  The vanadate of ammonia, mixed with infusion of nutgalls, forms a black liquid, which is the best writing-ink hitherto known. The quantity of the salt requisite is so small as to be of no importance when the vanadium comes to be more extensively extracted. The writing is perfectly black. The acids colour it blue, but do not remove it, as they do tannate of iron: the alkalis, diluted so far as not to injure the paper, do not dissolve it; and chlorine, which destroys the black colour, does not, however, make the traces illegible, even when they are subsequently washed with a stream of water. It is perfectly fluent, and, being a chemical solution, stands in want of no viscid gum to suspend the colour, like common ink. The influence of time upon it remains to be tried. The best comes from the forests round the village of Zentila, in the intendancy of Oaxaca. The vanilla plant is cultivated in Brazil, in the West Indies, and some other tropical countries, but does not produce fruit of such a delicious aroma as in Mexico. It clings like a parasite to the trunks of old trees, and sucks the moisture which their bark derives from the lichens, and other cryptogamia, but without drawing nourishment from the tree itself, like the ivy and misletoe. The fruit is subcylindric, about 8 inches long, one-celled, siliquose, and pulpy within. It should be gathered before it is fully ripe. When about 12000 of these pods are collected, they are strung like a garland by their lower end, as near as possible to the foot-stalk; the whole are plunged for an instant in boiling water to blanch them; they are then hung up in the open air, and exposed to the sun for a few hours. Next day they are lightly smeared with oil, by means of a feather, or the fingers; and are surrounded with oiled cotton, to prevent the valves from opening. As they become dry, on inverting their upper end, they discharge a viscid liquid from it, and they are pressed at several times with oiled fingers to promote its flow. The dried pods lose their appearance, grow brown, wrinkled, soft, and shrink into one-fourth of their original size. In this state they are touched a second time with oil, but very sparingly; because, with too much oil, they would lose much of their delicious perfume. They are then packed for the market, in small bundles of 50 or 100 in each, enclosed in lead foil, or tight metallic cases. As it comes to us, vanilla is a capsular fruit, of the thickness of a swan’s quill, straight, cylindrical, but somewhat flattened, truncated at the top, thinned off at the ends, glistening, wrinkled, furrowed lengthwise, flexible, from 5 to 10 inches long, and of a reddish-brown colour. It contains a pulpy parenchyma, soft, unctuous, very brown, in which are imbedded black, brilliant, very small seeds. Its smell is ambrosiacal and aromatic; its taste hot, and The kind most esteemed in France, is called leq vanilla; it is about 6 inches long, from 1/4 to 1/3 of an inch broad, narrowed at the two ends, and curved at the base; somewhat soft and viscid, of a dark-reddish colour, and of a most delicious flavour, like that of balsam of Peru. It is called vanilla givrÉes, when it is covered with efflorescences of benzoic acid, after having been kept in a dry place, and in vessels not hermetically closed. The second sort, called vanilla simarona, or bastard, is a little smaller than the preceding, of a less deep brown hue, drier, less aromatic, destitute of efflorescence. It is said to be the produce of the wild plant, and is brought from St. Domingo. A third sort, which comes from Brazil, is the vanillon, or large vanilla of the French market; the vanilla pamprona or bova of the Spaniards. Its length is from 5 to 6 inches; its breadth from one-half to three-quarters of an inch. It is brown, soft, viscid, almost always open, of a strong smell, but less agreeable than the leq. It is sometimes a little spoiled by an incipient fermentation. It is cured with sugar, and enclosed in tin-plate boxes, which contain from 20 to 60 pods. Vanilla, as an aromatic, is much sought after by makers of chocolate, ices, and creams; by confectioners, perfumers, and liquorists, or distillers. It is difficultly reduced to fine particles; but it may be sufficiently attenuated by cutting it into small bits, and grinding these along with sugar. The odorous principle can, for some purposes, be extracted by alcohol. Their analysis by Bucholz is unsatisfactory, and refers obviously to the coarsest sort. Berzelius says that the efflorescences are not acid. White spirit varnish.—Sandarach, 250 parts; mastic in tears, 64; elemi resin, 32; turpentine (Venice), 64; alcohol, of 85 per cent., 1000 parts by measure. The turpentine is to be added after the resins are dissolved. This is a brilliant varnish, but not so hard as to bear polishing. Varnish for the wood toys of Spa.