Humidity Diagram

Fig. 93. The United States Forest Service Humidity Diagram for determination of Absolute Humidities. Dew Points and Vapor Pressures; also Relative Humidities by means of Wet and Dry-Bulb Thermometer, for any temperatures and change in temperature.

Some simple means of determining humidities and changes in humidity brought about by changes in temperature in the dry kiln without the use of tables is almost a necessity. To meet this requirement the United States Forestry Service has devised the Humidity Diagram shown in Figure 93. It differs in several respects from the hydrodeiks now in use.

The purpose of the humidity diagram is to enable the dry-kiln operator to determine quickly the humidity conditions and vapor pressure, as well as the changes which take place with changes of temperature. The diagram above is adapted to the direct solution of problems of this character without recourse to tables or mathematical calculations.

The humidity diagram consists of two distinct sets of curves on the same sheet. One set, the convex curves, is for the determination of relative humidity of wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer or psychrometer; the other, the concave curves, is derived from the vapor pressures and shows the amount of moisture per cubic foot at relative humidities and temperatures when read at the dew-point. The latter curves, therefore, are independent of all variables affecting the wet-bulb readings. They are proportional to vapor pressures, not to density, and, therefore, may be followed from one temperature to another with correctness. The short dashes show the correction (increase or decrease) which is necessary in the relative humidity, read from the convex curves, with an increase or decrease from the normal barometric pressure of 30 inches, for which the curves have been plotted. This correction, except for very low temperatures, is so small that it may usually be disregarded.

The ordinates, or vertical distances, are relative humidity expressed in per cent of saturation, from 0 per cent at the bottom to 100 per cent at the top. The abscissae, or horizontal distances, are temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit from 30 degrees below zero, at the left, to 220 degrees above, at the right.

Examples of Use

The application of the humidity diagram can best be understood by sample problems. These problems also show the wide range of conditions to which the diagram will apply.

The Hygrodeik

In Figure 94 will be seen the Hygrodeik. This instrument is used to determine the amount of moisture in the atmosphere. It is a very useful instrument, as the readings may be taken direct with accuracy.

To find the relative humidity in the atmosphere, swing the index hand to the left of the chart, and adjust the sliding pointer to that degree of the wet-bulb thermometer scale at which the mercury stands. Then swing the index hand to the right until the sliding pointer intersects the curved line, which extends downwards to the left from the degree of the dry-bulb thermometer scale, indicated by the top of the mercury column in the dry-bulb tube.

At that intersection, the index hand will point to the relative humidity on scale at bottom of chart (for example see Fig. 94). Should the temperature indicated by the wet-bulb thermometer be 60 degrees, and that of the dry-bulb 70 degrees, the index hand will indicate humidity 55 degrees, when the pointer rests on the intersecting line of 60 degrees and 80 degrees.

The Recording Hygrometer

In Figure 95 is shown the Recording Hygrometer complete with wet and dry bulbs, two connecting tubes and two recording pens and special moistening device for supplying water to the wet bulb.

This equipment is designed particularly for use in connection with dry rooms and dry kilns and is arranged so that the recording instrument and the water supply bottle may be installed outside of the dry kiln or drying room, while the wet and dry bulbs are both installed inside the room or kiln at the point where it is desired to measure the humidity. This instrument records on a weekly chart the humidity for each hour of the day, during the entire week.

The Registering Hygrometer

In Figure 96 is shown the Registering Hygrometer, which consists of two especially constructed thermometers. The special feature of the thermometers permits placing the instrument in the dry kiln without entering the drying room, through a small opening, where it is left for about 20 minutes.

The temperature of both the dry and wet bulbs are automatically recorded, and the outside temperature will not affect the thermometers when removed from the kiln. From these recorded temperatures, as shown when the instrument is removed from the kiln, the humidity can be easily determined from a simple form of chart which is furnished free by the makers with each instrument.

The Recording Thermometer

In Figure 97 is shown the Recording Thermometer for observing and recording the temperatures within a dry kiln, and thus obtaining a check upon its operation. This instrument is constructed to record automatically, upon a circular chart, the temperatures prevailing within the drying room at all times of the day and night, and serves not only as a means of keeping an accurate record of the operation of the dry kiln, but as a valuable check upon the attendant in charge of the drying process.

