Writers on drainage, almost without exception, recommend the use of elaborate sets of tools which are intended[pg 115] for cutting very narrow ditches,—only wide enough at the bottom to admit the tile, and not allowing the workmen to stand in the bottom of the ditch. A set of these tools is shown in Fig. 22.

Possibly there may be soils in which these implements, in the hands of men skilled in their use, could be employed with economy, but they are very rare, and it is not believed to be possible, under any circumstances, to regulate the bottom of the ditch so accurately as is advisable, unless the workman can stand directly upon it, cutting it more smoothly than he could if the point of his tool were a foot or more below the level on which he stands.

On this subject, Mr. J. Bailey Denton, one of the first draining engineers of Great Britain, in a letter to Judge French, says:

"As to tools, it is the same with them as it is with the art of draining itself,—too much rule and too much drawing upon paper; all very right to begin with, but very prejudicial to progress. I employ, as engineer to the General Land Drainage Company, and on my private account, during the drainage season, as many as 2,000 men, and it is an actual fact, that not one of them uses the set of tools figured in print. I have frequently purchased a number of sets of the Birmingham tools, and sent them down on extensive works. The laborers would purchase a few of the smaller tools, such as Nos. 290, 291, and 301, figured in Morton's excellent CyclopÆdia of Agriculture, and would try them, and then order others of the country blacksmith, differing in several respects; less weighty and much less costly, and moreover, much better as working tools. All I require of the cutters, is, that the bottom of the drain should be evenly cut, to fit the size of the pipe. The rest of the work takes care of itself; for a good workman will economize his labor for his own sake, by moving as little earth as practicable; thus, for instance, a first-class cutter, in[pg 116] clays, will get down 4 feet with a 12-inch opening, ordinarily; if he wishes to show off, he will sacrifice his own comfort to appearance, and will do it with a 10-inch opening."

In the Central Park work, sets of these tools were procured, at considerable expense, and every effort was made to compel the men to use them, but it was soon found that, even in the easiest digging, there was a real economy in using, for the first 3 feet of the ditch, the common spade, pick, and shovel,—finishing the bottoms with the narrow spade and scoop hereafter described, and it is probable that the experience of that work will be sustained by that of the country at large.

Marking the Lines.—To lay a drain directly under the position of its stakes, would require that enough earth be left at each point to hold the stake, and that the ditch be tunneled under it. This is expensive and unnecessary. It is better to dig the ditches at one side of the lines of stakes, far enough away for the earth to hold them firmly in their places, but near enough to allow measurements to be taken from the grade pegs. If the ditch be placed always to the right, or always to the left, of the line, and at a uniform distance, the general plan will remain the same, and the lines will be near enough to those marked on the map to be easily found at any future time. In fact, if it be known that the line of tiles is two feet to the right of the position indicated, it will only be necessary, at any time, should it be desired to open an old drain, to measure two feet to the right of the surveyed position to strike the line at once.

In soils of ordinary tenacity, ditches 4 feet deep need not be more than twenty (20) inches wide at the surface, and four (4) inches wide at the bottom. This will allow, in each side, a slope of eight (8) inches, which is sufficient except in very loose soils, and even these may be braced up, if inclined to cave in. There are cases where the soil[pg 117] contains so much running sand, and is so saturated with water, that no precautions will avail to keep up the banks. Ditches in such ground will sometimes fall in, until the excavation reaches a width of 8 or 10 feet. Such instances, however, are very rare, and must be treated as the occasion suggests.

One of the garden lines should be set at a distance of about 6 inches from the row of stakes, and the other at a further distance of 20 inches. If the land is in grass, the position of these lines may be marked with a spade, and they may be removed at once; but, if it is arable land, it will be best to leave the lines in position until the ditch is excavated to a sufficient depth to mark it clearly. Indeed, it will be well to at once remove all of the sod and surface soil, say to a depth of 6 inches, (throwing this on the same side with the stakes, and back of them.) The whole force can be profitably employed in this work, until all of the ditches to be dug are scored to this depth over the entire tract to be drained, except in swamps which are still too wet for this work.

Water Courses.—The brooks which carry the water from the springs should be "jumped" in marking out the lines, as it is desirable that their water be kept in separate channels, so far as possible, until the tiles are ready to receive it, as, if allowed to run in the open ditches, it would undermine the banks and keep the bottom too soft for sound work.

With this object, commence at the southern boundary of our example tract, 10 or 15 feet east of the point of outlet, and drive a straight, temporary, shallow ditch to a point a little west of the intersection of the main line D with its first lateral; then carry it in a northwesterly direction, crossing C midway between the silt-basin and stake C 1, and thence into the present line of the brook, turning all of the water into the ditch. A branch of this[pg 118] ditch may be run up between the lines F and G to receive the water from the spring which lies in that direction. This arrangement will keep the water out of the way until the drains are ready to take it.

The Outlet.—The water being all discharged through the new temporary ditch, the old brook, beyond the boundary, should be cleared out to the final level (3.75,) and an excavation made, just within the boundary, sufficient to receive the masonry which is to protect the outlet. A good form of outlet is shown in Fig. 23. It may be cheaply made by any farmer, especially if he have good stone at hand;—if not, brick may be used, laid on a solid foundation of stout planks, which, (being protected from the air and always saturated with water,) will last a very long time.

If made of stone, a solid floor, at least 2 feet square, should be placed at, or below, the level of the brook. If this consist of a single stone, it will be better than if of several smaller pieces. On this, place another layer extending the whole width of the first, but reaching only from its inner edge to its center line, so as to leave a foot[pg 119] in width of the bottom stone to receive the fall of the water. This second layer should reach exactly the grade of the outlet (3.50) or a height of 3 inches from the brook level. On the floor thus made, there should be laid the tiles which are to constitute the outlets of the several drains; i.e., one 3-1/2-inch tile for the line from the silt-basin, two 1-1/4-inch for the lines F and G, and one 2-1/4-inch for the main line E. These tiles should lie close to each other and be firmly cemented together, so that no water can pass outside of them, and a rubble-work of stone may with advantage be carried up a foot above them. Stone work, which may be rough and uncemented, but should always be solid, may then be built up at the sides, and covered with a secure coping of stone. A floor and sloping sides of stone work, jointed with the previously described work, and well cemented, or laid in strong clay or mortar, may, with benefit, be carried a few feet beyond the outlet. This will effectually prevent the undermining of the structure. After the entire drainage of the field is finished, the earth above these sloping sides, and that back of the coping, should be neatly sloped, and protected by sods. An iron grating, fine enough to prevent the entrance of vermin, placed in front of the tile, at a little distance from them,—and secured by a flat stone set on edge and hollowed out, so as merely to allow the water to flow freely from the drains,—the stone being cemented in its place so as to allow no water to pass under it,—will give a substantial and permanent finish to the structure.

