The word mosaic is applied generally to a decorative work executed with small cubes or tesserÆ made from various coloured marbles or enamels, cut into convenient sizes according to the requirements or scale of the design.

These cubes of enamels or marbles are placed in a bed of cement which is first spread on the surface of the wall or panel. The composition of this cement has varied in the different periods and countries and according to the nature of the ground which receives it.

The Italian method is to spread on the wall a thick coating of mastic cement composed of marble dust or powdered stone, lime, and linseed oil; when this cement is partly set a coating of fine plaster is laid on the top and brought up to the level of the intended surface of the mosaic; the design is traced on this surface, and the plaster is then cut away with a fine small chisel, little by little, just sufficient at a time to receive a small quantity of the tesserÆ or cubes, which are first dipped in moist cement and inserted in their proper places, matching the colour copied from the cartoon. When the work is finished the surface is brought to a uniform level by a polishing process.

Some of the earlier kinds of mosaic were composed of pieces of marble or other stones cut in geometric slabs or rectangular shapes; this kind was called by the Romans lithostratum, and was used chiefly in pavements; opus sectile is a kind of pavement mosaic made of different colours, the marbles being cut into small regular portions; opus tesselatum is a variety of the opus sextile, but has its component parts made of geometric forms in which straight and parallel lines predominate in the design; and opus vermiculatum has its tesserÆ composed of small cubes or bits of enamel (glass mosaic), terra-cotta, or marble, which are cut into all kinds of shapes, so as to form a more pliant or softer contour to the proposed design. This latter variety is used in picture mosaics and in the goldsmiths’ work and jewellery made at the present time in Rome and Venice.

Another kind of mosaic used in pavement is that known as opus Alexandrinum. Large slabs of different coloured marbles have been used as floor pavements and as wall linings, both on the exterior and in the interior of churches and other buildings in Italy and elsewhere. Most of this work is of a geometric pattern; the different pieces of stone, marble, terra-cotta, or enamel, being cut into exact shapes to fit a preconceived pattern, form a species of inlay, and do not therefore come under the head of a true mosaic. Coloured marbles and precious stones have been used in the decoration of furniture by the Italians and French, which is known by the name of “Florentine mosaic,” or “pietra dura.”

A species of mosaic work resembling enamels in appearance was executed by the Egyptians, a method in which stones and coloured pastes were cut to fit into metal shapes, as may be seen in the pectoral ornaments and diadems (see Figs. 142, 143, former volume).

In the Museum of Turin there is an Egyptian sarcophagus inlaid with precious stones, but it can hardly be called true mosaic work.

The Greeks were very skilful in mosaic, and were doubtless the inventors of the enamels used by themselves and by the Romans afterwards under the name of musivum—from whence the word mosaic is derived. The Italians called these enamels smalto or smalts.

Nearly all the remains of antique mosaic that have been preserved to our days have been executed in Italy or in countries that were under the Roman sway, but usually the work has been done by Greek artists or under Grecian influence.

Pliny mentions the name of Sosus, a Greek artist, who came to Italy to execute mosaics. To this artist is ascribed the celebrated mosaic of the doves perched on the rim of a basin—Cantharos—one of which is drinking from the water in the vessel. This mosaic is now in the Capitol at Rome, and came originally from the Villa of Hadrian. It is related by Pliny that Sosus made a floor in mosaic decorated with fragments of a repast, such as realistic representations of the remains of bones, vegetables, fish, a mouse gnawing at a nut, &c.

Great pavements, with all kinds of animated figures, both realistic and fanciful, representing combats of animals, fighting gladiators, circus and hunting scenes, with the figures sometimes of life size, in combination with allegorical subjects, tritons, nereids, and other marine deities, were common in the antique period in Italy.

These great pavements were usually found enclosed in frames or borders composed of ornament, or of smaller designs of birds, fishes, and marine animals. The borders, however, are often modern work, and are generally restorations or additions. Besides being found at Rome and other places in Italy, these large Roman mosaics have been found at almost every place that was formerly a Roman province.

