, separate from the members of that council. So that the freeholders or jurors were not only judges, but they were the sole judges in all the inferior courts in the kingdom; and of course there could be little or no distinction between law and fact. Nay, more, the suitors were the witnesses also; and the principal reezon for summoning freeholders of the vicinage waz originally this; it waz supposed they were acquainted with the facts in dispute. Hence laws were made to compel the jurors to tell the truth, if they knew the facts, which waz always supposed, till the contrary appeered. In theze courts small causes were decided; and the county court had cognizance of ecclesiastical causes, az well az civil, and often determined disputes between the nobles, about real estates of immense value.

But important matters were generally brought before the witena-gemote, or assembly composed of the king, bishops, erls and wise men. This waz a national council, which united in itself all powers, legislativ, judicial, civil and ecclesiastical, in law and equity. Such a thing az a jury waz never known in this supreme court. William the conqueror first separated the civil from the ecclesiastical authority, and substituted the aula regiÆ, a high court, consisting of hiz cheef officers and barons, in place of the Saxon witena-gemote. This court waz the supreme judicature in the nation; a jury waz no part of it, and it followed the king wherever he went, till it waz fixed by Magna Charta in Westminster Hall. Afterwards, in the reigns of Henry III and Edward I, several courts were carved out of the Aula Regis; az the common pleas, the court of kings bench, the exchequer and chancery courts; and it does not appeer that a jury, distinct from the judges, formed any part of the important common law courts, till after this period. The distinction therefore between judges and jury, law and fact, seems not to hav been known, till the dissolution of the Aula Regis, at the cloze of the thirteenth century.

Let us enquire what kind of men theze freeholders were, who were summoned az jurors or judges at theze courts.

Lord Coke iz express, and quotes Glanvil and Bracton for authorities, that "in ancient times the jurors were twelv knights," (that iz, probably, persons holding land amounting to a knights see.)[116]

Henry III issued writs to the several counties to enquire into the liberties of hiz subjects, by twelv good and lawful knights.[117] The Saxon laws are more explicit. "Habeantur placita in singulis wapentachiis, ut exeantur duodecem thayni et prÆpositus cum eis, et jurent super sanetuarium, quod eis dabitur in manu, quod neminem innocentem velint accusare, vel noxium concelare."[118] Here the law of Ethelred iz explicit in ordaining a court of twelve thayni, thanes or barons, with their prÆpositus or president, who waz the officer of the hundred. Cowel remarks on this passage, "that this may seem to intend the number of judges, and not of the jury; but the jury themselves, in some cases, are judges, that iz, they are judges of the fact, and the judge iz bound to giv sentence according to their verdict." This writer here supposes the thayni to be really jurors and judges; but judges only of the fact. This iz the fundamental error of most lawyers who hav written on the subject; they take it for granted, that the distinction of law and fact waz coeval with the trial by twelv freeholders. Yet a single circumstance, mentioned by Cowel in the same page, with the passage quoted, might hav undeceeved him, which iz, that "trial by jury waz anciently called duodecem virale judicium," the judgement of twelv men. Their sentence or decision waz called a judgement; the distinction between the verdict of a jury, and the judgement of the court, waz unknown in the erly ages of the Saxons; nor can I find it mentioned, till after the conquest.

This, and similar passages, hav however occasioned much dispute among other English lawyers and antiquaries. They hav adopted the opinion, that a jury must consist of twelv equal commoners, and cannot explain what iz ment by summoning twelv thanes. "Brady and Hicks," says Stuart, "contended that theze thanes were not jurors, but judges or lawyers. Coke and Spelman were of a different opinion." The truth iz, they were both jurors and judges; and a knowlege of the tru primitiv sense of one little monosyllable in our language, would hav unravelled the whole mystery to theze learned enquirers.