The Registering Thermometer Fig. 98. The Registering Thermometer.

The Recording Steam-Pressure Gauge Fig. 99. The Recording Steam-Pressure Gauge.]

The Registering Thermometer

In Figure 98 is shown the Registering Thermometer, which is a less expensive instrument than that shown in Figure 97, but by its use the maximum and minimum temperatures in the drying room during a given period can be determined.

The Recording Steam Gauge

In Figure 99 is shown the Recording Steam Pressure Gauge, which is used for accurately recording the steam pressures kept in the boilers. This instrument may be mounted near the boilers, or may be located at any distance necessary, giving a true and accurate record of the fluctuations of the steam pressure that may take place within the boilers, and is a check upon both the day and night boiler firemen.

The Troemroid Scalometer

In Figure 100 is shown the Troemroid Scalometer. This instrument is a special scale of extreme accuracy, fitted with agate bearings with screw adjustment for balancing. The beam is graduated from 0 to 2 ounces, divided into 100 parts, each division representing 1-50th of an ounce; and by using the pointer attached to the beam weight, the 1-100th part of an ounce can be weighed.

The percentage table No. II has a range from one half of 1 per cent to 30 per cent and is designed for use where extremely fine results are needed, or where a very small amount of moisture is present. Table No. III ranges from 30 per cent up to 90 per cent. These instruments are in three models as described below.

Test Samples.—The green boards and all other boards intended for testing should be selected from boards of fair average quality. If air-dried, select one about half way up the height of the pile of lumber. If kiln-dried, two thirds the height of the kiln car. Do not remove the kiln car from the kiln until after the test. Three of four test pieces should be cut from near the middle of the cross-wise section of the board, and 1/8 to 3/16 inch thick. Remove the superfluous sawdust and splinters. When the test pieces are placed on the scale pan, be sure their weight is less than two ounces and more than 13/4 ounces. If necessary, use two or more broken pieces. It is better if the test pieces can be cut off on a fine band saw.

Weighing.—Set the base of the scale on a level surface and accurately balance the scale beam. Put the test pieces on the scale pan and note their weight on the lower edge of the beam. Set the indicator point on the horizontal bar at a number corresponding to this weight, which may be found on the cylinder at the top of the table.

Dry the test pieces on the Electric Heater (Fig. 101) 30 to 40 minutes, or on the engine cylinder two or three hours. Weigh them at once and note the weight. Then turn the cylinder up and at the left of it under the small pointer find the number corresponding to this weight. The percentage of moisture lost is found directly under pointer on the horizontal bar first mentioned. The lower portion on the cylinder Table No. II is an extension of the upper portion, and is manipulated in the same manner except that the bottom line of figures is used for the first weight, and the right side of cylinder for second weight. Turn the cylinder down instead of up when using it.

Examples (Test Pieces)

Keep Records of the Moisture Content

Saw Mills.—Should test and mark each pile of lumber when first piled in the yard, and later when sold it should be again tested and the two records given to the purchaser.

Factories.—Should test and mark the lumber when first received, and if piled in the yard to be kiln-dried later, it should be tested before going into the dry kiln, and again before being removed, and these records placed on file for future reference.

Kiln-dried lumber piled in storage rooms (without any heat) will absorb 7 to 9 per cent of moisture, and even when so stored should be tested for moisture before being manufactured into the finished product.

Never work lumber through the factory that has more than 5 or 6 per cent of moisture or less than 3 per cent.

Dry storage rooms should be provided with heating coils and properly ventilated.

Oak or any other species of wood that shows 25 or 30 per cent of moisture when going into the dry kiln, will take longer to dry than it would if it contained 15 to 20 per cent, therefore the importance of testing before putting into the kiln as well as when taking it out.

The Electric Heater

In Figure 101 is shown the Electric Heater. This heater is especially designed to dry quickly the test pieces for use in connection with the Scalometer (see Fig. 100) without charring them. It may be attached to any electric light socket of 110 volts direct or alternating current. A metal rack is provided to hold the test pieces vertically on edge.

Turn the test pieces over once or twice while drying.