Many good examples have been discovered in France, chiefly in the Basses-PyrÉnÉes, and in England, at Woodchester, Withington in Gloucestershire, London, and other places (Figs. 286, 287).

The Roman mosaics executed in the provinces were, however, of a ruder kind than those found at Rome and at other places in Italy (Fig. 288).

In the GrÆco-Roman collection at the British Museum may be seen representations of colossal figures in mosaic from Carthage, and a floor pavement 40 feet by 12 feet from Halicarnassos. One of the most important examples of Roman mosaic was found in the seventeenth century in the Temple of Fortune at Palestrina—the ancient Praeneste. It represents landscape scenes placed in superimposed sections, through which runs a river, supposed by some authorities to represent the mouth of the Nile; islands are represented on which are monuments, temples, trees, farms, climbing plants, animals, and figures engaged in agricultural and hunting pursuits. The animals depicted are chiefly those which are native to Egypt; besides these there are some fantastic creatures represented common to the mythology of that country, as well as to Greece and Rome; the inscriptions and names of the animals are rendered in Greek characters, Greek being the official language used at that period in Egypt and at the Court in Rome, as well as being the native language of the artists who executed the work. All this goes to strengthen the opinion formed by the AbbÉ BarthÉlemy, in opposition to others, that this great mosaic picture represents the voyage of the Emperor Hadrian on the Upper Nile, through Egypt, to the Elephantine Island.

Mosaic pavements with subjects of combats of lions and bulls in a savage landscape, executed in the same manner as the Palestrina mosaic, have been found at Pompeii in the ruins of Hadrian’s Villa, a building which he had constructed in imitation of the various styles of architecture of the different countries which he had visited.

A celebrated mosaic, of a much higher and earlier order of art, is the representation of the Battle of Arbela, or Issus, now preserved in the Naples Museum. This battle was fought between the Greek and Persian forces in the year 331 (B.C.), in which Alexander the Great was victorious over Darius the Persian. Alexander is represented on horseback in the act of throwing his lance at a Persian satrap; horsemen, chariots, and foot soldiers are all represented with great vigour and in correct drawing; the whole composition is excellent, and represents the Greek army in the decisive moment of victory.

This great work was found in the House of the Faun at Pompeii in the year 1830, and is immeasurably superior to anything of its kind hitherto found in that buried city. It has, no doubt, been a copy in mosaic of a picture or fresco painted by a Greek artist. Important portions of the work are missing, but enough remains to testify to the beauty and greatness of this monument of Grecian art. Fig. 289 represents the head of a Persian soldier in the mosaic.

A border was found with this work which represents a river with alligators, hippopotami, aquatic birds, and river plants, all disposed in a careless manner; this border is evidently a later Roman addition to the work.

Another antique mosaic picture in the Museum at Naples is the seated figure of the tragic poet found in a house at Pompeii.

Fountains, columns, dados, wall panels, as well as floor decorations, were common objects of mosaic treatment with the Romans, and many houses of the better classes at Pompeii have been lavishly decorated with this imperishable material. A singular peculiarity was the almost exclusive representation of the human figure on floors, while the wall spaces only received ornamental compositions.

It appears from this that the Romans never thoroughly understood the true value of mosaic as a means of architectural decoration, and it was not until about the fourth century of our era that the walls and vaults of churches at Rome were treated with pictorial mosaic. For a long time in Italy the character of the design was strongly influenced by the old classic traditions, which impregnated the germs of the early Christian art of the catacombs of S. Calixtus and S. Agnese (see Figs. 332, 333, former vol.). This influence hardly ever passed away from the works of Italian artists, for down to the sixteenth century there has been many examples of church decoration in which a mixture of Pagan and Christian elements are found.

The remaining mosaics of the central cupola in the church of S. Constance at Rome consist of a Pagan composition—the “Triumph of Bacchus”—worked out in the Roman style, and another vaulted compartment in the same church has a mosaic decoration consisting of a vine spreading over the whole surface, amongst the branches and leaves of which are children gathering the grapes. At two of the sides are grape-laden waggons drawn by oxen, and figures pressing out the grape juice in the vats. From the subjects of the mosaics in this building it was formerly thought to be a temple of Bacchus; but as the vine is one of the commonest symbols of the Christian faith, and as a mixture of Christian and Pagan elements was a very common occurrence in the age of Constantine, there is no hesitation in describing these mosaics, and the church itself, as early Christian work.

