THE laws of composition in ornament are deduced from nature, but we must look to works of art for their proper application.

The laws that may be deduced are numberless, but the principal ones may be given as follows:—

Geometrical Arrangement, Proportion, Stability, Repetition, Contrast, Symmetry, Radiation, Tangential Junction, Repose, Variety, Subordination, Balance, Unity, Series, Growth, Superposition, Fitness. Some of these are preliminary laws; e.g. we cannot have ornament without some geometrical arrangement, even spots in a line must be set out at regular distances, or with a recurring element of irregularity; and as every plant and part of it are set out on a geometrical basis, we cannot have good floral ornament without such an arrangement. The same may be said of the setting out of the more complex schemes of ornament, and besides this framework, a whole class of ornament depends on geometrical arrangement. There must be harmonic proportion between the parts of the ornament, as well as between the enrichment and the ground, to make ornament pleasing; this last element of proportion is generally called even distribution, and is found in all good work; at the same time it admits of a variety of treatment: in some Indian, Chinese, and Saracenic ornament it is painfully monotonous, while in good Roman and Renaissance work, though the law is observed, there is such variety and contrast, that it never becomes tiresome. Ornament to be satisfactory must have Stability, and not look as if it would fall down. After these preliminaries, Repetition may be looked on as the first law; as anything repeated forms elementary ornament. Contrast comes next, as the mere alternation of upright and horizontal lines form a contrasted ornament " —— " —— " —— " Symmetry perhaps comes next, and is the repetition of any form on its axis; even the rudest blot so doubled makes ornament. Radiation alone is the basis of much ornament, and directly we get as far as the scroll, we must have tangential junction, for broken-backed curves are hardly ornament. Next comes Repose: any decoration that seems to crawl is not pleasing but distressing. As we advance we want Variety and Subordination. An unsymmetrical ornament generally requires Balance; Unity is necessary in any complex system. Series adds a new element by the repetition at stated intervals of a succession of different objects, or of similar ones of increasing or decreasing size. Growth gives us one of the most vigorous and delightful elements in nature, and Superposition may be looked on as the last addition to ornament yet made by man; while Fitness may be said to include all before-mentioned and more.

The descriptions just given will serve for the definition of some of the laws, but others require further explanation.

Proportion, by which “harmonic proportion” is meant, applies also to the architectural features of a design, and is indispensable in designing borders, composed of lines or mouldings, and in panels. The width of such border, or series of mouldings, should be a proportionate part of the narrowest width of the space or panel. There are certain distances between lines that are more pleasing than others, and as a rule, one space should preponderate. In mouldings the same thing is true, but in addition to the spaces, there are the projections and contours to be studied. The study of Greek profiles (Figs. C and D, p. 15) is most valuable, though Greek mouldings are unsuitable for external work in this climate. The methods of proportioning cornices given in Vitruvius are useful (the application of proportion to surfaces will be found at Chap. IV.).

Stability.—Instability is mostly found in creeping or twining plants, put vertically, and not attached to a central stem, or to the framework of the panel; also to bulky forms put on slight ones, that from their size seem unable to support the weight. We know from experience that trunks of trees support the enormous mass of branches and foliage above them by their solidity, and bear the strain of winds by their strength and the spread and tenacity of their roots. In the rare case in which such an arrangement is wanted in ornament, we must resort to some device, such as difference of texture between the supports and the mass above, to indicate superior supporting power.

Repetition is the first method by which things were turned into ornament, but if it be carried too far it produces monotony; this may be seen in a long succession of similar windows in factories, and the endless rows of iron railings to parks. A little more thought would put in proper places a larger or more ornate window; and in the case of railings would afford a larger and more important post or a group of them: this infusion of Variety would correct the monotonous appearance, and greatly add to the pleasure of the beholders. The ornaments on mouldings, patterns in checkers, net-work, or diapers may be repeated up to a certain point without being tiresome, but symbolic and distinguishing forms must, as a rule, be used sparingly. One human figure is mostly enough in an ornamental panel, because the figure absorbs the attention, though cupids or very young children may be repeated; the former are imaginary creatures, and the latter sportive ones, but even these should be so arranged as to compose with the foliage, which should be an open screen they are seen playing through. The difficulty of preventing even cupids from absorbing all interest, was probably the cause of the ancients so often making them half-floral.