The most usual word for jurors, in the Saxon laws, iz lahmen or lagemen; a word that haz puzzled the law writers, az it seems to meen something more than equals; and they hav no idea of any thing in a jury, but equality. Hicks supposed them to be judges, "duodeni jure consulti," men versed in law. Spelman rendered the word, legales homines, good and lawful men; very inadequate words indeed; but the error haz been copied times without number, and still prevails. Lahman iz literally a law man, man of the law, a judge. Law waz in a rude state, at that period; but the thanes were both lawyers and judges; jure consulti.[119] Professional distinctions could not be but little known, amidst an unlettered peeple, who had few positiv laws, and fewer records and precedents; and the lahmen, the seniores thani, or meliores viri, az they were called, were summoned at certain times to decide controversies, according to law, where a law waz provided; otherwise according to their discretion. The decisions of theze lahmen were held in esteem; many of them were preserved and handed down by tradition, and I hav no dout, theze, rather than statutes, gave rise to the general and particular customs, which are called the common law of England.[120]

Coke defines lahman to be one, "habens socam et sacam super homines suos;" that iz, liberty of holding a court over hiz tenants: Which explanation he quotes from Bracton. "Soke,(or soc) significat libertatem curiÆ tenentium quam socam appellamus."[121]

This word iz found in domesday and in the laws of Edward the confessor. Cowel quotes a passage from an ancient book, where Ulvet, the Son of Forno, iz called lagaman of the city of York, where, he says, it doutless signified some cheef officer, az judge or recorder. Thoze who had socam et sacam, or jurisdiction over the persons and estates of their tenants, were the thanes or barons; and this iz agreed by Lambard, Somner, Coke, Cowel, and most writers on law.[122] Lambard, whoze authority iz very respectable, speeks of a jury thus: "In singulis Centuriis comitia sunto, atque liberÆ conditionis viri duodeni Ætate superiores unÀ cum prÆposito, sacra tenentes juranto, &c." Of a jury per medietatem linguÆ, he says, "Viri duodeni jure consulti, AngliÆ sex, WalliÆ totidem, Anglis et Wallis jus dicunto." Fol. 91. 3. Here Lambard not only describes jurors az men of free condition and respectable for age, but az jure consulti, the judges of the court; and jus dicunto; they were men who administered law and justice. This, it appeers from all ancient testimonies, waz the uniform practice among the Saxons. The jurors were twelv thanes or men of free condition; lahmen, jure consulti, or judges, and constituted the court; with the prÆpositus, or proper officer of the district, az their president, who sat az the deputy of the erl, in the county court; the deputy of the lord of the manor, in the court baron; or az the cheef magistrate of the hundred. And one source of error in understanding this ancient institution, haz been the wrong translation of lahman, by Spelman and others, who rendered the word, legalis homo; a good and lawful man. The meening iz not so indefinit az a lawful man, which could not be redily understood or explained. Rude nations do not deal in such vague ideas. The meening iz, man of law, whoze business it waz to know the law and administer justice.[123]

But if we suppose the word to meen legalis homo, and that the only requisit in a juror, iz freedom; or that he should be liber homo; this would exclude a vast proportion of the English nation from the privilege. I know that Magna Charta repeetedly mentions theze freemen, liberos homines, and secures to them certain rights, among which iz, trial per pares suos, which I suppose to hav been originally, by their judges; altho at this period, the idea of equality in the condition of judges might hav prevailed: And indeed the freemen were mostly tried by men of equal rank. I am sensible also that the modern construction of Magna Charta extends this privilege to every man in the relm of England; omnis liber homo iz said to comprehend every English subject. I rejoice that by the struggles of a brave peeple, this construction of that compact haz actually taken effect in a considerable degree. But I cannot think all the English nation were comprehended in the words of the instrument; or that the privilege of trial by peers waz extended, or ment to be extended, to all the peeple. Magna Charta waz merely a convention between the king and hiz barons, assembled at Runing-mead; and the laboring part of the peeple, debased by servitude under an oppressiv aristocracy, seem hardly to hav been in the contemplation of the parties. The villeins, rustics, or tenants at will, who probably composed a majority of the peeple, had one privilege indeed secured to them: It waz stipulated that they should not be deprived, by fine, of their carts, plows, and other instruments of husbandry; that iz, they should not be deprived of the meens of laboring for their masters. Further than this, a large proportion of the English were not noticed in Magna Charta, but were considered az a part of their lords property, and transferable, like moveables, at their plezure.