An outlet finished in this way, at an extra cost of a few dollars, will be most satisfactory, as a lasting means of securing the weakest and most important part of the system of drains. When no precaution of this sort is taken, the water frequently forces a passage under the tile for some distance up the drains, undermining and displacing them, and so softening the bottom that it will be difficult, in making repairs, to secure a solid foundation for the work.[pg 120] Usually, repairs of this sort, aside from the annoyance attending them, will cost more than the amount required to make the permanent outlet described above. As well constructed outlets are necessarily rather expensive, as much of the land as possible should be drained to each one that it is necessary to make, by laying main lines which will collect all of the water which can be brought to it.

This basin being finished and covered with a flat stone or other suitable material, connect it with the outlet by an open ditch, unless the bottom of the ditch, when laid open to the proper depth, be found to be of muck or quicksand. In such case, it will be best to lay the tile at once, and cover it in for the whole distance, as, on a soft bottom, it would be difficult to lay it well when the full drainage of the field is flowing through the ditch. The tiles should be laid with all care, on a perfectly regulated fall,—using strips of board under them if the bottom is shaky or soft,—as on this line depends the success of all the drains above it, which might be rendered useless by a single badly laid tile at this point, or by any other cause of obstruction to the flow.

While the work is progressing in the field above, there will be a great deal of muddy water and some sticks, grass, and other rubbish, running from the ditches above the basin, and care must be taken to prevent this drain from becoming choked. A piece of wire cloth, or basket work, placed over the outlet in the basin, will keep out the coarser matters, and the mud which would accumulate in the tile may be removed by occasional flushing. This is done by crowding a tuft of grass,—or a bit of sod,—into[pg 122] the lower end of the tile (at the outlet,) securing it there until the water rises in the basin, and then removing it. The rush of water will be sufficient to wash the tile clean.

This plan is not without objections, and, as a rule, it is never well to lay any tiles at the lower end of a drain until all above it is finished; but when a considerable outlet must be secured through soft land, which is inclined to cave in, and to get soft at the bottom, it will save labor to secure the tile in place before much water reaches it, even though it require a daily flushing to keep it clean.

Opening the Ditches.—Thus far it has been sought to secure a permanent outlet, and to connect it by a secure channel, with the silt-basin, which is to collect the water of the different series of drains. The next step is to lay open the ditches for these. It will be best to commence with the main line A and its laterals, as they will take most of the water which now flows through the open brook, and prevent its interference with the rest of the work.

The first work is the opening of the ditches to a depth of about 3 feet, which may be best done with the common spade, pick, and shovel, except that in ground which is tolerably free from stones, a subsoil plow will often take the place of the pick, with much saving of labor. It may be drawn by oxen working in a long yoke, which will allow them to walk one on each side of the ditch, but this is dangerous, as they are liable to disturb the stakes, (especially the grade stakes,) and to break down the edges of the ditches. The best plan is to use a small subsoil plow, drawn by a single horse, or strong mule, trained to walk in the ditch. The beast will soon learn to accommodate himself to his narrow quarters, and will work easily in a ditch 2-1/2 feet deep, having a width of less than afoot at the bottom; of course there must be a way provided for him to come out at each end. Deeper than this there is no[pg 123] economy in using horse power, and even for this depth it will be necessary to use a plow having only one stilt.

Before the main line is cut into the open brook, this should be furnished with a wooden trough, which will carry the water across it, so that the ditch shall receive only the filtration from the ground. Those laterals west of the main line, which are crossed by the brook, had better not be opened at present,—not until the water of the spring is admitted to and removed by the drain.

The other laterals and the whole of the main line, having been cut to a depth of 3 feet, take a finishing spade, (Fig. 25,) which is only 4 inches wide at its point, and dig to within 2 or 3 inches of the depth marked on the stakes, making the bottom tolerably smooth, with the aid of the finishing scoop, (Fig. 26,) and giving it as regular an inclination as can be obtained by the eye alone.

If the ground is "rotten," and the banks of the ditches incline to cave in, as is often the case in passing wet places, the earth which is thrown out in digging must be thrown back sufficiently far from[pg 124] the edge to prevent its weight from increasing the tendency; and the sides of the ditch may be supported by bits of board braced apart as is shown in Fig. 27.

The manner of opening the ditches, which is described above, for the main A and its laterals, will apply to the drains of the whole field and to all similar work.

Grading the Bottoms.—The next step in the work is to grade the bottoms of the ditches, so as to afford a bed for the tiles on the exact lines which are indicated by the figures marked on the different stakes.

The manner in which this is to be done may be illustrated by describing the work required for the line from C10 to C17, (Fig. 20,) after it has been opened, as described above, to within 2 or 3 inches of the final depth.

Having provided boning-rods, which are strips of board 7 feet long, having horizontal cross pieces at their upper ends, (see Fig. 29,) set these perpendicularly on the spots which have been found by measurement to be at the correct depth opposite stakes 10, 11, 12, 15, and 17, and fasten each in its place by wedging it between two strips of board laid across the ditch, so as to clasp it, securing these in their places by laying stones or earth upon their ends.

As these boning-rods are all exactly 7 feet long, of course, a line sighted across their tops will be exactly 7 feet higher, at all points, than the required grade of the ditch directly beneath it, and if a plumb rod, (similar to the boning-rod, but provided with a line and plummet,) be set perpendicularly on any point of the bottom of the drain, the relation of its cross piece to the line of sight across the tops of the boning-rods will show whether the bottom of the ditch at that point is too high, or too low, or just right. The manner of sighting over two boning-rods and an intermediate plumb-rod, is shown in Fig. 31.

Three persons are required to finish the bottom of the[pg 126] ditch; one to sight across the tops of the boning-rods, one to hold the plumb-rod at different points as the finishing progresses, and one in the ditch, (see Fig. 30,) provided with the finishing spade and scoop,—and, in hard ground, with a pick,—to cut down or fill up as the first man calls "too high," or, "too low." An inch or two of filling maybe beaten sufficiently hard with the back of the scoop, but if several inches should be required, it should be well rammed with the top of a pick, or other suitable instrument, as any subsequent settling would disarrange the fall.

As the lateral drains are to be laid first, they should be the first graded, and as they are arranged to discharge into the tops of the mains, their water will still flow off, although the main ditches are not yet reduced to their final[pg 127] depth. After the laterals are laid and filled in, the main should be graded, commencing at the upper end; the tiles being laid and covered as fast as the bottom is made ready, so that it may not be disturbed by the water of which the main carries so much more than the laterals.