Contrast in form or colour imparts vigour to the composition; the commonest illustration of contrast in form is the circle and the straight line, but more subtle contrasts are found in Nature’s works, very flat curves being contrasted with sharp ones; and in colour, besides the contrasts of the leaves and flowers, there are often spots of contrasting colour on flowers to heighten their brilliancy, though this is mostly effected by the pistils and stamens. The “egg and tongue,” one of the most effective ornaments invented, has the smooth curved eggs contrasted with the thin lines of the shells, and the curved eggs with the straight edge of the tongue. (Fig. 67.) Renaissance and Roman ornament (see Fig. 129) give the amplest illustrations of contrast; varieties of foliage contrasting with vases, labels, shields, armour, masks, animals, and human figures. (See Figs. 121, 123, 124, 126, 127, 130, 132, and Frontispiece.)

Symmetry has been defined before as the mere doubling of a form on its axis; it is one of the most important means of producing ornament, as well as one of the laws most commonly found in nature. Nothing in nature, however, is absolutely symmetrical, though there is a suggestion of symmetry about the bulk of its works.

Radiation is the spreading out of lines from a point, like a fan, and these lines may be straight or curved, and the axis of the radiating lines may be vertical, horizontal, or oblique. It is found in the human hand, in the wing feathers of birds, in the scallop and similar bivalve shells, in the umbels of flowers, and in much other plant growth. The Greek honeysuckle is the most beautiful instance of its adaptation as ornament. (See Figs. 49, 50, 51, 52 and 115.) If the centre of the radiating lines is kept below the springing line, it adds greatly to the interest and beauty of the ornament. A succession of festoons or of drapery hanging from two points are examples of one species of curved radiation.

Tangential Junction.—Euclid’s definition of a tangent is as follows:—“A straight line is said to touch a circle, when it meets the circle, and being produced does not cut it,” and is obtained by drawing a line perpendicular to any radius from the point at which it touches the circumference. In ornament, tangential junction means that where two curves of opposite curvature meet they are to meet at the tangential points of each (Fig. 25), and in the case of a curve being continued by a straight line, the point of junction is the tangential point. A curve, however, should never be continued by a straight line, but by a flatter curve. The beauty imparted by following this rule is seen in the Ionic capitals of the Temple of Apollo at BassÆ, where the two volutes are joined by a curve instead of by the usual straight line (see Fig. 179 in Appendix).

Repose.—The absence of a look of motion in ornament; this appearance of motion may be seen in some flamboyant tracery and Saracenic patterns, in some modern paper-hangings, and in patterns in woven and printed stuffs. The word repose is sometimes used to denote an absence of spottiness. In the best pilaster panels, horizontal lines are introduced partly for contrast, and partly to give repose by checking the appearance of motion in the curved plant forms. (Fig. 127.)

Variety is a difference of form or arrangement in the ornament from that which immediately precedes or follows it. In nature we see that every leaf varies from every other by subtle differences, though the foliage is roughly alike, and it is for this reason that Nature’s works never pall upon us. General similarity with slight variety is the most proper for the highest and most dignified ornament. In other cases absolute variety is permissible. Variety is the salt of ornament that takes off the insipidity of repetition.

Subordination.—The state of being inferior to another, a regular descending series. In any complex system of ornament, one part should be chosen as the most important, and all the rest should lead up to it; but certain distinct parts, such as masses or flowers, may re-echo in a fainter way the main motive. In drawing, subordination is obtained by the principal mass being larger than the rest, and by its details being larger and more pronounced; in painting, by the above and by the principal part being more vivid in colour; in modelling, by greater size and relief. The Romans and Cinque Cento artists were great masters of this art. In some panels, though the highest relief is not great, there is an infinity of gradation, the lowest relief gradually sinking into the ground. In a Renaissance bas-relief of a full face the greatest projection is about the sixteenth of an inch, and yet the face is perfectly modelled. Modern English carved ornament is too frequently deficient in this quality.

