There are two distinct ways of making doughs. One way is to set a sponge first, then make the dough, and the other way is to make the dough at once. The first is called a “Sponge Dough” and the second is called a “Straight Dough.” Straight dough is so called, because all ingredients such as yeast, salt, sugar, lard, water and flour are all mixed and formed into a dough. There are various reasons for making straight doughs, a few of which we will proceed to give. In the first place, it is more convenient to make a straight dough, because it does not require as much time to make as does mixing the sponge dough, because the mixing is all done at one time. Then, again, a straight dough can be taken in a shorter time than a sponge dough. By this I mean that in case of necessity the dough can be taken, in from 1½ to 2 hours after it has been made. I do not advocate taking the dough in such a short time, but it can be done, because I have done it with good results.

Straight dough requires more yeast than doughs made from a sponge, because the yeast has not as favorable a medium in which to grow, in the straight dough as it has in the sponge dough. It is conceded by some that straight dough requires a stronger flavor than a dough made from a sponge; by others that a stiffer dough is required; by others, that the finished product has a coarse texture, and that an “yeasty” taste predominates. The author made straight doughs daily for eleven years successfully. He neither made a specially stiff dough nor did his finished product have a coarse texture nor an “yeasty” taste. Sometimes when the temperature of the shop was very high or an exceptionally weak flour was sent us, then would our product have a somewhat coarse texture, but this would soon be remedied by using less yeast and reducing the temperature of the liquid used. There are advantages in using strong flour, but they are alike in the straight and the sponge dough, and they are larger yields and larger goods, but these are not the only points to be considered.

Some bakers are partial to spring wheat flour, because the yield in bread is greater than when a blend is used.

Too often is quantity preferred to quality. It seems that most bakers are working to the one end, namely, to get the flour which yields most bread. In this endeavor they are sacrificing quality for quantity.

Spring flour containing a larger per cent. of gluten than winter wheat flour naturally takes up more moisture, producing in turn more bulk, therefore more bread.

Then again the gluten in the spring wheat flour is of a tenacious character, producing a tough elastic dough. Such a dough can resist a greater gas pressure than can one made of weaker flour, and can therefore stand more proof, thus producing a larger and better appearing loaf than one made of a winter wheat flour or a blend.

If a blend is used, we will say two parts of a high grade winter wheat, and one part of spring wheat flour, and the dough is properly worked, the bread will have a fine, smooth, soft, velvety texture, and a mild, sweet taste. The loaf will not be as large a loaf as the one made of spring wheat flour, but will remain soft and moist longer than the loaf made of spring wheat flour. The reason for this is, that winter wheat flour contains a larger per cent. of natural moisture and a smaller per cent. of gluten than the spring flour, therefore it takes up less moisture, and consequently does not lose as much by evaporation in baking; thus leaving a larger per cent. of moisture in the bread.

The chemist’s test cannot decide the true baking value of a flour. A bakeshop test, made by a practical baker, is absolutely necessary to decide this matter.

The principal points to be considered when making straight dough are these: the temperature of the ingredients, the temperature of the shop, the quantity of yeast, and the quality of the flour used. If the temperature of the shop is very high, the liquid used should be cool, and the quantity of yeast should be reduced.

The most favorable temperature for fermentation is from 80 to 90 degrees Fahr., though I prefer to have the dough 85 degrees Fahr.

Before proceeding to make the dough, take the temperature of the flour and the shop, then heat the water to a temperature which will give your dough a temperature of 80 degrees Fahr. when ready. For example, if the temperature of your flour were 5 degrees Fahr., the temperature of the water would have to be 10 degrees Fahr. Now if the temperature of the shop were 70 degrees Fahr., the temperature of the water could be raised to 110 degrees Fahr. I would advise you not to get the temperature of the dough too high, but would rather that you raise the temperature of your shop. Dough chills very quickly when it is on the bench, and after a dough is chilled it will come up very slowly. When making dough in a dough-mixer, the temperature of the water should be at least 5 degrees higher than when making it by hand, because the mixers are more or less cold, while, when dough is made by hand you have the animal heat of the hands to keep up the temperature of the dough. When the weather is very warm, the temperature of the water must be changed to suit. For example, if the temperature of your shop is 90 degrees Fahr., your flour would naturally be very near the same temperature (providing it were kept in the shop), then the temperature of the water would have to be at the utmost 75 degrees Fahr., because the temperature of the dough would continue to rise while it was in the trough or mixer.

Process for Making Straight Dough.

Heat the liquid to the required temperature, then dissolve the yeast in a portion of the liquid, then, when the yeast is dissolved, add it to the rest of the liquid; then add the salt and dissolve it; then add the fats and sugar; then add the flour. (As above mentioned for uniform results it is best to weigh the flour, sugar, salt and fats.) After the flour has been added, work it into a smooth dough.

Weighing and Measuring Ingredients Used in Baking.
By Professor E. W. Habermaas.

