1 Nicomachean Ethics, Book II, Chap. I.

2 The term Deontology, from t? d??? [Greek: to deon], what is due or binding, and ????? [Greek: logos], discourse, has been used by some modern writers as a fit designation of moral science. Though it has never come into general use, it is etymologically well adapted to express the element of obligation involved in the moral sense. See Krauth-Flemming Vocabulary of the Philosophical Sciences, p. 132.

3 De Fato, Cap. I, 1.

4 See Wuttke's Christian Ethics, Vol. I, pp. 69–122.

5 Wuttke's Christian Ethics, I, p. 95. Int. to Aristotle's Ethics, p. vi (Bohn's Ed.).

6 Matthew Arnold, Literature and Dogma, Chap. I.

7 Philosophy of Theism, Harper & Brothers, N. Y., p. 220.

8 See The Oldest Book in the World, Bibliotheca Sacra, October, 1882 (Vol. XLV). Also C. Loring Brace's The Unknown God (A.C. Armstrong & Son, New York, 1890), pp. 1–40.

9 Prof. Borden P. Bowne. Philosophy of Theism, p. 216.

10 History of Civilization, p. 125 (D. Appleton & Co., N. Y.).

11 Study of Sociology, p. 363.

12 Fortnightly Review, December, 1888.

13 See, for instance, Paley's Moral Philosophy, Chap. V.

14 See Chap. IV, p. 83.

15 So Hume, Adam Smith, Thomas Brown.

16 Jeremy Bentham, Jas. Mill, J.S. Mill, Herbert Spencer.

17 Borden P. Bowne, Int. to Psychological Theory (Harper & Brothers, N.Y., 1887), p. 206. Prof. Bowne thinks, indeed, that this distinction, traced to its roots, depends on "a feeling of approval or disapproval in connection with the aims and principles of conduct," and that the ideal of life and the law of conduct spring out of "this basal feeling." He asserts that "we can only represent the motives and actions to ourselves, and wait for the immediate feeling of approval or disapproval to manifest itself." He maintains that nothing is gained by regarding the distinction as an intuition of the reason instead of a feeling, because, he says, "its universality depends on its content, and not upon its psychological classification." But we may well ask if it really does make no difference whether this distinction, the "ethical ideal," comes as a perception of reality, the action of a knowing power, or as a "feeling" which perceives nothing and to account for which there is no perceived ethical reality, no discernment of the elemental ideas of right and wrong, upon which approval or disapproval can arise and rest. We are entitled to ask: How can there be a feeling of ethical approval when there is no insight of the distinction between moral good and evil? The "feeling" that arises from no perception of anything to approve, or that approves without any perceived principle or law of approval, is blind. It has no standard or reason for an ethical approval. Moreover, Prof. Bowne admits: "As long as they [the aims and principles of conduct] are unrecognized there is no moral life. As long as they are unclearly perceived, there are only the germs of a moral life. When they are brought out into clear recognition, the self-conscious moral life begins."

18 See Wuttke's Christian Ethics (Nelson & Phillips, N. Y.), Vol. II, pp. 139, 140.

19 Borden P. Bowne's Int. to Psychological Theory (Harper & Bros., N.Y., 1887), p. 184.

20 Theism, p. 13. Quoted from William Knight's Essays in Philosophy (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1890), p. 276.

21 J. Stuart Mill.

22 "The Crisis in Morals," by Jas. Thomas Bixby, Ph. D. (Boston, Roberts Brothers, 1891).

23 Prof. Huxley, in one of his latest utterances, puts this point strongly: "The practice of what is ethically best—what we call goodness or virtue—involves a course of conduct which, in all respects, is opposed to that which leads to success in the cosmic struggle for existence. In place of ruthless self-assertion, it demands self-restraint; in place of thrusting aside, or treading down, all competitors, it requires that the individual shall not merely respect, but shall help his fellows; its influence is directed, not so much to the survival of the fittest, as to the fitting of as many as possible to survive." Lecture at Oxford on "Ethics and Evolution."

24 See Dr. Martineau's Types of Ethical Theory, II, pp. 5, 99–110.

25 W. Whewell, Elements of Morality, Sect. 275.

26 The Doctrine of Morality, by Dr. R. B. Fairbairn (Whitaker, N.Y., 1887), pp. 109–113.

27 This feature is recognized in what is usually termed "formal freedom," i. e. that psychical capacity of rational choice which is essentially formative of "personality." To lose this would be the loss of personality. Whether the power of free choice between good and evil is impaired in man's corrupt state, being put in bondage or subserviency to a depraved love of sin, is quite a different question.

28 "Liberum arbitrium habetur, quando positis ad agendum requisitis, potest quis agere vel non agere." Quoted from W.S. Lilly's Right and Wrong, p. 104, 2d Ed., London, Chapman and Hall.

29 Part I, Chap. VI.

30 Materialistic evolution, which holds matter as being the energy and cause of all things, leaves no place for free-will, because in truth it leaves no place for mind. For "mind" or "soul" as a real entity or being which thinks, feels and wills, it substitutes mere "mentality" as an effect of atomic or molecular changes in the brain. "Mind," as a self-conscious spirit that itself self-knowingly acts, is repudiated. Nothing is left but a series of sensations, thoughts and wishes that are as truly physically-produced effects as are the varied perfumes of flowers, the fall of rain or the waves of the sea. No selfhood remains in man but the physical organism which, in material causation, gives out the various forms of products or manifestations denominated "mental." But this materialistic theory is not science. It not only stands contradicted by the common judgment of mankind in all ages, but breaks down utterly in the presence of scientific psychology. For this finds among its unquestionable and irreducible facts a real self-conscious subject or self back of the series of thoughts, emotions and volitions, holding all these psychical experiences in its unitary consciousness, and, with its memories of the past, carrying its personal identity through present activity on into the future. The series of mental experiences, in the theory, are independent of each other and dependent only on the brain changes which directly produce them, and thus, by necessity, ignorant of each other. Personal identity, therefore, is full disproof of the theory. For personal identity rests in a single abiding consciousness, in which all separate mental acts are known as its own acts, the materials for memory and comparison. The truth is, that all moral distinctions arise out of the conviction that each individual, in the center of his personality, is a soul, itself determining its rational choices and responsible for the conduct of life.