—Tender copal, 75 parts; mastic, 12·5; Venice turpentine, 6·5; alcohol, of 95 per cent., 100 parts by measure; water ounces, for example, if the other parts be taken in ounces. The alcohol must be first made to act upon the copal, with the aid of a little oil of lavender or camphor, if thought fit; and the solution being passed through a linen cloth, the mastic must be introduced. After it is dissolved, the Venice turpentine, previously melted in a water-bath, should be added; the lower the temperature at which these operations are carried on, the more beautiful will the varnish be. This varnish ought to be very white, very drying, and capable of being smoothed with pumice-stone and polished. Varnish for certain parts of carriages.—Sandarach, 190 parts; pale shellac, 95; rosin, 125; turpentine, 190; alcohol, at 85 per cent., 1000 parts by measure. Varnish for cabinet-makers.—Pale shellac, 750 parts; mastic, 64; alcohol, of 90 per cent., 1000 parts by measure. The solution is made in the cold, with the aid of frequent stirring. It is always muddy, and is employed without being filtered. With the same resins and proof spirit a varnish is made for the bookbinders to do over their morocco leather. The varnish of Watin, for gilded articles.—Gum lac, in grain, 125 parts; gamboge, 125; dragon’s blood, 125; annotto, 125; saffron, 32. Each resin must be dissolved in For fixing engravings or lithographs upon wood, a varnish called mordant is used in France, which differs from others chiefly in containing more Venice turpentine, to make it sticky; it consists of—sandarach, 250 parts; mastic in tears, 64; rosin, 125; Venice turpentine, 250; alcohol, 1000 parts by measure. Copal varnish.—Hard copal, 300 parts; drying linseed or nut oil, from 125 to 250 parts; oil of turpentine, 500; these three substances are to be put into three separate vessels; the copal is to be fused by a somewhat sudden application of heat; the drying oil is to be heated to a temperature a little under ebullition, and it is to be added by small portions at a time to the melted copal. When this combination is made, and the heat a little abated, the essence of turpentine, likewise previously heated, is to be introduced by degrees: some of the volatile oil will be dissipated at first; but more being added, the union will take place. Great care must be taken to prevent the turpentine vapour from catching fire, which might occasion serious accidents to the operator. When the varnish is made, and has cooled down to about the 130th degree of Fahr., it may be strained through a filter, to separate the impurities and undissolved copal. Almost all varnish-makers think it indispensable to combine the drying oil with the copal, before adding the oil of turpentine; but in this they are mistaken. Boiling oil of turpentine combines very readily with fused copal; and, in some cases, it would probably be preferable to commence the operation with it, adding it in successive small quantities. Indeed, the whitest copal varnish can be made only in this way; for if the drying oil have been heated to nearly its boiling point, it becomes coloured, and darkens the varnish. This varnish improves in clearness by keeping. Its consistence may be varied by varying the proportions of the ingredients, within moderate limits. Good varnish, applied in summer, should become so dry in 24 hours that the dust will not stick to it, nor receive an impression from the fingers. To render it sufficiently dry and hard for polishing, it must be subjected for several days to the heat of a stove. Milk of wax, is a valuable varnish, which may be prepared as follows:—Melt in a porcelain capsule a certain quantity of white wax, and add to it, while in fusion, an equal quantity of spirit of wine, of sp. gr. 0·830; stir the mixture, and pour it upon a large porphyry slab. The granular mass is to be converted into a paste by the muller, with the addition, from time to time, of a little alcohol; and as soon as it appears to be smooth and homogeneous, water is to be introduced in small quantities successively, to the amount of four times the weight of the wax. This emulsion is to be then passed through canvas, in order to separate such particles as may be imperfectly incorporated. The milk of wax, thus prepared, may be spread with a smooth brush upon the surface of a painting, allowed to dry, and then fused by passing a hot iron (salamander) over its surface. When cold, it is to be rubbed with a linen cloth to bring out the lustre. It is to the unchangeable quality of an encaustic of this nature, that the antient paintings upon the walls of Herculaneum and Pompeii owe their freshness at the present day. The most recent practical account of the manufacture of varnishes, is that communicated by Mr. J. Wilson Neil to the Society of Arts, and published in the 49th volume of their “Transactions.” The building or shed wherein varnish is made, ought to be quite detached from any buildings whatever, to avoid accidents by fire. For general purposes, a building about 18 feet by 16 is sufficiently large for manufacturing 4000 gallons and upwards annually, provided there are other convenient buildings for the purpose of holding the utensils, and warehousing the necessary stock. Procure a copper pan, made like a common washing-copper, which will contain from fifty to eighty gallons, as occasion may require; when wanted, set it upon the boiling furnace, and fill it up with linseed oil within five