Balance.—The making unsymmetrical masses of equal weight. In the creations of nature we see balance employed in trees, shrubs, and plants (Fig. 160); in leaves, made as it were on a symmetrical basis, balance is equally employed. In simple oval leaves, for example, one side is more convex than the other, and the balance is got by the curve in the rib.

Unity is the completeness of any system of ornament not marred by incongruous elements or forms.

Series is the repetition of a limited succession of different forms: in the egg and tongue, of two; in the bead and reel, of three; in branches of plants when the leaves regularly diminish in size, of many. Fig. 67.) Long series may be seen in Saracenic ornament, where the same text is repeated sometimes with ornament between the texts.

Growth.—This is at once the rarest and most delightful of the hints taken from nature by great ornamentalists. In climbing plants, whose stalks are polygonal, and that twist to reach an object, or for the flowers to get the sun, the edges of the stalk are seen to form a spiral. Sometimes this vigour of growth is seen in the turn of a leaf or the clasp of a tendril round a twig. The capitals and the tripod stand of the choragic monument of Lysikrates are good examples. (Figs. 53 and 54.)

Superposition.—This is most frequently seen in Saracenic ornament, but it is also found in Renaissance ornament. The simplest form is in the case of meanders of different curvature when one is put over the other, the upper one being more vigorous in form and colour. The next case is where larger ornaments of a more striking colour are put over a smaller and less obtrusive pattern, as in the Persian windows of the Suleimanyeh at Constantinople; but the commonest case is that of inscriptions over floral ornament, examples of which are without number in Saracenic work. This, like nearly all other inventions in ornament, is taken from nature. We see twining or creeping plants overgrowing trees or bushes, and parasitical plants overgrowing others, from which they get their sustenance, and have therefore roots, stems, and flowers, but no leaves. Saracenic diapers frequently have many planes superposed, and as each pattern is differently coloured and gilt, any change of position in the beholder brings out a new pattern. This may be seen in the Alhambra Court at the Crystal Palace. Fig. 101.)

Fitness, in its most obvious sense, is arranging the ornament so that it may not interfere with the proper use of the thing ornamented. The enrichment of a sword-hilt must not hurt the hand, nor render the proper wielding of the sword difficult or impossible; and the same canon applies to the handles of flagons, jugs, or drinking vessels, &c.; in a secondary sense it is a due consideration of the qualities of the material to be ornamented, and of the appropriateness of the ornament to the purpose for which the article is intended; and thirdly, it supposes a well-ordered design, whose completeness would be marred by anything being added or removed.

The want of what is called “alternation” in design is analogous to a surface that is so elaborately decorated with a uniform repeating pattern that it is wearisome to look at.

The value of plain spaces in design is enormous. Charles Lamb, in one of his delightful letters to Coleridge, says in finishing—“I will leave you, in mercy, one small white spot empty below, to repose your eyes upon, fatigued as they must be with the wilderness of words they have by this time painfully travelled through.” To the designer this analogy will be obvious and useful.

Plain spaces as alternations in design, are the oases in the desert, and may be compared to a refreshing silence after a continuous chatter or deafening noise.

It is easier to do too much than to know exactly where to stop. Excess of ornament defeats its own end, there is no foil to set it off, and it must be guarded against. The Saracens, by the relative weight of their ornament, have to some extent obviated this objection. To know the value of plainness is to enhance the ornament used. To have this vividly brought home to you, the best Greek architecture should be compared with late Roman. In the Greek you see a very small quantity of exquisite ornament surrounded by plainness, which makes it doubly precious; in late Roman, every surface is covered without a spot to rest the eye on, so that the whole becomes dull, confused, and monotonous.