The freemen, or thoze classes of peeple which came within the description of liberi homines in that famous convention, were the nobility and clergy tenants in capite, or such at most az had a life estate in lands, and could serve on juries. The lazzi, villeins, or modern copyholders, were not at that time capable of serving; they were below the rank of freemen; they had not the right of trial by peers, even in the common acceptation of the word; nor were they admitted to the privilege till the reign of Richard III. Multitudes of them are not peers of the commons, even on the principle of equal suffrage, for they hav not the property requisit to qualify them for the privilege of voting at elections. Blackstone's assertion therefore, that every subject of the kingdom haz a right by Magna Charta, to trial by hiz equals, cannot be tru, for vast numbers of the nations are not, and never were, entitled to be jurors. But in the sense I understand and hav explained the word, every man haz a right to trial by hiz peers; that iz, by freeholders of the vicinity, who are his judges. The propriety of calling them hiz judges, pares suos, iz discovered in the gradation of courts established in England. The peers of the relm, or barons, were originally the suitors or judges in the kings court, where alone the nobility were tried; hence the barons were always tried by their judges, pares suos. The clergy, the thanes of the lower class, or other freeholders who had life estates in lands, were the suitors in the courts of the counties, the hundreds and manors. Theze were the judges of theze courts, and called peers. The freemen might be said to be tried by their equals; but the villeins were not; yet both were tried by their peers; that iz, by the peers of theze inferior courts, who were exclusivly the judges.[124]

From what haz been advanced on this subject, if we may rely on substantial authorities, and at leest probable etymologies, the following conclusions may be safely deduced. That in ancient Germany, the principes pagorum et regionum, with a certain number of assistants, originally a hundred, sometimes twenty four, but commonly twelv, elected by the peeple, (not pro re nata, but for a stated period) formed a council (concilium) for the government of a district: That in their military expeditions, the duces, or generals, had their life guards, or comites, who attached themselves to the person of their cheef, and fought by hiz side:[125] That theze retainers, in some of the Teutonic dialects on the continent, were called barons, az they were called thanes by the Saxons in England: That after the irruption of the northern nations into the south of Europe, the conquered lands were divided among the great officers and their retainers, az fees or stipendiary feuds, on the honorable tenure of military service: That the princes, erls and barons, hav been, from time immemorial, the assistant judges in the kings courts, and eech of them, a cheef judge, with power of holding courts, on hiz own demesnes: That parliaments on the continent were assemblies of barons, and originally courts of justice, az they are still in France: That the word peers waz first used on the continent, to denote the members of this supreme judicial court, and in its primitiv sense, az derived from bar or par, it signified freemen or landholders; and thence came to denote judges, who were originally the proprietors of lands or manors: That this latter sense iz its tru meening, whether applied to the house of lords or to a common jury, who were anciently the judges of the inferior courts, and are still, in many cases, judges of law az well az fact, notwithstanding the modern distinction, which haz taken place in consequence of an extensiv and vastly complicated system of jurisprudence: That the house of lords in England retains the primitiv sense of the word peers, az well az the original right of judging in the last resort, and this house alone iz a parliament, according to the ancient meening of the word on the continent: That the freemen mentioned in Magna Charta and all the old law writers, were thoze who held their lands by honorable service, for term of life, or had estates of inheritance; and that the lazzi, villiens or bondmen, who constituted the major part of the nation, were not comprehended under the words liberi homines, were not entitled to be jurors themselves, and consequently could not be tried by their equals: That the twelv jurors among the Saxons were the cheef men of the county and judges: That the idea of equality in the jurors or judges waz introduced by the pride of the nobility, and the humble condition of their tenants, under the invidious distinctions of ranks created by the feudal system: That this idea however haz been the meens of preserving the rights of both in England; while the nations on the continent, having been less successful in their struggles, and not having wrested the right of judging from the barons, the original peers or proprietors of that right, hav not acquired a privilege, inestimable in a country where distinctions of rank prevail, and do not enjoy the blessings of equal liberty: That this privilege haz been considerably extended in England, by the abolition of military tenures, and the diffusion of property among the commons: But that America haz given the privilege its utmost extension, by making laws of inheritance that enable every man to be a freeholder; thus reducing the English theory to practice, and entitling every man literally to the right of trial by hiz equals.

How far theze conclusions are supported by the foregoing authorities and arguments, every reeder will judge for himself. I hav ventured my opinions with my usual frankness, in opposition to thoze of the sages of the law, which hav been receeved for centuries. The vast weight of authority, and long established prepossessions of men in favor of a different theory, make me diffident of my own opinions on this subject; but there are many passages in ancient law writings, and many customs and laws still existing in the English constitution and government, which I cannot explain and reconcile on any other hypothesis.