It will require from 20 minutes to one hour to remove all the moisture from the test pieces when placed on this heater, depending on whether they are cut from green, air-dried, or kiln-dried boards.

Test pieces cut from softwoods will dry quicker than those cut from hardwoods.

When the test pieces fail to show any further loss in weight, they are then free from all moisture content.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

• American Blower Company, Detroit, Mich.
• Imre, James E., "The Kiln-drying of Gum," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry.
• National Dry Kiln Company, Indianapolis, Ind.
• Prichard, Reuben P., "The Structure of the Common Woods," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 3.
• Roth, Filibert, "Timber," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 10.
• Standard Dry Kiln Company, Indianapolis, Ind.
• Sturtevant Company, B.F., Boston, Mass.
• Tieman, H.D., "The Effects of Moisture upon the Strength and Stiffness of Wood," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 70.
• Tieman, H.D., "Principles of Kiln-drying Lumber," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry.
• Tieman, H.D., "The Theory of Drying and its Application, etc.," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 509.
• The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, "Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States."
• The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 37.
• Von Schrenk, Herman, "Seasoning of Timbers," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 41.
• Wagner, J.B., "Cooperage," 1910.

GLOSSARY

• Abnormal. Differing from the usual structure.
• Acuminate. Tapering at the end.
• Adhesion. The union of members of different floral whorls.
• Air-seasoning. The drying of wood in the open air.
• Albumen. A name applied to the food store laid up outside the embryo in many seeds; also nitrogenous organic matter found in plants.
• Alburnam. Sapwood.
• Angiosperms. Those plants which bear their seeds within a pericarp.
• Annual rings. The layers of wood which are added annually to the tree.
• Apartment kiln. A drying arrangement of one or more rooms with openings at each end.
• Arborescent. A tree in size and habit of growth.
• Baffle plate. An obstruction to deflect air or other currents.
• Bastard cut. Tangential cut. Wood of inferior cut.
• Berry. A fruit whose entire pericarp is succulent.
• Blower kiln. A drying arrangement in which the air is blown through heating coils into the drying room.
• Box kiln. A small square heating room with openings in one end only.
• Brittleness. Aptness to break; not tough; fragility.
• Burrow. A shelter; insect's hole in the wood.
• Calorie. Unit of heat; amount of heat which raises the temperature.
• Calyx. The outer whorl of floral envelopes.
• Capillary. A tube or vessel extremely fine or minute.
• Case-harden. A condition in which the pores of the wood are closed and the outer surface dry, while the inner portion is still wet or unseasoned.
• Cavity. A hollow place; a hollow.
• Cell. One of the minute, elementary structures comprising the greater part of plant tissue.
• Cellulose. A primary cell-wall substance.
• Checks. The small chinks or cracks caused by the rupture of the wood fibres.
• Cleft. Opening made by splitting; divided.
• Coarse-grained. Wood is coarse-grained when the annual rings are wide or far apart.
• Cohesion. The union of members of the same floral whorl.
• Contorted. Twisted together.
• Corolla. The inner whorl of floral envelopes.
• Cotyledon. One of the parts of the embryo performing in part the function of a leaf, but usually serving as a storehouse of food for the developing plant.
• Crossers. Narrow wooden strips used to separate the material on kiln cars.
• Cross-grained. Wood is cross-grained when its fibres are spiral or twisted.
• Dapple. An exaggerated form of mottle.
• Deciduous. Not persistent; applied to leaves that fall in autumn and to calyx and corolla when they fall off before the fruit develops.
• Definite. Limited or defined.
• Dew-point. The point at which water is deposited from moisture-laden air.
• Dicotyledon. A plant whose embryo has two opposite cotyledons.
• Diffuse. Widely spreading.
• Disk. A circular, flat, thin piece or section of the tree.
• Duramen. Heartwood.
• Embryo. Applied in botany to the tiny plant within the seed.
• Enchinate. Beset with prickles.
• Expansion. An enlargement across the grain or lengthwise of the wood.
• Fibres. The thread-like portion of the tissue of wood.
• Fibre-saturation point. The amount of moisture wood will imbibe, usually 25 to 30 per cent of its dry-wood weight.
• Figure. The broad and deep medullary rays as in oak showing when the timber is cut into boards.
• Filament. The stalk which supports the anther.
• Fine-grained. Wood is fine-grained when the annual rings are close together or narrow.