The trimming and perforating of the tile is done with a "tile-pick," (Fig. 32,) the hatchet end, tolerably sharp, being used for the trimming, and the point, for making the holes. This is done by striking lightly around the circumference of the hole until the center piece falls in, or can be easily knocked in. If the hole is irregular, and does not fit the tile nicely, the open space should be covered with bits of broken tile, to keep the earth out.

As fast as the laterals are laid and inspected, they should be filled in to the depth of at least a foot, to protect the tiles from being broken by the falling of stones or lumps of earth from the top, and from being displaced by water flowing in the ditch. Two or three feet of the lower end may be left uncovered until the connection with the main is finished.

In the main drains, when the tiles are of the size with which collars are used, the laying is done in the same manner. If it is necessary to use 3-1/2-inch tiles, or any larger size, much more care must be given to the closing of the joints. All tiles, in manufacture, dry more rapidly at the top, which is more exposed to the air, than at the bottom, and they are, therefore, contracted and made shorter at the top. This difference is most apparent in the larger sizes. The large round tiles, which can be laid on any side, can easily be made to form a close joint, and they should be secured in their proper position by stones or lumps of earth, wedged in between them and the sides of the ditch. The sole tiles must lie with the shortest sides[pg 132] up, and, usually, the space between two tiles, at the top, will be from one-quarter to one-half of an inch. To remedy this defect, and form a joint which may he protected against the entrance of earth, the bottom should he trimmed off, so as to allow the tops to come closer together. Any opening, of less than a quarter of an inch, can he satisfactorily covered,—more than that should not be allowed. In turning corners, or in passing around curves, with large tiles, their ends must he beveled off with the pick, so as to fit nicely in this position.

The best covering for the joints of tiles which are laid without collars, is a scrap of tin, bent so as to fit their shape,—scraps of leather, or bits of strong wood shavings, answer a very good purpose, though both of these latter require to be held in place by putting a little earth over their ends as soon as laid on the tile. Very small grass ropes drawn over the joints, (the ends being held down with stones or earth,) form a satisfactory covering, but care should be taken that they be not too thick. A small handful of wood shavings, thrown over the joints, also answers a good purpose. Care, however, should always be taken, in using any material which will decay readily, to have no more than is necessary to keep the earth out, lest, in its decay, it furnish material to be carried into the tile and obstruct the flow. This precaution becomes less necessary in the case of drains which always carry considerable streams of water, but if they are at times sluggish in their flow, too much care cannot be given to keep them free of all possible causes of obstruction. As nothing is gained by increasing the quantity of loose covering beyond what is needed to close the joints, and as such covering is only procured with some trouble, there is no reason for its extravagant use.

There seems to remain in the minds of many writers on drainage a glimmering of the old fallacy that underdrains, like open drains, receive their water from above, and it is[pg 133] too commonly recommended that porous substances be placed above the tile. If, as is universally conceded, the water rises into the tile from below, this is unnecessary. The practice of covering the joints, and even covering the whole tile, (often to the depth of a foot,) with tan-bark, turf, coarse gravel, etc., is in no wise to be commended; and, while the objections to it are not necessarily very grave in all cases, it always introduces an element of insecurity, and it is a waste of money, if nothing worse.

The tile layer need not concern himself with the question, of affording entrance room for the water. Let him, so far as the rude materials at hand will allow, make the joints perfectly tight, and when the water comes, it will find ample flaws in his work, and he will have been a good workman if it do not find room to flow in a current, carrying particles of dirt with it.

In ditches in which water is running at the time of laying the tiles, the process should follow closely after the grading, and the stream may even be dammed back, section after section, (a plugged tile being placed under the dam, to be afterwards replaced by a free one,) and graded, laid and covered before the water breaks in. There is one satisfaction in this kind of work,—that, while it is difficult to lay the drain so thoroughly well as in a dry ditch, the amount of water is sufficient to overcome any slight tendency to obstruction.

Connections.—As has been before stated, lateral drains should always enter at the top of the main. Even in the most shallow work, the slightly decreased depth of the lateral, which this arrangement requires, is well compensated for by the free outlet which it secures.

When the main drain is laid with collars, it should be so arranged that, by substituting a full tile in the place of the collar,—leaving, within it, a space between the smaller pipes,—a connection can be made with this larger tile, as is represented in Figures 33 and 34.

Silt-Basins should be used at all points where a drain, after running for any considerable distance at a certain rate of fall, changes to a less rapid fall,—unless, indeed, the diminished fall be still sufficiently great for the removal of silty matters, (say two feet or more in a hundred). They may be made in any manner which will secure a stoppage of the direct current, and afford room below the floor of the tile for the deposit of the silt which the water has carried in suspension; and they may be of any suitable material;—even a sound flour barrel will serve a pretty good[pg 135] purpose for many years. The most complete form of basin is that represented in Figure 24.

When the object is only to afford room for the collection of the silt of a considerable length of drain, and it is not thought worth while to keep open a communication with the surface, for purposes of inspection, a square box of brick work, (Fig. 35,) having a depth of one and a half or two feet below the floor of the drain,—tiles for the drains being built in the walls, and the top covered with a broad stone,—will answer very well.

A good sort of basin, to reach to the surface of the ground, may be made of large, vitrified drain pipes,—such as are used for town sewerage,—having a diameter of from six to twelve inches, according to the requirements of the work. This basin is shown in Figure 36.

Figure 37 represents a basin made of a 6-inch tile,—similar to that described on page 130, for turning a short corner. A larger basin of the same size, cheaper than if built[pg 136] of brick, may be made by using a large vitrified drain pipe in the place of the one shown in the cut. These vitrified pipes may be perforated in the manner described for the common tile.

In laying the main line C, (Fig. 21,) an underground basin of brick work, (Fig. 35,) or its equivalent, should be placed at stake 7, because at that point the water, which has been flowing on an inclination of 1.09, 2.00 and 2.83 per 100, continues its course over the much less fall of only 0.56 per 100.

If, among the tiles which have passed the inspection, there are some which, from over burning, are smaller than the average, they should be laid at the upper ends of the laterals. The cardinal rule of the tile layer should be never to have a single tile in the finished drain of smaller size, of more irregular shape, or less perfectly laid, than any tile above it. If there is to be any difference in the quality of the drain, at different points, let it grow better as it approaches the outlet and has a greater length above depending upon its action.