The excellence of trial by peers, in ancient times, appeers to me to hav consisted in this; that twelv indifferent men of the naborhood, with the power of judges, were the guardians of life and property against the rapacity of the lord of the manor or hiz deputy. It iz a fact well known that sheriffs, the deputies of the erls, were in several counties hereditary officers; but when they were not, they had almost-unlimitted powers in the shire, which they often abused to oppress the peeple. Under the feudal system they appeer to hav been almost absolute tyrants; and the undue exercise of their powers, probably gave rise to thoze articles of Magna Charta, which declare, that "no freeman shall be taken, imprisoned, or diseized of hiz freehold, liberties, or free customs, but by the lawful judgement of hiz peers, or by legal process; that sheriffs should not hold county courts above once a month; that sheriffs, castellans, coroners, and kings bailiffs, should be restrained from holding pleas of the crown; that sheriffs, who had the management of the crown revenues, within their several districts, should not raize the farms of counties, hundreds and tythes, according to their plezure." Theze provisions were evidently designed to remedy actual evils; the violence and usurpations of the executiv officers, who acted under the king, or the great lords, with powers almost uncontrolled.[126] Against such petty tyrants, the revival or confirmation of the right of trial by twelv freeholders of the vicinage, must hav been a capital security: But freeholders alone could be impannelled on a jury; freeholders alone could be diseized of freeholds; consequently the privilege of being tried by equals, could extend to freeholders only. With respect to all others, the excellence of the institution could not consist in the equality of condition in the jurors; but in having twelv substantial freemen, impartial, independent men, unaccustomed to oppression, to check and control the ministers of justice.

Since the separation of court and jury, law and fact, juries, in civil cases, hav become of less consequence. Judges are appointed by the representativs of the peeple, ether in legislature or some other form, and are removeable for misbehavior. They are usually az good judges of fact as a jury, and better judges of law. One state[127] haz a statute empowering the parties to submit fact az well az law to the court. This places the court on its Saxon institution, except az to the number of judges. It iz also a common practice for the parties to agree on the facts, and submit the law to the court. The practice supersedes a jury. On commercial questions an ordinary jury are altogether unfit to decide; they are incompetent judges, because commerce iz regulated by peculiar laws, best known by merchants. Hence the institution of chambers of commerce, and the practice of referring causes to arbitrators of the mercantile profession.

But the principal valu and excellence of juries are preserved in criminal causes. Judges, by long custom, become hardened in the business of condemning, and may sometimes pronounce sentence, which, even when legal, may be unnecessary. Jurors, less accustomed to the cruel task, retain thoze feelings which sometimes pleed against evidence, in favor of humanity, and soften the rigor of penal laws.

I shall cloze theze remarks with two quotations from very respectable authors.

What Camden haz collected concerning the word baron, serves to illustrate and confirm my opinions on this subject; and the reeder will be pleezed with the following passage from his Britannia, Vol. I, page 238.

"Among the greater nobility, the barons hav next place. And here, tho I am not ignorant what the lerned write concerning the signification of this word in Cicero; yet I am willing to cloze with the opinion of Isidore, and of an ancient grammarian, who will hav barons to be mercenary soldiers. This seems to be pretty plain from that known place of Hirtius in the Alexandrian war; "they run to the assistance of Cassius; for he always used to hav barons, and a good number of soldiers for sudden occasions, with their weapons reddy, about him, and separate from the rest." Nor iz the old Latin and Greek Glossary against us, when it translates baro by a??? a man; az always in the laws of the Longobards, baro iz used for a man.

The etymologies of this name which some hav fancied, do not by any meens please me. The French heralds will hav barons to be so called from par-hommes in French; that iz, of equal dignity; the English lawyers say it iz from robora belli, the sinews of war; some Germans think it a contraction of banner-heirs, i. e. standard bearers; and Isidore derives it from bareis, i. e. grave or weighty. Alciatus thinks the name comes from the berones, an ancient peeple of Spain, which he says were formerly stipendiaries; but that other, from the German bar, i. e. a free man, pleezes me better.