• Germination. The sprouting of a seed.
• Girdling. To make a groove around and through the bark of a tree, thus killing it.
• Glands. A secreting surface or structure; a protuberance having the appearance of such an organ.
• Glaucous. Covered or whitened with a bloom.
• Grain. Direction or arrangement of the fibres in wood.
• Grubs. The larvae of wood-destroying insects.
• Gymnosperms. Plants bearing naked seeds; without an ovary.
• Habitat. The geographical range of a plant.
• Heartwood. The central portion of tree.
• Hollow-horning. Internal checking.
• Honeycombing. Internal checking.
• Hot-blast kiln. A drying arrangement in which the air is blown through heating coils into the drying room.
• Humidity. Damp, moist.
• Hygroscopicity. The property of readily imbibing moisture from the atmosphere.
• Indefinite. Applied to petals or other organs when too numerous to be conveniently counted.
• Indigenous. Native to the country.
• Involute. A form of vernation in which the leaf is rolled inward from its edges.
• Kiln-drying. Drying or seasoning of wood by artificial heat in an inclosed room.
• Leaflet. A single division of a compound leaf.
• Limb. The spreading portion of the tree.
• Lumen. Internal space in the spring- and summer-wood fibres.
• Median. Situated in the middle.
• Medulla. The pith.
• Medullary rays. Rays of fundamental tissue which connect the pith with the bark.
• Membranous. Thin and rather soft, more or less translucent.
• Midrib. The central or main rib of a leaf.
• Moist-air kiln. A drying arrangement in which the heat is taken from radiating coils located inside the drying room.
• Mottle. Figure transverse of the fibres, probably caused by the action of wind upon the tree.
• Non-porous. Without pores.
• Oblong. Considerably longer than broad, with flowing outline.
• Obtuse. Blunt, rounded.
• Oval. Broadly elliptical.
• Ovary. The part of the pistil that contains the ovules.
• Parted. Cleft nearly, but not quite to the base or midrib.
• Parenchyma. Short cells constituting the pith and pulp of the tree.
• Pericarp. The walls of the ripened ovary, the part of the fruit that encloses the seeds.
• Permeable. Capable of being penetrated.
• Petal. One of the leaves of the corolla.
• Pinholes. Small holes in the wood caused by worms or insects.
• Pistil. The modified leaf or leaves which bear the ovules; usually consisting of ovary, style and stigma.
• Plastic. Elastic, easily bent.
• Pocket kilns. Small drying rooms with openings on one end only and in which the material to be dried is piled directly on the floor.
• Pollen. The fertilizing powder produced by the anther.
• Pores. Minute orifices in wood.
• Porous. Containing pores.
• Preliminary steaming. Subjecting wood to a steaming process before drying or seasoning.
• Progressive kiln. A drying arrangement with openings at both ends, and in which the material enters at one end and is discharged at the other.
• Rick. A pile or stack of lumber.
• Rift. To split; cleft.
• Ring shake. A large check or crack in the wood following an annual ring.
• Roe. A peculiar figure caused by the contortion of the woody fibres, and takes a wavy line parallel to them.
• Sapwood. The outer portions of the tree next to the bark; alburnam.
• Saturate. To cause to become completely penetrated or soaked.
• Season checks. Small openings in the ends of the wood caused by the process of drying.
• Seasoning. The process by which wood is dried or seasoned.
• Seedholes. Minute holes in wood caused by wood-destroying worms or insects.
• Shake. A large check or crack in wood caused by the action of the wind on the tree.
• Shrinkage. A lessening or contraction of the wood substance.
• Skidways. Material set on an incline for transporting lumber or logs.
• Species. In science, a group of existing things, associated according to properties.
• Spermatophyta. Seed-bearing plants.
• Spring-wood. Wood that is formed in the spring of the year.
• Stamen. The pollen-bearing organ of the flower, usually consisting of filament and anther.
• Stigma. That part of the pistil which receives the pollen.
• Style. That part of the pistil which connects the ovary with the stigma.
• Taproot. The main root or downward continuation of the plant axis.
• Temporary checks. Checks or cracks that subsequently close.
• Tissue. One of the elementary fibres composing wood.
• Thunder shake. A rupture of the fibres of the tree across the grain, which in some woods does not always break them.
• Tornado shake. (See Thunder shake.)
• Tracheids. The tissues of the tree which consist of vertical cells or vessels closed at one end.
• Warping. Turning or twisting out of shape.
• Wind shake. (See Thunder shake.)
• Working. The shrinking and swelling occasioned in wood.
• Wormholes. Small holes in wood caused by wood-destroying worms.
• Vernation. The arrangement of the leaves in the bud.
• Whorl. An arrangement of organs in a circle about a central axis.