Covering the Tiles, and Filling-in the Ditches.—The best material for covering the tiles is that which will the most completely surround them, so as to hold them in their places; will be the least likely to have passages for the flow of streams of water into the joints, and will afford the least silt to obstruct the drain. Clay is the best of all available materials, because it is of the most uniform character throughout its mass, and may be most perfectly compacted around the tiles. As has been before stated, all matters which are subject to decay are objectionable, because they will furnish fine matters to enter the joints, and by their decrease of bulk, may leave openings in the earth through which streams of muddy water may find[pg 137] their way into the tiles. Gravel is bad, and will remain bad until its spaces are filled with fine dirt deposited by water, which, leaving only a part of its impurities here, carries the rest into the drain. A gravelly loam, free from roots or other organic matter, if it is strong enough to be worked into a ball when wet, will answer a very good purpose.

Ordinarily, the earth which was thrown out from the bottom of the ditch, and which now lies at the top of the dirt heap, is the best to be returned about the tiles, being first freed from any stones it may contain which are large enough to break or disturb the tiles in falling on to them.

If the bottom of the ditch consists of quicksand or other silty matters, clay or some other suitable earth should be sought in that which was excavated from a less depth, or should be brought from another place. A thin layer of this having been placed in the bottom of the ditch when grading, a slight covering of the same about the tiles will so encase them as to prevent the entrance of the more "slippy" soil.

The first covering of fine earth, free from stones and clods, should be sprinkled gently over the tiles, no full shovelfuls being thrown on to them until they are covered at least six inches deep. When the filling has reached a height of from fifteen to twenty inches, the men may jump into the ditch and tramp it down evenly and regularly, not treading too hard in any one place at first. When thus lightly compacted about the tile, so that any further pressure cannot displace them, the filling should be repeatedly rammed, (the more the better,) by two men standing astride the ditch, facing each other, and working a maul, such as is shown in Figure 38, and which may weigh from 80 to 100 pounds.

Those to whom this recommendation is new, will, doubtless, think it unwise. The only reply to their objection must be that others who shared their opinion, have, by[pg 138] long observation and experience, been convinced of its correctness. They may practically convince themselves of the value of this sort of covering by a simple and inexpensive experiment: Take two large, water-tight hogsheads, bore through the side of each, a few inches from the bottom, a hole just large enough to admit a 1-1/4-inch tile; cover the bottom to the hight of the lower edge of the hole with strong, wet clay, beaten to a hard paste; on this, lay a line of pipes and collars,—the inner end sealed with putty, and the tile which passes through the hole so wedged about with putty, that no water could pass out between it and the outside of the hole. Cover the tile in one hogshead with loose gravel, and then fill it to the top with loose earth. Cover the tile in the other, twenty inches deep, with ordinary stiff clay, (not wet enough to puddle, but sufficiently moist to pack well,) and ram it thoroughly, so as to make sure that the tiles are completely clasped, and that there is no crack nor crevice through which water can trickle, and then fill this hogshead to the top with earth, of the same character with that used in the other case. These hogsheads should stand where the water of a small roof, (as that of a hog-pen,) may be led into them, by an arrangement which shall give an equal quantity to each;—this will give them rather more than the simple rain-fall, but will leave them exposed to the usual climatic changes of the season. A vessel, of a capacity of a quart or more, should be connected with each outlet, and covered from the dust,—[pg 139] these will act as silt-basins. During the first few storms the water will flow off much more freely from the first barrel; but, little by little, the second one, as the water finds its way through the clay, and as the occasional drying, and repeated filtration make it more porous, will increase in its flow until it will, by the end of the season, or, at latest, by the end of the second season, drain as well as the first, if, indeed, that be not by this time somewhat obstructed with silt. The amount of accumulation in the vessels at the outlet will show which process has best kept back the silt, and the character of the deposit will show which would most probably be carried off by the gentle flow of water in a nearly level drain.

It is no argument against this experiment that its results cannot be determined even in a year, for it is not pretended that drains laid in compact clay will dry land so completely during the first month as those which give more free access to the water; only that they will do so in a comparatively short time; and that, as drainage is a work for all time, (practically as lasting as the farm itself,) the importance of permanence and good working for long years to come, is out of all proportion to that of the temporary good results of one or two seasons, accompanied with doubtful durability.

It has been argued that surface water will be more readily removed by drains having porous filling. Even if this were true to any important degree,—which it is not,—it would be an argument against the plan, for the remedy would be worse than the disease. If the water flow from the surface down into the drain, it will not fail to carry dirt with it, and instead of the clear water, which alone should rise into the tiles from below, we should have a trickling flow from above, muddy with wasted manure and silty earth.

The remaining filling of the ditch is a matter of simple labor, and may be done in whatever way may be most[pg 140] economical under the circumstances of the work. If the amount to be filled is considerable, so that it is desirable to use horse-power, the best way will be to use a scraper, such as is represented in Figure 39, which is a strongly ironed plank, 6 feet long and 18 inches wide, sharp shod at one side, and supplied with handles at the other. It is propelled by means of the curved rods, which are attached to its under side by flexible joints. These rods are connected by a chain which has links large enough to receive the hook of an ox-chain. This scraper may be used for any straight-forward work by attaching the power to the middle of the chain. By moving the hook a few links to the right or left, it will act somewhat after the manner of the mould-board of a plow, and will, if skillfully handled, shoot the filling rapidly into the ditch.

If the work is done by hand, mix the surface soil and turf with the subsoil filling for the whole depth. If with a scraper, put the surface soil at the bottom of the loose filling, and the subsoil at the top, as this will be an imitation, for the limited area of the drains, of the process of "trenching," which is used in garden cultivation.

When the ditches are filled, they will be higher than the adjoining land, and it will be well to make them still more so by digging or plowing out a small trench at each side of the drain, throwing the earth against the mound, which will prevent surface water, (during heavy rains,) from running into the loose filling before it is sufficiently[pg 141] settled. A cross section of a filled drain provided with these ditches is shown in Figure 40.

In order that the silt-basins may be examined, and their accumulations of earth removed, during the early action of the drains, those parts of the ditches which are above them may be left open, care being taken, by cutting surface ditches around them, to prevent the entrance of water from above. During this time the covers of the basins should be kept on, and should be covered with inverted sods to keep loose dirt from getting into them.