The precise time when this name came into our island, I hav not yet discovered: The Britons disown it; and there iz not the leest mention made of it in the Saxon laws, nor iz it reckoned in Alfrick's Glossary among the titles of honor; for there, dominus iz translated laford, which we hav contracted into lord. And among the Danes, the free lords, such az our barons are at this day, were called thanes, and (and az Andreas Velleius tells us) are termed so still. In Burgundy, the use of this name iz very ancient;[128] for Gregory of Tours says thus, "the barons of Burgundy, az well bishops az others of the laity, &c." The first mention of a baron in England, that I hav met with, iz in a fragment of the laws of Canutus, king of England and Denmark, and even there, according to different copies, it iz read vironus, baronus, and thani. But that the barons are there ment, iz plain from the laws of William the conqueror; in which that word in the laws of Canutus iz translated by baro. Take the whole passage. "Let the exercitals[129] be so moderated, az to be tolerable. An erl shall provide such things az are fitting, eight horses, four saddled and four unsaddled; four steel caps, and four coats of mail; eight javelins,[130] and az many shields; four swords, and two hundred mancae[131] of gold. But a kings viron or baron, who iz next to him, shall hav four horses, two saddled and two unsaddled; two swords, four javelins, and az many shields, one steel cap, and fifty mancae of gold."

In the beginning of the Norman times, the valvasors and thanes were reckoned in order and dignity, next to the erls and barons, and the greater valvasors (if we may beleev thoze who hav written concerning feudal tenures) were the same that barons are now. So that baro may seem to hav come from that name; which time haz, by little and little, made somewhat smoother. But even then it was waz not a title of any great honor; for in thoze times there were erls who had their barons under them: And I remember, I hav red in the ancient constitutions of France, that there were ten barons under one erl, and az many cheeftans[132] under a baron. It iz likewise certain, that there are charters since the Norman conquest, wherein the erls write thus: "To all my barons, az well French az English, greeting, &c." Nay, even citizens of the better rank were called barons; so in domesday book the citizens of Warwick are stiled barons; and the citizens of London, with the inhabitants of the cinque ports, had the same title given them. But a few years after, az senators of Rome were chosen according to their estates, so they were accounted barons with us, who held their lands by an entire barony, or thirteen knights fees, and one third of a knights fee, every fee (az we hav had it in ancient book) being computed at twenty pounds, which in all make four hundred marks; for that waz the value of one entire barony; and they who had land and revenues to this value, were wont to be summoned to parliament. It seems to hav been a dignity, with jurisdiction, which our court-barons in some mezure show.[133] And the great number of barons iz an argument that they were such lords who could hold pleez within their own jurisdiction, (like thoze whom the Germans call free-heirs) especially if they had their castles; for then they answered the definition of Baldus, the famous lawyer, who calls him a baron, that had a mere and mixt government in some castle, by the grant of the prince. And (az some would hav it) all who held baronies, seem to hav claimed that honor; so that some of our lawyers think, that baron and barony, erl and erldom, duke and dukedom, king and kingdom, were in the nature of conjugates. It iz certain, that in that age, king Henry III, reckoned one hundred and fifty baronies in England. From hence it iz, that in the charters and histories of that age, almost all noblemen are stiled barons; a name, which in thoze times waz exceeding honorable; the baronage of England including in a manner all the prime orders of the kingdom, dukes, marquisses, erls and barons.

But that name haz been much more honorable since king Henry III, out of such a multitude, which waz seditious and turbulent, summoned to parliament by writ, some of the best[134] only; "for he," (the words are taken out of an author of considerable antiquity) "after thoze great disturbances and heart-burnings between himself, Simon de Montefort, and other barons, were laid; appointed and ordained, that all such erls and barons of the kingdom of England, to whom the king should vouchsafe to direct hiz writs of summons, should come to hiz parliament, and no others, unless their lord the king should pleeze to direct other writs to them also." And what he began a little before hiz deth, waz strictly observed by Edward the I, and hiz successors. From that time they were only looked on as barons of the kingdom, whom the king by such writs of summons had called to parliament; until Richard the II, in the eleventh year of hiz reign, created John de Beauchamp of Holt, baron of Herderminster, by the delivery of a diploma, bearing date the tenth of October. From which time, the kings hav often conferred that honor by diploma, (or rather honorary letters) and the putting on of an honorary long robe. And that way of creating barons by diploma, and the other of writs of summons, are in use at this day; tho they are mentioned therein not by the name of baron, but of chevalier. They who are thus created, are called barons of parliament, barons of the kingdom, and barons honorary, to distinguish them from thoze who are commonly called barons according to the ancient constitution; az thoze of Burford and Walton, and such az were barons to the counts Palatine of Chester, and of Penbroch, who were feudal, and barons by tenure only."