31 The contradiction thus involved is well put by Prof. E.D. Roe, of Oberlin, O., in Bibliotheca Sacra, Oct., 1894: "This law (autonomy) pre-supposes the freedom of the will, for without freedom 'oughtness,' 'responsibility' and 'repentance' would possess no significance. Every one, as the necessarians admit, acts under the idea of freedom. Their hypothesis to explain this is, that the subject acts under illusion (necessary illusion, of course). But here an hypothesis is necessary to explain the hypothesis. Why, if necessity is the truth, is the subject necessitated to believe falsity? A very strange truth it is which necessitates itself to be disbelieved." Pp. 656, 657.

32 See Introduction to the Study of Philosophy, by J.H.W.Stuckenberg, D.D. (Armstrong & Sons, New York, 1888), pp. 321, 322.

33 Metaphysics, Lect. VIII.

34 See Dr. McCosh's Defense of Fundamental Truth, Chap. X, 3.

35 First Principles, Chap. IV, §22.

36 Quoted from Dr. McCosh. Fundamental Truths, Chap. X, 3.

37 This is the old apothem: The ratio cognoscendi is grounded in the ratio essendi.

38 See A. Alexander's Moral Science, Chap. VII.

39 Brace's The Unknown God (A. C. Armstrong & Son, N. Y.), pp. 1–40; The Oldest Book in the World, in Bibliotheca Sacra, Oct., 1888.

40 Quoted by Prof. Jas. Legge, in The Religions of China, from Confucius's Doctrine of the Mean (Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York), p. 139.

41 Wuttke's Christian Ethics, I, pp. 47–52.

42 Wuttke's Christian Ethics, I, p. 59; Brace's Unknown God, pp. 182–197; S.D.F.Salmond's The Christian Doctrine of Immortality (F. & T. Clark, 1895), Chap. VI.

43 e?da????a [Greek: eudaimonia].

44 Republic X, 613a; Theaet., 176.

45 See Wuttke's Christian Ethics, Vol. I, Sec. 14, and Martineau's Types of Ethical Theory, Book I, Branch I.

46 See Luthardt's Christian Ethics (T. & T. Clark), Vol. I, p. 9.

47 ??????????? t? f?se? ??? [Greek: homologoumenÔs tÊ physei zÊn], Diogenes, L. VII, 87.

48 The quotation, Acts 17:28, is probably from the PhÆnomena of the Stoic poet Aratus.

49 See Dr. Dorner's System of Christian Doc., II, p. 14.

50 See Horace, Book III, Ode III. Sophocles' Œdipus Tyrannus, lines 863–871. Peter Bayne's Testimony of Christ to Christianity, p. 44.

51 Prof. Borden P. Bowne designates this teaching as "the goods ethics." Principles of Ethics (Harper & Bros.), Ch. I.

52 Moral and Political Philosophy, Chap. VI.

53 See pp. 133–137.

54 Herbert Spencer, Data of Ethics, § 45.

55 What is Reality? by Francis Howe Johnson (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston), pp. 475–498.

56 Lecky, in History of European Morals, says: "In all nations and in all ages, the ideas of interest and utility on the one hand and of virtue on the other, have been regarded by the multitude as perfectly distinct, and all languages recognize the distinction. The terms honor, justice, rectitude, or virtue, and their equivalents in every language, present to the mind ideas essentially and broadly differing from the terms prudence, sagacity, or interest. The two lines of conduct may coincide, but they are never confused, and we have not the slightest difficulty in imagining them antagonistic. When we say a man is governed by a high sense of honor, or by strong moral feeling, we do not mean that he is prudently pursuing either his own interests or the interests of society." ... "There is no fact more conspicuous in human nature than the broad distinction, both in kind and degree, drawn between the moral and the other parts of our nature. But this on utilitarian principles is altogether unaccountable. If the excellence of virtue consists solely in its utility or tendency to promote the happiness of men, we should be compelled to canonize a crowd of acts which are utterly remote from all ordinary motives of morality." Vol. I, Chap. I.

57 Moral Science (Boston, 1867), pp. 39–44.

58 Christian Ethics, p. 104.

59 Borden P. Bowne, Principles of Ethics, p. 113.

60 B. F. Cocker, Theistic Conception of the World, p. 377.

61 Types of Ethical Theory, Vol. II, § 15.

62 Principles of Ethics, pp. 39–40. For a clear exposition of this distinction, see Dr. D.S. Gregory's Christian Ethics, Pt. I, Divis. III, sec. 1.

63 Martensen's Christian Ethics (General), §7.

64 Newman Smyth's Christian Ethics (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1892), p. 3.

65 Newman Smyth's Christian Ethics, p. 60.

66 John 1:4; 8: 12; 9: 5.

67 "Theism," p. 305.

68 James Martineau, in Nineteenth Century, Vol. I, quoted by Prof. Drummond in "Natural Law in the Spiritual World" (J. Pott & Co., New York), p. 168.