inches of the brim. Kindle a fire in the furnace underneath, and manage the fire so that the oil shall gradually, but slowly, increase in heat for the first two hours; then increase the heat to a gentle simmer; and if there is any scum on the surface, skim it off with a copper ladle, and put the skimming away. Let the oil boil gently for three hours longer; then introduce, by a little at a time, one quarter of an ounce of the best calcined magnesia for every gallon of oil, occasionally stirring the oil from the bottom. When the magnesia is all in, let the oil boil rather smartly for one hour; it will then be sufficient. Lay a cover over the oil, to keep out the dust while the fire is withdrawn and extinguished by water; next uncover the oil, and leave it till next morning; and then, while it is yet hot, ladle it into the carrying-jack, or let it out through the pipe and cock; carry it away, and deposit it in either a tin or leaden cistern, for wooden vessels will not hold it; let it remain to settle for at least three months. The magnesia will absorb all the acid and mucilage from the oil, and GENERAL OBSERVATIONS AND PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN MAKING VARNISHES. Set on the boiling-pot with 8 gallons of oil; kindle the fire; then lay the fire in the gum-furnace; have as many 8lb. bags of gum-copal all ready weighed up, as will be wanted; put one 8lb. into the pot, put fire to the furnace, set on the gum-pot; in three minutes (if the fire is brisk) the gum will begin to fuse and give out its gas, steam, and acid; stir and divide the gum, and attend to the rising of it, as before directed. 8lbs. of copal take in general from sixteen to twenty minutes in fusing, from the beginning till it gets clear like oil, but the time depends very much on the heat of the fire, and the attention of the operator. During the first twelve minutes, while the gum is fusing, the assistant must look to the oil, and bring it to a smart simmer; for it ought to be neither too hot, nor yet too cold, but in appearance beginning to boil, which he is strictly to observe, and, when ready, to call out, “Bear a hand!” Then immediately both lay hold of a handle of the boiling-pot, lift it right up, so as to clear the plate, carry it out and place it on the ash-bed, the maker instantly returning to the gum-pot, while the assistant puts three copper ladlefuls of oil into the copper pouring-jack, bringing it in and placing it on the iron plate at the back of the gum-pot to keep hot until wanted. When the maker finds the gum is nearly all completely fused, and that it will in a few minutes be ready for the oil, let him call out, “Ready oil!” The assistant is then to lift up the oil-jack with both hands, one under the bottom and the other on the handle, laying the spout over the edge of the pot, and wait until the maker calls out, “Oil!” The assistant is then to pour in the oil as before directed, and the boiling to be continued until the oil and gum become concentrated, and the mixture looks clear on the glass; the gum-pot is now to be set upon the brick-stand until the assistant puts three more ladlefuls of hot oil into the pouring-jack, and three more into a spare tin for the third run of gum. There will remain in the boiling-pot still 31/2 gallons of oil. Let the maker put his right hand down the handle of the gum-pot near to the side, with his left hand near the end of the handle, and with a firm grip lift the gum-pot, and deliberately lay the edge of the gum-pot over the edge of the boiling-pot until all its contents run into the boiling-pot. Let the gum-pot be held, with its bottom turned upwards, for a minute right over the boiling-pot. Observe, that whenever the maker is beginning to pour, the assistant stands ready with a thick piece of old carpet, without holes, and sufficiently large to cover the mouth of the boiling-pot should it catch fire during the pouring, which will sometimes happen if the gum-pot is very hot; should the gum-pot fire, it has only to be kept bottom upwards, and it will go out of itself; but if the boiling-pot should catch fire, during the pouring, let the assistant throw the piece of carpet quickly over the blazing pot, holding it down all round the edges; in a few minutes it will be smothered. The moment the maker has emptied the gum-pot, he throws into it half a gallon of turpentine, and with the swish immediately washes it from top to bottom, and instantly empties it into the flat tin jack: he wipes the pot dry, and puts in 8lbs. more gum, and sets it upon the furnace; proceeding with this run exactly as with the last, and afterwards with the third run. There will then be 8 gallons of oil and 24lbs. of gum in the boiling-pot, under which keep up a brisk strong fire until a scum or froth rises and covers all the surface of the contents, when it will begin to rise rapidly. Observe, when it rises near the rivets of the handles, carry it from the fire, and set it on the ash-bed, stir it down again, and scatter in the driers by a little at a time; keep stirring, and if the frothy head goes down, put it upon the furnace, and introduce gradually the remainder of the