Collecting the Water ©f Springs.—The lateral which connects with the main drain, A, (Fig. 21,) at the point m, and which is to take the water of the spring at the head of the brook, should not be opened until the main has been completed and filled into the silt-basin,—the brook having, meantime, been carried over the other ditches in wooden troughs. This lateral may now be made in the following way: Dig down to the tile of the main, and carry the lateral ditch back, a distance of ten feet. In the bottom of this, place a wooden trough, at least six feet long, laid at such depth that its channel shall be on the exact grade required for laying the tiles, and lay long straw, (held down by weights,) lengthwise within it. Make an opening in the tile of the main and connect the trough with it. The straw will prevent any coarse particles of earth from being carried into the tile, and the flow of the water will be sufficient to carry on to the silt-basin any finer matters. Now open the ditch to[pg 142] and beyond the spring, digging at least a foot below the grade in its immediate vicinity, and filling to the exact grade with small stones, broken bricks, or other suitable material. Lay the tiles from the upper end of the ditch across the stone work, and down to the wooden trough. Now spread a sufficient layer of wood shavings over the stone work to keep the earth from entering it, cover the tiles and fill in the ditch, as before directed, and then remove the straw from the wooden trough and lay tiles in its place. In this way, the water of even a strong spring may be carried into a finished drain without danger. In laying the tile which crosses the stone work, it is well to use full 2-1/2-inch tiles in the place of collars, leaving the joints of these, and of the 1-1/4-inch tiles, (which should join near the middle of the collar tile,) about a quarter of an inch open, to give free entrance to the water.

The stone and tile drain, H, I, is simply dug out to the surface of the rock, if this is not more than two feet below the grade of the upper ends of the laterals with which it connects, and then filled up with loose stones to the line of grade. If the stones are small, so as to form a good bottom for the tiles, they may be laid directly upon it; if not, a bottom for them may be made of narrow strips of cheap boards. Before filling, the tiles and stone work should be covered with shavings, and the filling above these should consist of a strong clay, which will remain in place after the shavings rot away.

Amending the Map.—When the tiles are laid, and before they are covered, all deviations of the lines, as in passing around large stones and other obstructions, which may have prevented the exact execution of the original plan, and the location and kind of each underground silt-basin should also be carefully noted, so that they may be transferred to the map, for future reference, in the event of repairs becoming necessary. In a short time after the work[pg 143] is finished, the surface of the field will show no trace of the lines of drain, and it should be possible, in case of need, to find any point of the drains with precision, so that no labor will be lost in digging for it. It is much cheaper to measure over the surface than to dig four feet trenches through the ground.

So far as tile drains are concerned, if they are once well laid, and if the silt-basins have been emptied of silt until the water has ceased to deposit it, they need no care nor attention, beyond an occasional cleaning of the outlet brook. Now and then, from the proximity of willows, or thrifty, young, water-loving trees, a drain will be obstructed by roots; or, during the first few years after the work is finished, some weak point,—a badly laid tile, a loosely fitted connection between the lateral and a main, or an accumulation of silt coming from an undetected and persistent vein of quicksand,—will be developed, and repairs will have to be made. Except for the slight danger from roots, which must always be guarded against to the extent of allowing no young trees of the dangerous class to grow near a drain through which a constant stream of water flows, it may be fairly assumed that drains which have been kept in order for four or five years have passed the danger of interruption from any cause, and they may be considered entirely safe.

A drain will often, for some months after it is laid, run muddy water after rains. Sometimes the early deposit of silt will nearly fill the tile, and it will take the water of[pg 145] several storms to wash it out. If the tiles have been laid in packed clay, they cannot long receive silt from without, and that which makes the flow turbid, may be assumed to come from the original deposit in the conduit. Examinations of newly laid drains have developed many instances where tiles were at first half filled with silt, and three months later were entirely clean. The muddiness of the flow indicates what the doctors call "an effort of nature to relieve herself," and nature may be trusted to succeed, at least, until she abandons the effort. If we are sure that a drain has been well laid, we need feel no anxiety because it fails to take the water from the ground so completely as it should do, until it settles into a flow of clear water after the heaviest storms.

In the case of art actual stoppage, which will generally be indicated by the "bursting out" of the drain, i.e., the wetting of the land as though there were a spring under it, or as though its water had no underground outlet, (which is the fact,) it will be necessary to lay open the drain until the obstruction is found.

In this work, the real value of the map will be shown, by the facility which it offers for finding any point of any line of drains, and the exact locality of the junctions with the mains, and of the silt-basins. In laying out the plan on the ground, and in making his map, the surveyor will have had recourse to two or more fixed points; one of them, in our example, (fig. 21,) would probably be the center of the main silt-basin, and one, a drilled hole or other mark on the rock at the north side of the field. By staking out on the ground the straight line connecting these two points, and drawing a corresponding line on the map; we shall have a base-line, from which it will be easy, by perpendicular offsets, to determine on the ground any point upon the map. By laying a small square on the map, with one of its edges coinciding with the base-line, and moving it on this line until the other edge meets the[pg 146] desired point, we fix, at the angle of the square, the point on the base-line from which we are to measure the length of the offset. The next step is to find, (by the scale,) the distance of this point from the nearest end of the base-line, and from the point sought. Then measure off, in the field, the corresponding distance on the base-line, and, from the point thus found, measure on a line perpendicular to the base line, the length of the offset; the point thus indicated will be the locality sought. In the same manner, find another point on the same drain, to give the range on which to stake it out. From this line, the drains which run parallel to it, can easily be found, or it may be used as a base-line, from which to find, by measuring offsets, other points near it.

The object of this staking is, to find, in an inexpensive and easy way, the precise position of the drains, for which it would be otherwise necessary to grope in the dark, verifying our guesses by digging four-foot trenches, at random.

If there is a silt-basin, or a junction a short distance below the point where the water shows itself, this will be the best place to dig. If it is a silt-basin, we shall probably find that this has filled up with dirt, and has stopped the flow. In this case it should be cleaned out, and a point of the drain ten feet below it examined. If this is found to be clear, a long slender stick may be pushed up as far as the basin and worked back and forth until the passage is cleared. Then replace the tile below, and try with the stick to clean the tiles above the basin, so as to tap the water above the obstruction. If this cannot be done, or if the drain ten feet below is clogged, it will be necessary to uncover the tiles in both directions until an opening is found, and to take up and relay the whole. If the wetting of the ground is sufficient to indicate that there is much water in the drain, only five or six tiles should be taken up at a time, cleaned and relaid,—commencing at[pg 147] the lower end,—in order that, when the water commences to flow, it may not disturb the bottom of the ditch for the whole distance.

If the point opened is at a junction with the main, examine both the main and the lateral, to see which is stopped, and proceed with one or the other, as directed above. In doing this work, care should be taken to send as little muddy water as possible into the drain below, and to allow the least possible disturbance of the bottom.