A very important mosaic of the fourth century still exists in the apse of the Church of S. Pudentia at Rome. The design is not altered from the original, but much of the work has been restored at different times.

A colossal figure of Christ is enthroned in the centre of a composition which has an architectural background of temples and churches. St. Peter and St. Paul are represented on either side of the central figure, with other sacred personages, and above in the clouds float the sacred emblems of the Evangelists.

After Constantine removed the seat of his empire from Rome to Byzantium (330) mosaic decoration was used in many of the Eastern churches in Macedonia and other places in the Byzantine empire, but it was not until the sixth century that the decided Byzantine Greek style was developed in mosaic work—notably in the mosaics of the great church of Santa Sophia. During the fifth century at Rome, and more especially at Ravenna, the basilicas and Christian churches were decorated on the vaulted ceilings, walls, arches, and spandrels with mosaics, of which the general design and ornamental details were still strongly influenced with the spirit of the antique; but although these works retained much of the dignity pertaining to the latter, they were gradually losing the correctness of drawing which had characterised the mosaics of the fourth century.

In the chapter on Early Christian Architecture, in the former volume of this work, pages 288-300, we have drawn attention to some of these mosaics.

The church of Santa Sophia was burned down in 533, and the rebuilding of it was finished and the church consecrated in 559. Much of the interior was shortly afterwards covered with mosaic decoration. Near the summit of the cupola was a colossal figure of Christ enthroned, with his arm raised upwards in the act of blessing; below the sacred figure were ranged the Apostles, and in the lower pendentives were groups of people. In the chancel below is a figure of the Virgin enthroned, with the Infant Christ standing on her knees; in the great niches are figures of martyrs and bishops, and in the spaces above the pillars figures of the prophets.

On the walls of the narthex, Christ is represented seated on a throne, the crowned figure of Justinian prostrate at his feet, and on the gold background are the heads of the Virgin and St. Michael. In colour the mosaics are sober and refined, the expressions and attitudes of the figures solemn, and often beautiful; the costumes follow the style of the antique.

According to Salzenberg, who published his great work on Santa Sophia at Berlin in the year 1854, the colouring of the draperies of Christ and his Apostles is white, the Virgin has blue robes, and the other figures of prophets, angels, and martyrs are in varied colouring. The shades of the folds in the draperies are expressed by quiet blues and greens, the lights being heightened by silver markings. All the mosaics have a ground of gold, and bands of gold enrich the garments of Christ. Although many of the great mosaics of this church belong to the sixth century, some of them are, however, works of a later period. Among other arts, Justinian encouraged mosaic decoration in the highest degree, and is said to have ornamented the palace of his capital with mosaic pictures representing the victories of his armies.

Some famous mosaics were executed during the sixth century at Ravenna, notably in the basilicas of S. Apollinare-Nuovo, S. Apollinare-in-Classe, and S. Vitale; in the former there is a fine mosaic, the subject being the Kiss of Judas, and a group of figures where Pontius Pilate is represented washing his hands after the trial of Christ, both of which works again show the antique influence.

In the beautiful basilica of S. Apollinare-in-Classe the figure of Christ is represented standing and blessing with uplifted hands, surrounded by the symbols of the Evangelists and a flock of sheep; the angels Gabriel and Michael and the Transfiguration are also represented.

The Church of S. Vitale, which was built somewhat after the model of Santa Sophia, has the celebrated mosaics representing processions in state of the Emperor Justinian and the Empress Theodora, who presided at the dedication of the church. The dresses of the principal personages in these mosaics are richly decorated with Byzantine geometric patterns, figured embroidery, and jewellery. In the apse of the church is the celebrated youthful figure of Christ, who is represented without a beard; it is remarkable for its benign expression and softness of its adolescent beauty. The mosaics of S. Vitale are distinctly Greek in character, unlike those of the two former churches, which were executed by Roman mosaicists brought from Italy to Ravenna by Theodoric the Ostrogoth in the early years of the sixth century.

