IN setting out spaces for decoration the chief aim should be to get them in harmonic proportion. The Greeks were the great masters of this art, the most subtle proportions being chosen by them, but there is not space here to enter into refinements. Roughly speaking, the proportion of 1¾ to 1 is fairly agreeable; when the space required approaches a double square, it looks better if it somewhat exceeds or falls short of that figure. As a rule, a marked preponderance in the height or length should be given to every oblong used in decoration, and with those rough rules, an educated eye can mostly, after a few trials, obtain harmonious proportions. Those forms about which there is an uncertainty always look feeble and unsatisfactory, e.g. an oblong that approaches the square, or an ellipse that approaches a circle. In the case of the square there should be no doubt about its being a square, so it is necessary that the ornamentation chosen be calculated to emphasize the shape and not give it the appearance of an oblong, i.e. the ornament should be symmetrical on both the axes, and it is often useful to accentuate the corners as well; if the square be surrounded by a border it is sometimes advisable to strengthen its corners by knees. If this be done it is necessary to have them at the four corners; if they be applied to the two upper or the two under corners, the square will be taken for an oblong. The repetition of squares is much more endurable than a repetition of similar oblongs. A common case of the monotonous effect of similar oblong panels is to be seen in a four-panelled door with the middle rail in the centre, so the middle rail is commonly put below the centre to get variety in the panels. Even in so graceful a form as the human figure, sculptors rarely represent it in a perfectly symmetrical attitude, particularly in bas-relief, unless it be to express some marked emotion, or for the sake of the composition; there are, however, a few figures in front view, symmetrically arranged, that form the centres of ornamental compositions: the front view of animals in bas-relief is still less admissible. The circle is by far the most beautiful and useful closed curve, but it is not always available, as in the case of a central feature in a very long ceiling or in oblong panels, and its place must be then supplied by an ellipse, which has this merit, that its proportions are infinite, the straight line and the circle being only extreme cases of the ellipse; but when the choice is unfettered the long (major) axis should so far exceed the short (minor) as to afford a contrast; an ellipse that differs but slightly from the circle too much resembles one that is ill-drawn. When an ellipse is placed with the long axis vertical, which is sometimes necessary in oblong panels, looking-glasses, &c., it should be tied to the vertical and horizontal framework to prevent an

appearance of instability, and when this cannot be done it should be supported by foliage.

In horizontally dividing objects circular in plan and curved in section, such as vases, with lines or bands, several things have to be considered. The lines themselves have a strengthening effect, but the question is where they are best applied: if the curves of the object vary considerably, the points at which the variations begin are the proper places, and in this case, as in all others, variety and the predominance of one division are to be adopted; if, however, the vase

is to be decorated, the predominant space for the most important decoration must be placed where the curve is nearly uniform, or else the ornament will be distorted. The Greek painted vases, with a few exceptions, are the best examples of excellence in their divisions (Figs. 90 and 91). Due consideration must also be given to the placing of the vase; some of the Greek vases, intended to stand on the ground, have the main ornament confined to the shoulder.

In the division of objects in the round, it is a general rule that they should not be divided in the middle, but that the upper or under part should be distinctly predominant, and that the two parts should be different. There is, however, an exception to this rule, for when certain objects are wanted to be symmetrical on their horizontal axes, the upper and under forms should then be identical, e.g. in the case of certain vases, candlesticks, and balusters.

In the case of ornamental objects whose outline is a matter of taste, such as finger-plates, care must be taken that they neither have a weak outline wholly made up of curves, like A, nor one that is too angular, like B; the design C seems to obviate both these defects (Fig. 94).