If silt-basins have been placed at those points at which the fall diminishes, the obstruction will usually be found to occur at the outlets of these, from a piling up of the silt in front of them, and to extend only a short distance below and above. It is not necessary to take up the tiles until they are found to be entirely clean, for, if they are only one-half or one-third full, they will probably be washed clean by the rush of water, when that which is accumulated above is tapped. The work should be done in settled fair weather, and the ditches should remain open until the effect of the flow has been observed. If the tiles are made thoroughly clean by the time that the accumulated water has run off, say in 24 hours, they may be covered up; if not, it may be necessary to remove them again, and clean them by hand. When the work is undertaken it should be thoroughly done, so that the expense of a new opening need not be again incurred.

It is worse than useless to substitute larger sizes of tiles for those which are taken up. The obstruction, if by silt, is the result of a too sluggish flow, and to enlarge the area of the conduit would only increase the difficulty. If the tiles are too small to carry the full flow which follows a heavy rain, they will be very unlikely to become choked, for the water will then have sufficient force to wash them clean, while if they are much larger than necessary, a deposit of silt to one half of their height will make a broad,[pg 148] flat bed for the stream, which will run with much less force, and will be more likely to increase the deposit.

If the drains are obstructed by the roots of willows, or other trees, the proprietor must decide whether he will sacrifice the trees or the drains; both he cannot keep, unless he chooses to go to the expense of laying in cement all of the drains which carry constant streams, for a distance of at least 50 feet from the dangerous trees. The trouble from trees is occasionally very great, but its occurrence is too rare for general consideration, and must be met in each case with such remedies as circumstances suggest as the best.

The gratings over the outlets of silt-basins which open at the surface of the ground, are sometimes, during the first year of the drainage, obstructed by a fungoid growth which collects on the cross bars. This should be occasionally rubbed off. Its character is not very well understood, and it is rarely observed in old drains. The decomposition of the grass bands which are used to cover the joints of the larger tiles may encourage its formation.

If the surface soil have a good proportion of sand, gravel, or organic matter, so as to give it the consistency which is known as "loamy," it will bear any treatment which it may chance to receive in cultivation, or as pasture land; but if it be a decided clay soil, no amount of draining will enable us to work it, or to turn cattle upon it when it is wet with recent rains. It will much sooner become dry, because of the drainage, and may much sooner be trodden upon without injury; but wet clay cannot be worked or walked over without being more or less puddled, and, thereby, injured for a long time.

No matter how thoroughly heavy clay pasture lands may be under-drained, the cattle should be removed from them when it rains, and kept off until they are comparatively dry. Neglect of this precaution has probably led[pg 149] to more disappointment as to the effects of drainage than any other circumstances connected with it. The injury from this cause does not extend to a great depth, and in the Northern States it would always be overcome by the frosts of a single winter; as has been before stated, it is confined to stiff clay soils, but as these are the soils which most need draining, the warning given is important.

Draining tiles are made of burnt clay, like bricks and earthen-ware.

In general terms, the process is as follows:—The clay is mixed with sand, or other substances which give it the proper consistency, and is so wetted as to form a plastic mass, to which may be given any desired form, and which is sufficiently stiff to retain its shape. Properly prepared clay is forced through the aperture of a die of the shape of the outside of the tile, while a plug,—held by a support in the rear of the die,—projects through the aperture, and gives the form to the bore of the tile. The shape of the material of the tile, as it comes from the die, corresponds to the open space, between the plug and the edge of the aperture. The clay is forced out in a continuous pipe, which is cut to the desired length by a wire, which is so thin as to pass through the mass without altering the shape of the pipe. The short lengths of pipe are dried in the air as thoroughly as they can be, and are then burned in a kiln, similar to that used for pottery.

Materials.—The range of earths which may be used in the manufacture of tiles is considerable, though clay is the basis of all of them. The best is, probably, the clay[pg 175] which is almost invariably found at the bottom of muck beds, as this is finer and more compact than that which is dug from dry land, and requires but little preparation. There is, also, a peculiar clay, found in some localities, which is almost like quick-sand in its nature, and which is excellent for tile-making,—requiring no freezing, or washing to prepare it for the machine. As a general rule, any clay which will make good bricks will make tiles. When first taken from the ground, these clays are not usually adhesive, but become so on being moistened and kneaded.

It is especially important that no limestone pebbles be mixed with the clay, as the burning would change these to quicklime, which, in slaking, would destroy the tiles. The presence of a limey earth, however, mixed through the mass, is a positive advantage, as in this intimate admixture, the lime forms, under the heat of the kiln, a chemical combination with the other ingredients; and, as it melts more readily than some of them, it hastens the burning and makes it more complete. What is known as plastic clay, (one of the purest of the native clays,) is too strong for tile-making, and must be "tempered," by having other substances mixed with it, to give it a stiffer quality.

The clay which is best for brick-making, contains Silica, and Alumina in about the following proportions:

Silica ... 55 to 75 per cent.

Alumina ... 35 to 25 per cent.

Variable quantities of other materials are usually found in connection with the clay, in its native condition. The most common of these are the following:—

Magnesia 1 to 5 per cent.—sometimes 20 to 30 per cent.

Lime 0 to 19 per cent.

Potash 0 to 5 per cent.

Oxyd of iron 0 to 19 per cent.

Tempering.—After the fine clay is relieved of the water with which it was washed, and has become tolerably dry, it should be mixed with the sand, or other tempering material, and passed through the Pug-Mill, (Fig. 42,) which will thoroughly mix its various ingredients, and work the whole into a homogeneous mass, ready for the tile machine. The pug-mill is similar to that used in brick-yards, only, as the clay is worked much stiffer for tiles than for bricks, iron knives must be substituted for the wooden pins. These knives are so arranged as to cut the clay in every part, and, by being set at an angle, they force it downward toward the outlet gate at the bottom. The clay should be kept at the proper degree of moisture from the time of tempering, and after passing through the pug-mill it should be thoroughly beaten to drive out the air, and the beaten mass should be kept covered with wet cloths to prevent drying.

Moulding the Tiles.—Machines for moulding tiles are[pg 180] of various styles, with much variation in the details of their construction, but they all act on the same general principle;—that of forcing the clay through a ring-shaped aperture in an iron plate, forming a continuous pipe, which is carried off on an endless apron, or on rollers, and cut by wires into the desired lengths. The plates with the ring-shaped apertures are called dies; the openings are of any desired form, corresponding to the external shape of the tiles; and the size and shape of the bore, is determined by the core or plug, which is held in the centers of the apertures. The construction of the die plates, and the manner of fastening the plugs, which determine the bore of the tiles, is shown in Fig. 43. The view taken is of the inside of the plate.