The seventh century was almost barren in mosaic works, and the eighth century does not seem to have produced more than a few tentative efforts, mainly in countries outside Italy.

It is related that Adrian I., who was Pope between the years 772-795, gave permission to Charlemagne to remove several mosaics from churches at Ravenna, the materials of which were used in the decoration of the dome of his chapel at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle). These mosaics were destroyed by fires in the years 1656 and 1730. Some drawings of them were made before the second fire by Ciampini, and published by him at Rome in 1699. These works were not, however, of any great artistic value. The art of the mosaicist was fast becoming only a caricature of its former self, for the work of the ninth century was characterized by exceedingly bad drawing and savage colouring. Uninviting and even terrible representations of Christ, of the Virgin, angels, martyrs, and prophets were only too common. It may be said with good reason that in Rome and in the West during the ninth century, that the zenith of ugliness had been attained in the design of mosaics, and in place of the careful grouping and correct drawing of the works of the fourth to the sixth century we have instead figures of great dimensions and multiplication of attributes.

At the time we speak of there was not this decadence of art in the Eastern Empire, for many fine mosaics were executed to the order of Basil the Macedonian (867-886), under whose protection art generally was much encouraged. Some of the mosaics of Santa Sophia and of other churches and palaces at Constantinople were executed during this period.

However, from the tenth to the twelfth centuries the art of mosaic decoration, with a few notable exceptions, was in a slow state of decadence in the East, but the old Greek artistic spirit broke in other and in new directions, as we have witnessed in the wealth of Byzantine enamels, carved ivories, bas-reliefs, repoussÉ work, miniatures, and illuminated manuscripts.

In the eleventh century some fine mosaic floors were executed in France. Examples of this date were found in the old churches of Sordes in the Department of Landes, and of Lescar in the Basses-PyrÉnÉes. Some of these pavements have ornamental compositions of geometrical interlacings and conventional foliage, and others have hunting scenes in which animals, figures, and birds are treated flatly, after the Persian or Oriental manner of inlaid work or like textile designs.

In the thirteenth century towards the latter end, in the dawn of the Renaissance, design in mosaic began to feel the reviving influence in common with all Italian art. In the mosaics of this century executed at Rome we see something of the poetry and dignity which belonged to the great works of the fifth century. This turning-point was in a great measure due to the influence of Cimabue, the founder of Italian painting (1240-1300), who was then a great personality in Italian art.

The most important mosaics of this period in Italy were those which decorate the tribune of the basilica of St. John Lateran at Rome, executed by Jacobus Toriti between the years 1287 and 1292, and those of the tribune of S. Maria Maggiore in Rome, executed also by Toriti during the last few years of the thirteenth century and finished about 1302.

The design of the former mosaics is simple in arrangement. On a gold ground, symmetrically arranged, are the figures of six saints and Apostles, with smaller figures of St. Francis and St. Anthony of Padua advancing towards a central cross, from underneath which flows the four rivers of Paradise into the Jordan beneath. Above is the celebrated head of Christ, the face having a benign expression. This was formerly supposed to be of an older creation, but it is quite likely to have been designed by Toriti. The head is surrounded by a plain gold nimbus, and around and above it, on a blue ground with clouds, is a glory of angels in the form of an arc. Below this, on the wall of the tribune, between pointed window openings, Christ and the Apostles are represented on a smaller scale.