This account of Camden's, iz alone sufficient to convince me, that my opinions are right respecting the origin and signification of the word baron. But this author cleerly mistakes the meening in the passage quoted from Hirtius. "Cassius used to hav barons, and a good number of soldiers, for sudden occasions." Insted of mercenary soldiers, barons here meens the comites, retainers, who were chosen men, and who served their cheef voluntarily. Theze attached themselves to the person of the cheef, az a military guard; at the same time, they served to gratify the pride of the hero: HÆc dignitas, hÆ vires, says Tacitus.

I hav before remarked that it iz probable bar and vir are the same word. Camden tells us, the Greek Glossary translates baro by a???, and in the laws of William, the Norman, the vironus, baronus and thanus, found in the laws of Canute, are translated by baron or viron. B and v are convertible letters, and theze facts amount to a convincing proof that bar and vir are the same word, or from the same root. The progress of the word iz this. First it denoted a man or husband, vir; afterwards a freeman or proprietor of land, bar, baron, viron; in proportion az the valu of lands encreesed in Europe, the proprietors acquired welth and influence; they claimed exclusiv judicial powers on their manors, and thus the words baron and peer came to signify judge. Under the feudal system, theze barons became princes on their territories, subordinate only to the king or lord paramount. Power attends property, and theze barons finally assumed the right of controlling kings, and trampling on their tenants. Where the barons and princes combined, they established despotic authority over the peeple; when they quarrelled, one party or the other had recourse to the commons for assistance, and waz compelled to grant them considerable privileges.

The foregoing explanation of baron iz confirmed by another fact now existing. In law, a husband iz called baron to this day, baron and femme, husband and wife. Agreeable to this idea, the terms used in ancient infeudations by the tenant or vassal, were, devenio vester homo; I become your man; that iz, your baron, in the feudal sense of the word. And a jury, in conformity with the same idea, were anciently called homagium, the homage, or manhood; that iz, a court of barons, landholders or free tenants.

I would only remark further, that Camden iz probably mistaken in saying the Britons disown the word baron. In Welsh, barn signifies a judge, and there can be little dout that the word iz from the same original; being written without the vowel o, agreeable to the Hebrew manner.

Different nations are more or less inclined to uze the vocal sounds and aspirates, according to the different genius of their languages. So in Irish the word waz pronounced with an aspirate, barhon, or brehon; for there iz little room to dout this old Irish word iz from the same root. At the time of the conquest of Ireland by Henry II, the Irish were governed by the brehon law, so stiled from brehon, the Irish name of judges.[135] We are also told that the ancient Irish had a custom of deciding causes by twelv men[136] ; and authors testify that the same practice existed in ancient Britain.[137] Their decision iz called by the erly writers, duodecem virale judicium. In short the universality of this word and the trial by twelv, iz a strong proof, that all the nations of Europe sprang from a common stock.[138]

Sir William Temple derives barons from the Russian boiarons, and supposes the word to be of Gothic original. Hiz only inaccuracy iz, that he takes a modern derivativ for the primitiv root; whereas the Russian boiarons itself iz derived from bar, az wel az baron. The authority of this judicious and lerned writer wil however confirm what I hav advanced in the foregoing pages; I shal therefore cloze my remarks with a passage from hiz works, vol. III. 363.