The machine consists usually of a strong iron chest, with a hinged cover, into which the clay is placed, having a piston moving in it, connected by a rod or bar, having cog-teeth, with a cog-wheel, which is moved by horse or hand power, and drives the piston forward with steadiness, forcing the clay through the openings in the die-plate. The clay issues in continuous lines of pipe. The machines most in use in this country are connected directly with the pug-mill, and as the clay is pugged, it at once passes into the box, and is pressed out as tiles. These machines are usually run by horse-power.

The workmen must attend well to the degree of moisture of the clay which is put into the machine. It should be dry enough to show no undue moisture on its surface as it comes out of the die-plate, and sufficiently moist not[pg 182] to be crumbled in passing the edge of the mould. The clay for small (thin) tiles must, necessarily, be more moist than that which is to pass through a wider aperture; and for the latter there may, with advantage, be more sand in the paste than would be practicable with the former.

After the tiles are cut into lengths, they are removed by a set of mandrils, small enough to pass easily into them, such as are shown in Fig. 45, (the number of fingers corresponding with the number of rows of tiles made by the machine,) and are placed on shelves made of narrow strips sawn from one-inch boards, laid with spaces between them to allow a free circulation of air.

Drying and Rolling.—Care must be taken that freshly made tiles be not dried too rapidly. They should be sheltered from the sun and from strong winds. Too rapid drying has the effect of warping them out of shape, and, sometimes, of cracking the clay. To provide against this injury, the drying is done under sheds or other covering, and the side which is exposed to the prevailing winds is sometimes boarded up.

For the first drying, the tiles are placed in single layers on the shelves. When about half dried,—at which time they are usually warped more or less from their true shape,—it is well to roll them. This is done by passing through them a smooth, round stick, (sufficiently smaller than the bore to enter it easily, and long enough to project five or six inches beyond each end of the tile,) and,—holding one end of the stick in each hand,—rolling them carefully on a table. This operation should be performed when the tiles are still moist enough not to be broken by the slight bending required to make them straight. After rolling, the tiles may be piled up in close layers, some[pg 183] four or five feet high, (which will secure them against further warping,) and left until they are dry enough for burning,—that is, as dry as they can be made by exposure to the air.

Burning.—Tiles are burned in kilns in which, by the effect of flame acting directly upon them, they are raised to a heat sufficient to melt some of their more easily fusible ingredients, and give to them a stone-like hardness.

Kilns are of various construction and of various sizes. As this book is not intended for the instruction of those who are engaged in the general manufacture of tiles, only for those who may find it necessary to establish local works, it will be sufficient to describe a temporary earthen kiln which may be cheaply built, and which will answer an excellent purpose, where only 100,000 or 200,000 tiles per season will be required.

Directions for its construction are set forth in a letter from Mr. T. Law Hodges, of England, to the late Earl Spencer, published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society for the year 1843, as follows:

"The form of the clay-kiln is circular, 11 feet in diameter, and 7 feet high. It is wholly built of damp, clayey earth, rammed firmly together, and plastered, inside and out, with loam (clay?). The earth to form the walls is dug out around the base, leaving a circular trench about four feet wide and as many deep, into which the fire-holes of the kiln open. If wood be the fuel used, three fire-holes will be sufficient; if coal, four will be needed. About 1,200 common brick will be wanted to build these fire-holes and flues; if coal is used, rather fewer bricks will be wanted, but, then, some iron bars are necessary,—six bars to each fire-hole.

"The earthen walls are four feet thick at the floor of the kiln, seven feet high, and tapering to a thickness of two feet at the top; this will determine the slope of the[pg 184] exterior face of the kiln. The inside of the wall is carried up perpendicularly, and the loam plastering inside becomes, after the first burning, like a brick wall. The kiln may be safely erected in March, or whenever the danger of injury from frost is over. After the summer use of it, it must be protected, by faggots or litter, against the wet and frost of winter. A kiln of these dimensions will contain 32,500 1-1/4-inch tiles, * * * or 12,000 2-1/4-inch tiles. * * *

"In good weather, this kiln can be filled, burnt, and discharged once in every fortnight, and fifteen kilns may be obtained in a good season, producing 487,500 1-1/4-inch tiles, and in proportion for the other sizes.

"It requires 2 tons 5 cwt. of good coals to burn the above kiln, full of tiles."

A sectional view of this kiln is shown in Fig. 46, in which C, C represent sections of the outer trench; A, one of the three fire-holes; and B, B, sections of a circular passage inside of the wall, connected with the fire-holes, and serving as a flue for the flames, which, at suitable intervals, pass through openings into the floor of the kiln. The whole structure should be covered with a roof of rough boards, placed high enough to be out of the reach of the fire. A door in the side of the kiln serves for putting[pg 185] in and removing the tiles, and is built up, temporarily, with bricks or clay, during the burning. Mr. Hodges estimates the cost of this kiln, all complete, at less than $25. Concerning its value, he wrote another letter in 1848, from which the following is extracted:

"The experience of four years that have elapsed since my letter to the late Earl Spencer, published in the 5th volume of the proceedings of the Royal Agricultural Society, page 57, has thoroughly tested the merits of the temporary clay-kilns for the burning of draining-pipes described in that letter.

"I am well aware that there were persons, even among those who came to see it, who pronounced at once upon the construction and duration of the kiln as unworthy of attention. How far their expectations have been realized, and what value belongs to their judgment, the following short statement will exhibit:

"The kiln, in question, was constructed, in 1844, at a cost of £5.

"It was used four times in that year, burning each time between 18,000 and 19,000 draining pipes, of 1-3/4 inches in diameter.

"In 1845, it was used nine times, or about once a fortnight, burning each time the same quantity of nearly 19,000 pipes.

"In 1846, the same result.

"In 1847, it has been used twelve times, always burning the same quantity. In the course of the last year a trifling repair in the bottom of the kiln, costing rather less than 10 shillings, was necessary, and this is the only cost for repair since its erection. It is now as good as ever, and might be worked at least once a fortnight through the ensuing season.

"The result of this experiment of four years shows not only the practical value of this cheap kiln, but Mr. Hatcher, who superintends the brick and tile-yard at Benenden,[pg 186] where this kiln stands, expresses himself strongly in favor of this kiln, as always producing better and more evenly burned pipes than either of his larger and better built brick-kilns can do."

The floor of the kiln is first covered with bricks, placed on end, at a little distance from each other, so as to allow the fire to pass between them, and the tiles are placed on end on these. This position will afford the best draft for the flames. After the kiln is packed full, the door-way is built up, and a slow fire is started,—only enough at first to complete the drying of the tiles, and to do this so slowly as not to warp them out of shape. They will be thoroughly dry when the smoke from the top of the kiln loses its dark color and becomes transparent. When the fires are well started, the mouths of the fire-holes may be built up so as to leave only sufficient room to put in fresh fuel, and if the wind is high, the fire-holes, on the side against which it blows, should be sheltered by some sort of screen which will counteract its influence, and keep up an even heat on all sides.