All solids used in baking should be weighed, and all liquids should be measured accurately. Varied results and failures in baking are very often due to inaccurate weighing and measuring of ingredients. If your recipe calls for a pound of sugar, don’t use 1¼ pounds instead. Or if a recipe calls for 1 gallon of milk, don’t use ? gallon instead. The author has often seen bakers use 1¼ pounds of some ingredient when 1 pound was what should have been used. Many bakers are exceptionally careless about measuring the liquids, such as milk and water. They will dip a quart or pint measure into a can of milk or into a bucket of water and draw it out on a slant, thus causing a portion of the liquid to run out. Often as much as one-fourth of a pint of milk will run out of the measure, still they will count that a full measure. This may seem a trifle, but when measuring a number of quarts or pints, it ceases to be a trifling matter but becomes a matter of vital importance. For example, you are about to make a dough of four quarts of milk or water, and you measure the milk or water as above shown. After having added the flour and you are making the dough, you will find that the dough is too stiff. This is based on the fact that you use a given quantity of flour to every quart of milk or water used, as should be the case, if you expect uniform results. You have the correct amount of flour, but not enough milk or water. Then again, the yield of such a dough would be less than it should be. Most bakers do not weigh the flour for their dough. Where this is the case, flour is usually added until the dough is of the proper consistency. So in that case the fact that the baker had not measured the liquid accurately would not necessitate getting too stiff a dough, because he has not a given quantity of flour to work in but adds it until the dough is of the proper consistency, but the yield will be less because there is less dough.

I do not approve of this method of making doughs, because the results are not uniform, and it requires more time to make the dough, because you are compelled to add more flour occasionally to get the proper consistency. Whereas, when you have the exact amount of flour and add it at once, you can proceed with dough without interruption. Then again, when you weigh the flour for your dough, you always have uniform results.

The flour, sugar, malt extract, salt and fats (if any) should be weighed, and the milk or water measured or weighed for every batch of dough, no matter how large or how small, if you would have uniform results.

One of the “hit or miss” methods prevalent in most shops is that bakers measure the water and weigh the salt, and guess at the rest. Fats, sugar and flour are seldom weighed. What are the consequences? Sometimes they have a stiff dough, sometimes a soft dough, and sometimes a medium dough. Sometimes the dough comes up too fast and sometimes too slow, owing to the consistency of the dough. Then, again, they never get the same number of loaves out of the same size batch. If the dough is too stiff, they get more than the required number, and if the dough is too soft they get less than the required number out of the batch.

In large shops such methods would not be tolerated, then why should they be tolerated in small shops? Thousands of dollars could be saved monthly in bakeshops if more accurate methods were adopted.

When using a very strong flour you can use a little more yeast than ordinarily without fear of mincing the dough, because strong flour can stand more proof; but unless absolutely necessary, don’t use any more yeast than is required under ordinary conditions. During the summer months it is well to use more salt than during cold weather, because salt acts as a governor—it holds the dough in check and keeps it sweet.

Too much yeast creates an over-abundance of gas, and if the dough is not tough enough to withstand the pressure of the gas, it tears and allows the gas to escape; the dough then falls and loses its vitality. If this dough were “made up” into loaves, and when baked were cut in two, it would be seen that the texture would be very coarse; it would be a mass of holes, and the taste would betray a trace of lactic fermentation. This bread would not be fit to eat. Don’t allow your doughs to get too old. If a dough gets too old it loses its vitality, and when baked it will have a coarse texture and will have a sour taste. Test your doughs as follows: When the dough has set about one hour, jam your hand into it; if it begins to fall it is ready to take; if it does not fall, allow it to set about one-half hour, then try it again. A dough may be taken before it falls, but I would not advise you to make a practice of doing that. I have made a batch of bread and had it baked and out of the oven in three hours. I set the sponge at 9.30 a. m., made the dough at 10.30 a. m., and had the bread baked at 1 p. m. This bread had a very fine, smooth texture, and had a very sweet taste. I advocate taking doughs as soon as they are ready, if you want a nice, smooth texture and a sweet taste to your bread; and trust that it is your aim to produce such a loaf.

The third process in the art of bread making is pushing or “punching” the dough down.

Pushing or “Punching” the Dough Down.

When the dough is well “up,” or raised, push or “punch” it down (using both hands), to force out the gas, then raise up one end of the dough and lap it over the other, then push it down again. Continue this process until the dough is firm and compact, then cover it, and when it is up again take it. This is done to prevent the dough from getting too old, or from losing its vitality. When a dough is required at a certain time and there is no time to push or punch the dough down, this process may be omitted.

The fourth process in bread making is breaking the dough.

Breaking the Dough.

When the dough is ready remove it from the trough or bowl and put it on the bench or table; then cut it into pieces weighing about 10 pounds; then pat it down with both hands, then take up one end of the dough and lap it over the other, then pat it down again until you have the piece of dough very flat; then fold it over and over. Continue to pat down and fold over the dough until it is very compact, then take up the next piece, and so on, until you have the entire batch of dough firm and compact. In some large shops this work is done by machines called “dough breaks.”