"I know very well how much critic haz been employed by the most lerned, az Erasmus, Selden, Spelman, az well az many others, about the two words baro and feudum; and how much pains hav been taken to deduce them from the Latin and Greek, and even the Hebrew and Egyptian tungs; but I find no reezon, after all they hav said, to make any doubt of their having been both the original of the Gothic or northern language; or of barons having been a term of dignity, of command, or of honor, among them, and feudum of a soldier's share of land. I find the first used abuv eight hundred years ago, in the verses mentioned of king Lodbrog, when one of hiz exploits waz to hav conquered eight barons. And tho fees or feuda were in use under later Roman emperors, yet they were derived from the Gothic customs, after so great numbers of thoze nations were introduced into the Roman armies. Az to the word baro, it iz not, that I find, at all agreed among the lerned, from whence to derive it; but what that term imports, it iz easy to collect from their several accounts, and confirm by what stil remains in all the constitutions of the Gothic government. For tho by barons are now ment in England such az are created by patent, and thereby called to the house of lords; and baron in Spanish signifies only a man of worth or note, and the quality denoted by that title be different in the several countries of Christendom; yet there iz no question, but they were originally such persons az, upon the conquest of any country, were, by the conquering prince, invested in the possession of certain tracts or proportions of free lands, or at leest az they held by no other tenure but that of military service, or attendance upon their prince in war with a certain number of armed men. Theze in Germany, France, Scotland, seem to hav had, and some stil to retain, a sovereign power in their territories, by the exercise of what iz called high and low justice, or the power of judging criminal az well az civil causes, and inflicting capital punishments. But I hav not found any thing of this kind recorded in England, tho the great barons had not only great number of knights, but even petty barons holding under them.

I think the whole relm of England waz, by William the conqueror, divided into baronies,[139] however the distinctions may hav been long since worn out; but in Ireland they still remain, and every county there iz divided into so many baronies, which seem to hav been the shares of the first barons. And such as theze great proprietors of land, composed, in all the north west regions (of Europe) one part of the states (estates general) of the country or kingdom."

Sir William Temple proceeds then to giv hiz conjectures respecting the origin of the word baron. He remarks that Guagini, in hiz description of Sarmatia, printed in 1581, calls all thoze persons who were cheef possessors of lands and dignities, next to the prince, duke or palatine, in the vast empire of Muscovy, by the common appellation of boiarons, now contracted into boiars. From this he supposes baron to be derived. It iz however much more probable that baron and boiaron had a common root in some period of remote antiquity; which afterwards spread into all parts of Europe. With respect to trial by jury, Sir William remarks, Vol. III. 130, that this waz undoutedly of Saxon institution, and continued thro all the revolutions in England. He says there are some traces of it in the first institutions of Odin, the first great leeder of the Asiatic Goths or GetÆ into Europe. He mentions the council of twelv, established by Odin, and thinks it probable theze twelv men were at first both judges and jurors; that iz, they were a court of arbitrators or referees, az we should now style them, empowered to decide all causes according to equitable principles and the circumstances of each case; and their determinations afterwards grew into precedent for their successors. In process of time and multiplicity of business, the matter of fact continued to be tried by twelv men of the naborhood; but the adjudgement of punishment and the sentence waz committed to one or two persons of lerning or knowlege in the ancient customs, records and traditions. Thus, he observes, in the Saxon reigns, causes were adjudged by the aldermen and bishop of the several shires, with the assistance of twelv men of the same county, who are said to hav been judges or assistants. He allows, the terms jury and verdict were introduced by the Normans; but asserts very justly that trials by twelv men, with that circumstance of their unanimous agreement, were used not only among the Saxons and Normans, but are known to hav been az ancient in Sweden, az any records or traditions in the kingdom; and the practice remained in some provinces of that country, til the late revolution.

POSTSCRIPT.

On further examination of this subject, I am led to subjoin the following remarks, which are supported by the indisputable authority of Glanville and Bracton.

I hav before suggested that the Saxons, prior to the conquest, conducted most of their important affairs in the county or sheriffs court, where all the free tenants were bound to attend. Theze free tenants consisted of the lesser barons, the knights and fokemen, or foccage tenants who had freehold estates. Theze freeholders, were, by the nature of their estates, the pares curtis; they were the proper and sole judges of all causes triable at the county court, which included almost all civil actions, and they were denominated in Saxon, lahmen, lawmen. The county court, thus composed of all the freeholders in the shire, waz a tribunal of great consequence, and inferior only to the witena-gemote, or national assembly. The Latin riters called theze freemen pares curtis and sectatores, peers of court and suitors. Curtis iz a Saxon word latinized,[140] like warrantizo murdrum, and hundreds of other law terms; and there iz little dout that pares iz a word of similar origin.

But what places the point I would establish, beyond controversy, iz, the pares curtis were in fact of different ranks. The knights or lesser barons, az well az the common foccage tenants, were included in the term pares curtis; for they were bound to do suit and service in the court of the lord paramount. Another fact, iz of equal weight in the argument: Theze pares, in the county court, tried all real actions between the nobility. In the cause of Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, and archbishop Lanfranc, in the reign of William the conqueror, the king directed totum Comitatum considere. Many similar instances might be cited, were it necessary. Theze noblemen were tried by the pares curtis, the peers of the county court; but who ever said they were tried by their equals?