INDEX OF LATIN NAMES

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Cottonwood, 49, 77, 78

Cottonwood, black, 78

Cottonwood, swamp, 78

Cow oak, 74

Crab apple, 49

Crab, fragrant, 49

Crack willow, 84

Crude products, 106

Cuban pine, 26

Cucumber tree, 49, 67

Cup oak, mossy, 72

Cup oak, over-, 72, 73

Custard apple, 76

Cypress, 19

Cypress, Alaska, 18

Cypress, bald, 19

Cypress, black, 19

Cypress, Lawson's, 18

Cypress, pecky, 19

Cypress, red, 19

Cypress, white, 19

D'Arc, Bois, 45, 76

Deal, yellow, 23

Demands upon soil and moisture of red gum, 56

Depends on conditions and species, temperature, 171

Description of the forest service kiln, theory and, 161

Diagram, the uses of the humidity, 237

Difference between seasoned and unseasoned wood, 121

Different grains of wood, 86

Different kiln-drying according to species, 170

Different species, weight of kiln-dried wood of, 95

Different types, kilns of, 196

Different types of dry kilns, 185

Different types of kiln doors, 231

Difficult, changes rendering drying, 140

Difficulties of drying wood, 138

Distribution of water in wood, 114

Distribution of water in wood, local, 114

Distribution of water in wood seasonal, 115

Dogwood, 49

Doors, different types of kiln, 231

Douglas spruce, 29

Downy linden, 39

Downy poplar, 78

Dry cooperage stock and wooden truss hoops, 112

Drying according to species, different kiln, 170

Drying, advantages of kiln-drying over air, 156

Drying at atmospheric pressure, 146

Drying by superheated steam, 150

Drying, conditions of success in kiln, 169

Drying difficult, changes rendering, 140

Drying gum, kiln, 180

Drying, helpful appliances in kiln, 237

Drying, kiln, 164, 177

Drying, losses due to impr ginternal">45, 65

Hot blast or blower kiln, 185

Humidity, 174

Humidity diagram, uses of the, 237

How to prevent insect injury, 107

How wood is seasoned, 145

Hygrodeik, the, 242

Hygrometer, the recording, 242

Hygrometer, the registering, 244

Illinois Nut, 64

Important broad-leaved trees, list of most, 37

Important coniferous woods, list of, 17

Impregnation methods, 151

Improper kiln-drying, losses due to, 141

Incense cedar, 18

Indian bean, 46

Indian cherry, 45

Influence drying, physical properties that, 125

Injury, conditions favorable for insect, 106

Injury from insects, how to prevent, 107

Insect injury, conditions favorable for, 106

Insects, how to prevent injury from, 107

Iron oak, 74

Ironwood, 44, 65

Jack, Black, 75

Jack oak, 75

Jack pine, 27

Jersey pine, 27

Juniper, 18

Juniper bush, 18

Juniper, red, 18

Juniper, savin, 18

Keep Records of the Moisture Content, 249

Kiln, apartment dry, 198

Kiln, blower or hot blast, 185

Kiln, box dry, 204

Kiln cars and method of loading, 206

Kiln doors, different types, 231

Kiln-dried wood of different species, weight of, 95

Kiln-drying, 164, 177

Kiln-drying according to species, different, 170

Kiln-drying, conditions of success in, 169

Kiln-drying gum, 180

Kiln-drying, helpful appliances in, 237

Kiln-drying, losses due to improper, 141

Kiln-drying, objects of, 168

Kiln-drying of green red gum, 183

Kiln-drying of wood, 156

Kiln-drying of wood, 156

Kiln-drying over air-drying, advantages of, 156

Kiln-drying, theory of, 157

Kiln-drying, underlying principles of, 166

Kiln-drying, unsolved problems in, 143

Kiln, operation of the blower dry, 186