“Breaking” is done to free the dough from excessive gas and to keep the dough young and also to produce a firm loaf of bread. If the dough is “made up” before it has been freed from excessive gas, it will produce a spongy loaf of bread, with large, irregular holes in it. Such a loaf of bread will dry out very quickly. After the dough has been freed from excessive gas it becomes firm and compact, and the loaves of bread made from this dough will likewise be firm and compact. (At this period of the dough all gas contained in the dough can be classed as “excessive,” because it is of no real value, but rather a hindrance, because it makes additional work to get the dough into proper shape for making it up into loaves.) Now, when the yeast again becomes active and gas begins to form, the loaf will raise evenly, because what gas remains in the loaf is evenly distributed throughout the loaf, thus producing a nicely shaped loaf.

The fifth process in the art of bread making is weighing.

Weighing the Loaves.

Cut the dough into pieces of as near a uniform size as possible, then weigh them as required. The exact weight I cannot fix; that must be determined by the price of material used, the locality in which you are located, the cost of labor, etc.

In making up a selling price, every detail, such as cost of material, labor, rent, light, fuel, heat, wrapping paper, twine, advertising display, wear and tear on horse and wagon (if you have any), feed, etc., salary for yourself, interest on money invested, etc., must be figured in, or “you will come out of the small end of the horn,” as they say.

After the dough is made, proceed as follows to work it smooth: Cut off (with a scraper) a portion of the dough and place it on the bench, then spread it out (using both hands) as wide and long as possible, then fold it double, then spread it out again, as before directed, then fold it over. Continue this process until you have a nice, smooth, dry dough, then take up another piece of dough and proceed as directed. Continue taking up pieces of dough and working them as directed until you have worked the entire batch of dough, then put it in the trough and allow it to “raise.” When making straight dough with a dough mixer, proceed as follows: Put the water into the mixer (but keep back a small portion in which to dissolve the yeast), then dissolve the yeast, then put it into the mixer, then add the sugar, fats, salt, etc., then start the mixer, then add the flour and allow the machine to run until you have a smooth, dry dough. Some bakers allow their mixers to run ten minutes and others allow them to run twenty minutes. This is simply a matter of opinion. My advice is to run the mixer until you have a smooth, dry dough.

Processes in Bread Making.

Before we have the product called bread, it has passed through fourteen processes, which I will name and describe in rotation. The first of these processes is called setting sponge.

Setting Sponge.

Setting sponge is the first process in the art of bread making. Proceed to set sponge as follows: Measure the quantity of liquid desired and put it into a mixing bowl or trough, then take out a portion of the liquid and dissolve the yeast in it (about ½ gallon for each pound of yeast used). The yeast must be thoroughly dissolved; then add it to the rest of the liquid, then add flour to give it the consistency of medium dough (2¼ pounds of flour, one-half spring wheat and one-half winter wheat will give you a fine sponge), then work it well to prevent crust from forming on it, then allow it to raise. The length of time required to raise the sponge depends upon conditions, namely, the quantity of yeast used, the temperature of the shop, the temperature of the liquid and flour, the consistency of the sponge, and the size of the sponge. Large sponges require less yeast (in proportion), and raise quicker than small sponges, because they are not as easily chilled as small sponges are. Some bakers prefer an old sponge and a young dough, while others prefer the opposite—a young sponge and an old dough. I prefer to take the sponge as soon as it is ready, and the dough likewise. By so doing we always get an article that is not overproved, and without a trace of lactic fermentation. Goods made from an old overproved dough are not fit to eat. If you make a nice, sweet product you will have no difficulty in establishing a good trade. Watch the sponge and take it just as soon as it begins to fall. If you want to test a sponge shake the vessel, and if the sponge falls it is ready to take. If the sponge is not ready, the shaking up which you gave the sponge will not check the growth of it. I have taken sponge one hour old and produced excellent results.

The second process in the art of bread making is making dough.

Making Dough.

Melt the fat (if lard or compounds are used), dissolve the sugar and salt in the water, then add them to the sponge and work them thoroughly, tearing the sponge to pieces and working it until you have the whole a smooth mass, then add the flour (in portions), enough to make a fairly stiff dough, and work it thoroughly until you have a smooth, dry dough. Work the dough same as when making a straight dough. Keep the dough covered and at a temperature of not less than 80 deg. F. When the temperature of the shop is below that, and the dough is to be taken in two or three hours, both the sponge and the dough must be kept above 85 deg. F. While a little chill would not affect a dough, still it would delay it considerably. Chilling retards the growth of the yeast, and after the dough has been chilled it will take some time to raise its temperature to continue the growth of the yeast cells.

There are various ways of hurrying doughs, a few of which are as follows: By using a little more yeast than ordinarily, and by making a soft dough, and by reducing the quantity of salt, and by keeping both the sponge and the dough at a high temperature. When using a larger per cent. of yeast than ordinarily, watch both the sponge and the dough, and take them young (just as soon as they are ready), or lactic (souring) fermentation will take place. Don’t use too much yeast. Too much yeast will give the baked product a peculiar taste, and will compel you to be very careful in the handling of the dough, especially so in warm weather.