In the tribune of S. Maria Maggiore the design is grander and more decorative than the St. John Lateran mosaics, and indeed ranks as the finest work of art of its period. In a large central medallion of the apse Christ and the Virgin are enthroned, Christ being represented in the act of crowning the Virgin. A crowd of angels are on either side and at the lower parts of the medallion. The ground of the latter is blue, sown with golden stars; beyond, on either side of the adoring angels, are the upright figures of Apostles and saints on a gold ground, and above them, filling the upper surrounding space, are conventional vines in whose scrolly branches birds of various kinds are found. Below this composition the River Jordan is represented, and the walls of the tribune are occupied with small compositions representing scenes in the life of Christ. In the loggia of the same church are a series of well-designed mosaics inscribed with the name of the artist who designed them—Philippus Rusuti—who is not known with certainty to have executed any other work. They had been formerly ascribed to the Florentine mosaicist Gaddo Gaddi, a friend of Cimabue; he died in 1312.

Gaddi, according to Vasari, had been invited to Rome to complete the unfinished mosaics of Toriti at the Church of S. Maria Maggiore after the death of the latter artist, and he occupied himself with the storied mosaics representing the foundation of that church in a series of four compositions. It is still, however, a matter of doubt as to how much of these mosaics belong to the hand of Rusuti or Gaddi. The latter artist executed some subjects in the dome of the Baptistery at Florence, in the Cathedral of Pisa, and the mosaics which decorate the inner lunette in the portal of the Cathedral at Florence.

Gaddi followed the style and aims of Cimabue; his work was poetic in conception, and in his execution he leaned to the Byzantine methods, but in drawing and composition he was greatly excelled by the Roman mosaicist Toriti.

The celebrated Roman family of the Cosmati were excellent mosaicists. Giovanni Cosmato, son of the elder artist of that name, executed some fine work on the tomb of Gonsalo Roderigo in the Church of S. Maria Maggiore, and on monuments in S. Maria sopra Minerva. A variety of mosaic was much used in Italy at different times, the earliest dating from the sixth century, which consisted in decorating pulpits, screens, and small altars with a geometric inlay of small squares and lozenges of gold and coloured tesserÆ which were inserted into grooves of white marble (Fig. 290).

About the year 1351, Pietro Cavallini, a native of Rome and a supposed pupil of the painter Giotto, was commissioned to execute some mosaics in the Church of S. Maria Transtevere at Rome. The design and style of these works were strongly influenced if not partly copied from the frescoes of Giotto in the Arena Chapel at Padua.

Cavallini also executed in mosaic the celebrated Navicella, from the design by Giotto, which decorates the vestibule of the old basilica church of St. Peter’s at Rome. This work represents a ship in which the Apostles are seen, and Christ and Peter are figured walking on the sea.

With the exception of a few notable works in St. Peter’s at Rome, in St. Mark’s at Venice, some unfinished work of Domenico Ghirlandaio (1449-95), and the work of Pesselli in the Church of Or-San-Michele at Florence (1416), the fifteenth century was not a prosperous period for mosaic. This is accounted for by the rapid development of the Italian schools of painting, which advanced during this century with incredible swiftness, and as painting advanced, mosaic decoration retreated before its more popular rival. The mosaicist had to make room for the fresco painter, who soon became the successful competitor of the former in the work of church decoration.

Regarding the mosaics of St. Mark’s at Venice, it may be stated that they date from the eleventh century to the nineteenth.

The interior of this church is richly decorated on the vaults and upper parts of the walls with mosaics on grounds of gold, the other parts are covered with various rich marbles, and the floor is mosaic designed in the Byzantine style. In the twelfth century the principal apse, the cupola of the choir, and some of the chapels were decorated in mosaic. The great central cupola has mosaics of the eleventh century representing the Virtues, and twelfth-century work with the subjects of the “Virgin with Angels and Apostles,” the “Evangelists,” &c. To the same century belong the mosaics in the cupola of the choir, consisting of the figures of Christ, the Virgin, David and Solomon, and symbols of the Evangelists; the figure of St. Clement in the vault of the terminal chapel of St. Clement is ascribed to the twelfth century, and the mosaics of this chapel representing the life of the saint are thirteenth-century work.

The most important mosaic of the latter century in St. Mark’s is that which decorates the faÇade, the subject being “The Dedication of the Church.”