The Norman princes attempted to discountenance theze shire motes of the Saxons, and substitute the trial of facts by twelv juratores, men sworn to speek the truth. In the reign of Henry II, the trial by jurors had become common, if not general. Questions of seisin were tried by twelv common freeholders; but questions of right were tried by twelv knights; the sheriff summoning four knights who elected the twelv.

I would here remark that the principal original reezon for summoning freeholders of the vicinage, waz that of their supposed personal knowlege of the fact in dispute. The jurors were properly the witnesses. This iz evident from circumstances and from the positiv testimony of the erly law-riters. The first mention of a proper jury, in any public act, iz in the constitutions of Clarendon, 1164, where the sheriff iz directed, quÒd faciat jurare duodecim legales homines de vicineto, seu de villa, quÒd inde veritatem secundum conscientiam suam manifestabunt. It iz said in old writers that the jury must speek the truth, if they know it. If the twelv men first summoned knew the truth, they were compelled to declare it, under the penalty of perjury. If some knew the facts and others did not, the latter were dismissed and others summoned, till twelv were found who knew the facts, ether by what they had seen and heerd themselves, or from such testimony of their fathers and others, az gained full credit.

Without attending to juries in this light, the laws respecting them appeer beyond measure absurd and tyrannical. Their being sworn to speek the truth, would be absurd on any other ground; for had they judged of facts on testimony, they would hav been sworn to declare their opinion, and not the truth. Their verdict, vere dictum, derives its name and propriety from the same circumstance; and the present practice of swearing them to "a tru verdict giv," when they judge of facts only by the perhaps contradictory testimony of several witnesses, iz, strictly speeking, absurd.

The keeping juries, without meet, drink or fire, can be accounted for only on the same idea; it waz a method to compel an agreement among men, who were acquainted with facts, some of whom might at times be obstinate, and not willing to disclose them. But how ridiculous would it be to punish men for not agreeing in opinion, about what others testified!

All this iz still more evident from the manner in which many questions respecting real estates were ascertained and determined. It waz customary for the jurors, after they were chosen, to go upon the land to find the tru state of the fact in question, and then deliver their verdict. Hence the propriety of the expression in closing issues; and this he prays may be enquired of by the country.

I would observe further, that the reezon, why appeels from the verdict of a jury were not allowed, iz simply this, that the jurors were supposed to hav decided from their own knowlege. It waz certainly a wise provision that the solemn declaration of men under oath, living in the naborhood, and eye or eer witnesses of the recent transactions between the parties, should not be overthrown by other testimony; for all other evidence must hav necessarily been of an inferior nature. But the reezon haz ceesed, and there iz now nothing more sacred in the verdict of a jury, given on the testimony of others, than there iz in the opinions of arbitrators, referees or auditors under oath. The laws respecting juries are all founded on the idea that the men were acquainted with the facts in dispute. Their verdict waz formerly a declaration of facts; it iz now a mere matter of opinion. In short, the original design of the institution iz totally changed, and mostly superseded. Since juries rely on testimony, they need not be collected from the vicinage; it iz even safer to hav men who are strangers to both plaintiff and defendant. Jurors cannot be punished for perjury, for how can a man perjure himself in giving hiz opinion? They cannot be starved to deth, nor carted about town for disagreement; for how iz it possible for twelv men always to think alike, when they hav to form their opinions on clashing testimonies? In short, juries do not now answer one of the purposes for which they were at first instituted; and however necessary they may be deemed to the preservation of civil liberty, it appeers to me they are, in a great measure, useless.

I cannot leev this subject without remarking the influence of habit, in maintaining forms, when the substance no longer exists. This iz neerly the case with the whole institution of juries; but particularly in the manner of administering the oath to them. The practice of swearing the foreman and the other jurors separately, still exists in some of theze states, altho the reezon no longer remains. It originated in the manner of delivering the verdict, which waz, for every juror separately to answer the interrogatories of the judge. While this practice remained, it waz very proper that eech juror should take a separate oath; altho this formality iz dispensed with, in administering the oath to witnesses, in modern courts; the words, "you and eech of you swear," being substituted for a separate administration of the oath.