Compositions wholly formed of parallel straight lines, such as entablatures, and some door and window architraves, have a severity, that borders upon the monotonous, that is sometimes called dryness. The Greeks corrected this defect in their entablatures by introducing figures in the frieze, while the Romans mostly ornamented their friezes with festoons and foliage. In the door architrave at the Erechtheum circular paterÆ are used on the fascia for this reason (Fig. 96); modern ornamentalists have introduced curved figures to correct the dryness. Archivolts to circular openings without imposts, and not enclosed by straight lines, lack firmness and rigidity, which may be imparted by inserting frets or flutes radiating from the centre, on the fascia of the archivolt (Fig. 95). Similar devices may be employed to correct weakness in planes of varied outline. In the shield of the savage (Fig. 97), made of black and yellow cane ornamented with cut shells, the two horizontal bands, just below the junction of the semicircles with the straight lines, strengthen the composition; there is a fair amount of contrast between the oblique lines of the ornaments, and the circular, slanting, and horizontal lines; though the circular cut shell-work of the ends is excessive and monotonous. Extreme repetition is a common fault of savage art.

When a surface requires ornament and yet to be kept flat, the painted or inlaid ornament upon it should not be shaded nor have cast shadows, or when carved it should be sunk: what beauty can be got by flat colours may be seen in the tiles from Rhodes, Cairo, and Damascus. On large surfaces the best forms of applying ornaments is within lines of checkers, network (Figs. 98 and 99), or diapers, and except in the case of very large surfaces, where striking variety may be introduced at set intervals, the ornament should be uniform in general

effect, leaving the varieties to be discovered by closer inspection. One of the best examples of this, though it is not in diapers, is in the Medici Chapel at Florence. Michael Angelo enriched a string there with copies of antique masks; in looking at the sides of the chapel the masks seem all alike, but on going near them, each one is seen to be different. Innumerable examples of ornament within network, checkers, and diapers, maybe found in Saracenic, Moresque, Gothic, and Renaissance work.

To adopt forms directly from nature for the shape of any article of use is rarely successful, though the best shapes have mostly been suggested by natural forms. The Orientals, especially those of the extreme East, have been very fond of this direct imitation, as in vessels made in imitation of a piece of bamboo, of gourds with both single and double bulbs, of eggs, cocoanuts, the horns and hoofs of animals including the horn of the rhinoceros, of shells, flowers, &c., but they mostly want stands or feet, which partly removes them from pure realism, except in the case of the bamboo, the form of which too is not particularly beautiful. When the ancient traditions had died out in England, and the proper application of ornament

to articles of use was unknown, it occurred to many that such objects might be directly imitated from nature. Sprays of fuchsia with a large flower on each were used for curtain hooks; branches of plants were used for gas brackets with the flame coming from the flower; and vases made in imitation of the blossom of the arum. Sometimes nature itself was not vast enough for imitation; earthenware bowls and wine-coolers were made in imitation of wickerwork, gold brooches in imitation of twisted bread, and other adaptations were made that were equally incongruous. It is true that the Japanese sometimes protect their porcelain with an outer covering of woven cane, and wicker-covered bottles are not unknown here. The Kafirs, too, carry their milk in woven baskets; yet in spite of these cases, there is an apparent absurdity in such designs, not to speak of the poverty of invention they betray.

Such vagaries are happily disappearing, since the creation of museums and schools of ornamental art, but they are by no means extinct.

Every article, whether for use or ornament, should first be constructed as elegantly as possible for its purpose, or supposed purpose; and only be ornamented when the ornament does not appear incongruous, and does not interfere with its use, but only emphasizes its form or relieves it from monotony. Although this chapter is mainly confined to outlines and divisions of surfaces, something has been said about the application of ornament, so it may be remarked that the lower part of a wall should be treated with more severity and sobriety than the upper part; for the lower part is partly hidden by furniture, and is most liable to injury. The Romans and Byzantines mostly used marble for the lower parts of walls in magnificent buildings, though in houses of less magnificence marble was either imitated by painting, or else simple floral decoration was used. The Saracens also employed marble, but when that was not easy to obtain, tiles took its place. The MediÆvals used marble, wood panelling, or tapestry, and when the walls were wholly painted, they often imitated the more costly materials. Geometrical figures or diapers are most appropriate for this part, when it is painted or papered. The part of the wall above this may be treated with greater freedom and elaboration. The part of the wall on a level with the eye should have greater finish bestowed on it, unless there be a frieze with figures or a higher class of ornament to a larger scale.