From the remains of the original mosaics which have not been remodelled by the restorers of later times, it has been seen that the work of the above centuries at St. Mark’s kept to the spirit and traditions of the Byzantine school. The work of restoration, however, has been so great in modern times that nearly all the mosaics belonging to a date prior to the sixteenth century have been executed afresh, so it can hardly be said there are any perfect or genuine Byzantine mosaics left.

Those of the sixteenth century in St. Mark’s are more like paintings in their general effect than monumental works for the decoration of the fabric. Pictorial effect and an appeal to the emotional faculties were aimed at by the artists and governing body of the church, rather than simplicity or a feeling for the decorative fitness of the material. The painters Titian, Pordenone, Tintoret, Paul Veronese, and the sculptor and architect Sansovino made designs for the mosaics, and their cartoons were interpreted by mosaicists, the principal of whom were Vicenzo and Domenico Bianchini, the brothers Zuccati, Bozza, Rizzo, GaËtano, &c.

In this century, at Rome, in the cupola of the Chigi Chapel in S. Maria del Popolo, a celebrated mosaic was executed by the Venetian mosaicist Luigi da Pace, from a design by the great painter Raphael. It bears the date 1516, and has for its subject the Creation of the World. The Almighty is represented surrounded by seraphim, and in eight compartments are mythological figures representing the planets. Angel figures of great beauty are seated on the signs of the Zodiac, which occupy the lower parts of the mosaic.

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the principal mosaics executed in Italy were those which decorate the Church of St. Peter’s at Rome. In these periods the Pontifical fabrique or studio for the production of the smalto and for the execution of the mosaics was in a state of activity. The fabrique had various locations in the vicinity of the church from the time of its establishment in 1528, and was finally set up in the Vatican in 1825 by Leo XIII. The most important period in the history of the Pontifical ateliers was during the early half of the eighteenth century, when it was under the direction of Pierre-Paul Cristofari, who was assisted in the production of the variously coloured material by the chemist Mattioli.

The mosaics which cover the cupolas, the altars of the various chapels, the pendentines, tympani, and other spaces, have been executed by mosaicists who were not the designers of the subjects.

This was the general practice in the Renaissance periods. One noteworthy exception to this rule may be noticed in the work of the artist Muziano de Brescia, who executed the mosaics of the Gregorian Chapel at St. Peter’s from his own designs, for which work he received the commission from Pope Gregory XIII. (1572-1585). Muziano was an imitator of Michelangelo, and is best known by his work in mosaic. As a rule the mosaics of St. Peter’s, like all those of the Renaissance period, are not to be compared for dignity and repose with those of the early Christian era, nor did they fulfil the true aim of monumental wall decoration, but sought rather to imitate as closely as possible the finish of oil or fresco painting. The “Transfiguration” after Raphael is not a success as a mosaic. It is believed to have been executed by Cristofari from a drawing enlarged from the original by Stefano Pozzi (1708-1768).

In the great cupola the mosaic has for its subject “The Eternal Father,” surrounded by cherubims. In other compartments are angels in adoration, cherubims, Jesus, Mary, John the Baptist, Paul, the twelve Apostles and their attributes. These mosaics are from designs by the Chevalier d’Arpin (1560-1640), and rank among the best works of their kind in St. Peter’s.

In the present century there has been some noted revivals of mosaic decoration in France and in England.

During the first thirty years of this century a royal manufactory was set up in Paris under the superintendence of Belloni, an Italian artist who came from the Pontifical atelier of Rome. Mosaic work of all kinds was executed at this studio, such as miniatures, pictures, and pietra-dura, or Florentine mosaic, for the encrusted decoration of furniture, as well as important works for pavements, which were designed in the classical style of the period. The principal work of Belloni is the pavement of the “Salle MelpomÈne” in the Louvre. It is a composition divided into five compartments, each having figure subjects, and has an extremely rich border of frets, foliage, and rosettes.

Some fine mosaics of a more recent date are the decorations of the foyer and other parts of the Grand Opera House in Paris, executed from the designs of M. Charles Garnier, the architect of the building, M. de Curzon, and others, by the mosaicists Salviati and Facchina of Venice.