Kiln, operation of the moist-air dry, 192

Kiln, pipe or moist-air dry, 188

Kiln, pocket dry, 200

Kiln, progressive dr pginternal">151

Pressure and vacuum, drying under, 146

Pressure, drying at atmospheric, 146

Prevent injury from insects, how to, 107

Prevention of checking and splitting, 129

Principles of kiln-drying, underlying, 166

Problems in kiln-drying, unsolved, 143

Products, crude, 106

Products in the rough, seasoned, 112

Products in the rough, unseasoned, 109

Progressive dry kiln, the, 196

Properties, characteristics and, 1

Properties of wood, 4

Properties of wood that affect drying, 141

Properties that influence drying, physical, 125

Puget Sound pine, 29

Pumpkin pine, 23, 24

Punk oak, 73

Pussy willow, 84

Quaking Aspen, 79

Range of Red Gum, 55

Range of tupelo gum, 61

Rapidity of evaporation, 124

Recording hygrometer, the, 242

Recording steam gauge, the, 246

Recording thermometer, the, 245

Records of the moisture content, keep, 249

Red ash, 38

Red beech, 40

Red birch, 43

Red cedar, 18, 19

Red cedar of the West, 17

Red cherry, 47

Red cherry, wild, 47

Red cypress, 19

Red elm, 51

Red fir, 21, 29

Red gum, 54, 79

Red gum, demands upon soil and moisture of, 56

Red gum, form of the, 55

Red gum, kiln-drying of green, 183

Red gum, range of, 55

Red gum, reproduction of, 57

Red gum, second-growth, 59

Red gum, tolerance of, 56

Red juniper, 18

Red maple, 69

Red mulberry, 70

Red oak, 74, 75

Red pine, 29

Red pine, American, 25

Red spruce, 28

Redwood, 19, 27

Redwood, California, 19

Redwood, Coast, 19

Registering hygrometer, the, 244

Registering thermometer, the, 246

Rendering drying difficult, changes,

Tree, nettle, 62

Tree of life, 17

Tree, plane, 80

Trees, broad-leaved, 31

Trees, classes of, 5

Trees, coniferous, 8

Trees, list of important coniferous, 17

Trees, list of most important broad-leaved, 37

Tree, sorrel, 80

Tree, spindle, 82

Tree, stump, 49

Trees, wood of broad-leaved, 31

Trees, wood of the coniferous, 8

Tree, tulip, 81

Tree, umbrella, 67

Troemroid Scalometer, the, 247

Truss hoops, dry cooperage stock and, 112

Tulip tree, 81

Tulip wood, 67, 81

Tupelo, 82

Tupelo gum, 60

Tupelo gum, range of, 61

Tupelo gum, uses of, 61

Types of dry kilns, different, 185

Types of kiln doors, different, 231

Types, kilns of different, 196

Umbrella Tree, 67

Underlying principles of kiln-drying, 166

Unseasoned products in the rough, 109

Unseasoned wood, difference between seasoned and, 121

Unsolved problems in kiln-drying, 143

Uses of the humidity diagram, 237

Uses of tupelo gum, 61

Vacuum, Drying under Pressure and, 146

Valparaiso oak, 76

Virgilia, 85

Wahoo, 51, 82

Walnut, 45, 82

Walnut, black, 44, 82

Walnut, circassian, 60

Walnut, satin, 54

Walnut, white, 45, 83

Water beech, 44, 80

Water by dry wood, absorption of, 124

Water elm, 50

Water in wood, 114

Water in wood, distribution of, 114

Water in wood, local distribution of, 114

Water in wood, seasonal distribution of, 115

Water lost in drying 100 lb. of green wood in the kiln, pounds of, 179

Water, manner of evaporation of, 123

Water maple, 69

Water oak, 73

Weeping willow, 84

Weighing with scalometer, 248

Weight, and figure in wood, grain, color, odor, D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
25 PARK PLACE
NEW YORK

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