The time required for burning will be from two days and a night to four days and four nights, according to the dryness of the tiles, the state of the weather, and the character of the fuel. The fires should be drawn when the tiles in the hottest part of the kiln are burned to a "ringing" hardness. By leaving two or three holes in the door-way, which can be stopped with loose brick, a rod may be run in, from time to time, to take out specimen tiles from the hottest part of the kiln, which shall have been so placed as to be easily removed. The best plan, however,—the only prudent plan, in fact,—will be to employ an intelligent man who is thoroughly experienced in the burning of brick and pottery, and whose judgment in the management of the fires, and in the cooling off of the kiln, will save much of the waste that would result from inexperienced management. After the burning is completed, from[pg 187] 40 to 60 hours must be allowed for the cooling of the kiln before it is opened. If the cold air is admitted while it is still very hot, the unequal contraction of the material will cause the tiles to crack, and a large portion of them may be destroyed.

If any of the tiles are too much burned, they will be melted, and may stick together, or, at least, have their shape destroyed. Those which are not sufficiently burned would not withstand the action of the water in the soil, and should not be used. For the first of these accidents there is no remedy; for the latter, reburning will be necessary, and under-done tiles may be left, (or replaced,) in the kiln in the position which they occupied at the first burning, and the second heat will probably prove sufficient. There is less danger of unequal burning in circular than in square kilns. Soft wood is better than hard, as making a better flame. It should be split fine, and well seasoned.

Arrangement of the Tilery.—Such a tilery as is described above should have a drying shed from 60 to 80 feet long, and from 12 to 18 feet wide. This shed may be built in the cheapest and roughest manner, the roof being covered with felting, thatch, or hemlock boards, as economy may suggest. It should have a tier of drying shelves, (made of slats rather than of boards,) running the whole length of each side. A narrow, wooden tram-way, down the middle, to carry a car, by which the green tiles may be taken from the machine to the shelves, and the dry ones from the shelves to the kiln, will greatly lessen the cost of handling.

The pug-mill and tile-machine, as well as the clay pit and the washing-mill, should be at one end of the shed, and the kiln at the other, so that, even in rainy weather, the work may proceed without interruption. A shed of the size named will be sufficient to dry as many tiles of[pg 188] assorted sizes as can be burned in the clay-kiln described above.

The Cost of Tiles.—It would be impossible, at any time, to say what should be the precise cost of tiles in a given locality, without knowing the prices of labor and fuel; and in the present unsettled condition of the currency, any estimate would necessarily be of little value. Mr. Parker's estimated the cost of inch pipes in England at 6s., (about $1.50,) per thousand, when made on the estate where they were to be used, by a process similar to that described herein. Probably they could at no time have been made for less than twice that cost in the United States,—and they would now cost much more; though if the clay is dug out in the fall, when the regularly employed farm hands are short of work, and if the same men can cut and haul the wood during the winter, the hands hired especially for the tile making, during the summer season, (two men and two or three boys,) cannot, even at present rates of wages, bring the cost of the tiles to nearly the market prices. If there be only temporary use for the machinery, it may be sold, when no longer needed, for a good percentage of its original cost, as, from the slow movement to which it is subjected, it is not much worn by its work.

There is no reason why tiles should cost more to make than bricks. A common brick contains clay enough to make four or five 1-1/4-inch tiles, and it will require about the same amount of fuel to burn this clay in one form as in the other. This advantage in favor of tiles is in a measure offset by the greater cost of handling them, and the greater liability to breakage.

The foregoing description of the different processes of the manufacture of draining tiles has been given, in order that those who find it necessary, or desirable, to establish works to supply the needs of their immediate localities may commence their operations understandingly, and form[pg 189] an approximate opinion of the promise of success in the undertaking.

Probably the most positive effect of the foregoing description, on the mind of any man who contemplates establishing a tilery, will be to cause him to visit some successful manufactory, during the busy season, and examine for himself the mode of operation. Certainly it would be unwise, when such a personal examination of the process is practicable, to rely entirely upon the aid of written descriptions; for, in any work like tile-making, where the selection, combination and preparation of the materials, the means of drying, and the economy and success of the burning must depend on a variety of conditions and circumstances, which change with every change of locality, it is impossible that written directions, however minute, should be a sufficient guide. Still, in the light of such directions, one can form a much better idea of the bearing of the different operations which he may witness, than he could possibly do if the whole process were new to him.

If a personal examination of a successful tilery is impracticable, it will be necessary to employ a practical brick-maker, or potter, to direct the construction and operation of the works, and in any case, this course is advisable.

In any neighborhood where two or three hundred acres of land are to be drained, if suitable earths can be readily obtained, it will be cheaper to establish a tile-yard, than to haul the necessary tiles, in wagons, a distance of ten or twenty miles. Then again, the prices demanded by the few manufacturers, who now have almost a monopoly of the business, are exorbitantly high,—at least twice what it will cost to make the tiles at home, with the cheap works described above, so that if the cost of transportation on the quantity desired would be equal to the cost of establishing the works, there will be a decided profit in the home manufacture. Probably, also, a tile-yard, in a neighborhood where the general character of the soil is[pg 190] such as to require drainage, will be of value after the object for which it was made has been accomplished.

While setting forth the advantage to the farmer of everything which may protect him against monopolies, whether in the matter of draining-tile, or of any other needful accessory of his business, or which will enable him to procure supplies without a ruinous outlay for transportation, it is by no means intended that every man shall become his own tile-maker.

In this branch of manufacture, as in every other, organized industry will accomplish results to which individual labor can never attain. A hundred years ago, when our mill-made cloths came from England, and cost more than farmers could afford to pay, they wore home-spun, which was neither so handsome nor so good as the imported article; but, since that time, the growing population and the greater demand have caused cloth mills to be built here, greater commercial facilities have placed foreign goods within easy reach, and the house loom has fallen into general disuse.

At present, the manufacture of draining tiles is confined to a few, widely separated localities, and each manufacturer has, thus far, been able to fix his own scale of charges. These, and the cost of transportation to distant points, make it difficult, if not impossible, for many farmers to procure tiles at a cost low enough to justify their use. In such cases, small works, to supply local demand, may enable many persons to drain with tiles, who, otherwise, would find it impossible to procure them cheaply enough for economical use; and the extension of under-draining, causing a more general acquaintance with its advantages, would create a sufficient demand to induce an increase of the manufacture of tiles, and a consequent reduction of price.