The new cathedrals at Marseilles and Lyons have been recently decorated with mosaics more or less in the style of the Ravenna work of the fifth century, but the principal part of these works consists of ornamental compositions, such as doves with olive-branches, monograms, stars, and borders of romanesque ornament. Some still more recent work is the decoration of the apse of the Pantheon in Paris, from the designs of M. E. HÉbert and the late M. Galland, who furnished the ornamental designs.

In England, during the present half of this century, there hashas been several attempts to popularise mosaic decoration. Full-length figures of the chief ancient and modern sculptors, painters, and architects have been designed by Lord Leighton, Sir E. J. Poynter, E. Armitage, V. Prinsep, W. F. Yeames, F. W. Moody, and others; these have been executed in glass mosaic and in English ceramic mosaic, and form part of the decoration of the South Court in the Kensington Museum.

In the Houses of Parliament a mosaic has been executed from the design, “St. George,” by Sir E. J. Poynter; and other examples are the mosaics on the monument to Prince Albert designed by Sir Gilbert Scott.

But the most important efforts during the last few years are the mosaic decorations in St. Paul’s Cathedral.

From the year 1863 until 1892 the eight spandrels of the dome were filled with mosaics, the subjects being the four Evangelists, designed by Mr. Watts, R.A., and Mr. Brittan, and the four greater Apostles by the late Alfred Stevens. The work of these spandrels was carried out by Dr. Salviati of Venice.

In the spring of 1891 Mr. W. B. Richmond, R.A., undertook the great work of designing the cartoons, and of superintending the mosaic decoration of the eastern end of the cathedral, including the apse, the original sanctuary bay, and the choir.

The central panel in the roof of the apse is occupied with a representation of “Our Lord in Majesty,” seated on a rainbow throne, and clothed in light-coloured robes. The background is composed of a great whirl of wings; the sun and moon are also represented. The panels on either side of this subject contain figures of the recording angels, which are Byzantine in style of design; as the whole of the mosaics are, but perhaps not so much in degree as the figures of these angels. Mr. Richmond had made a special study of the Ravenna mosaics, and was no doubt rightly influenced by the style of design and methods of execution of these early works.

The three saucer domes of the choir have subjects representing respectively the creation of birds, fishes, and animals of the land; and the pendentives of the saucer domes are each filled with figures of angels, their arms being extended, as if in the act of bringing down messages from heaven to the earth. Inscriptions in Latin, consisting of appropriate scriptural texts, explain the subjects of the pendentives.

The spaces at the sides of the clerestory windows are occupied with figures of the Sibyls, Prophets, builders of the Tabernacle or House of God, scenes from the Old Testament, and some secular figures.

The general effect of the mosaics is very rich, and the colouring exceedingly harmonious.

The smalto tesserÆ used was made from opaque glass of many colours and shades, and the fractured edge was shown in every case as the surface of the mosaic; this was done in order to get greater brilliancy of colour, and to catch all the possible light that is reflected from the walls and floor of the church.

Portland stone composed the panels, and brick was the background material of the saucer domes, and in order to get a bed for the cement and tesserÆ, these surfaces had to be cut away to a certain depth so that the mosaics would come flush when finished with the original surface. The tesserÆ were inserted into a bed of red mastic cement, made chiefly of a mixture of red lead and linseed oil, a cement which ultimately sets as hard as the stone itself. The execution of the work was entrusted to Messrs. Powell of London, who employed a large staff of skilled assistants in this successful achievement.

The Saracens employed mosaic—as in the Alhambra in Spain—in the form of small tiles—azulejos—of glazed earthenware cut into geometric shapes, from which they made up their characteristic rectilinear patterns, and used this form of decoration to a great extent for walls, but rarely for floor pavements (Figs. 291, 292).

Some beautiful examples of mosaic work in the nature of inlaid marbles and precious stones occur in the Mohammedan buildings in India, the chief of which are the Taj Mehal at Agra (Fig. 293) and the great palace at Delhi. The latter has been noticed in the chapter on Indian Architecture in the former volume, and an illustration of the inlaid marble hall is given at Fig. 329 in the same volume.