driers, always carrying out the pot when the froth rises near the rivets. In general, if the fire be good, all the time a pot requires to boil, from the time of the last gum being poured in, is about three and a half or four hours; but time is no criterion for a beginner to judge by, as it may vary according to the weather, the quality of the oil, the quality of the gum, the driers, or the heat of the fire, &c.; therefore, about the third hour of boiling, try it on a bit of glass, and keep it boiling until it feels strong and stringy between the fingers; it is then boiled sufficiently to carry it on the ash-bed, and to be stirred down until it is cold enough to mix, which will depend much on the weather, varying from half an hour, in dry frosty weather, to one hour in warm summer weather. Previous to beginning to mix, have a sufficient quantity of turpentine ready, fill the pot, and pour in, stirring all the time at the top or surface, as before directed, until there are fifteen gallons, or five tins of oil of turpentine introduced, which will leave it quite thick enough if the gum is good, and has been well run; but if the gum was of a weak quality, and has not been well fused, there ought to be no more than twelve gallons of turpentine mixed, and even that may be too much. Therefore, when twelve gallons of turpentine have been introduced, have a flat saucer at hand, and pour into it The choice of linseed oil is of peculiar consequence to the varnish-maker. Oil from fine full-grown ripe seed, when viewed in a phial, will appear limpid, pale, and brilliant; it is mellow and sweet to the taste, has very little smell, is specifically lighter than impure oil, and, when clarified, dries quickly and firmly, and does not materially change the colour of the varnish when made, but appears limpid and brilliant. Copal varnishes for fine paintings, &c.—Fuse 8 lbs. of the very cleanest pale African gum copal, and, when completely run fluid, pour in two gallons of hot oil, old measure; let it boil until it will string very strong; and in about fifteen minutes, or while it is yet very hot, pour in three gallons of turpentine, old measure, and got from the top of a cistern. Perhaps during the mixing, a considerable quantity of the turpentine will escape; but the varnish will be so much the brighter, transparent, and fluid; and will work freer, dry more quickly, and be very solid and durable when dry. After the varnish has been strained, if it is found too thick, before it is quite cold, heat as much turpentine, and mix with it, as will bring it to a proper consistence. Cabinet varnish.—Fuse 7 lbs. of very fine African gum copal, and pour in half a gallon of pale clarified oil; in three or four minutes after, if it feel stringy, take it out of doors, or into another building where there is no fire, and mix with it three gallons of turpentine; afterwards strain it, and put it aside for use. This, if properly boiled, will dry in ten minutes; but if too strongly boiled, will not mix at all with the turpentine; and sometimes, when boiled with the turpentine, will mix, and yet refuse to incorporate with any other varnish less boiled than itself: therefore it requires a nicety which is only to be learned from practice. This varnish is chiefly intended for the use of japanners, cabinet-painters, coach-painters, &c. Best body copal varnish for coach-makers, &c.—This is intended for the body parts of coaches and other similar vehicles, intended for polishing. Fuse 8 lbs. of fine African gum copal; add two gallons of clarified oil (old measure); boil it very slowly for four or five hours, until quite stringy; mix with three gallons and a half of turpentine; strain off, and pour it into a cistern. As they are too slow in drying, coach-makers, painters, and varnish-makers, have introduced to two pots of the preceding varnish, one made as follows:—
Quick drying body copal varnish, for coaches, &c.
To be mixed and strained while hot into the other pot. These two pots mixed together will dry in six hours in winter, and in four in summer; it is very useful for varnishing old work on dark colours, &c. Best pale carriage varnish.
This varnish will dry hard, if well boiled, in four hours in summer, and in six in winter. As the name denotes, it is intended for the varnishing of the wheels, springs, and carriage parts of coaches, chaises, &c.; also, it is that description of varnish which is generally sold to and used by house-painters, decorators, &c., as from its drying quality and strong gloss, it suits their general purposes well. Second carriage varnish.
Wainscot varnish.
Mahogany varnish is made either with the same proportions, with a little darker gum; otherwise it is wainscot varnish, with a small portion of gold size. Black japan, is made by putting into the set-pot 48 pounds of Naples, or any other of the foreign asphaltums (except the Egyptian). As soon as it is melted, pour in 10 gallons of raw linseed oil; keep a moderate fire, and fuse 8 pounds of dark gum animÉ in the gum-pot; mix it with 2 gallons of hot oil, and pour it into the set-pot. Afterwards fuse 10 pounds of dark or sea amber in the 10 gallon iron pot; keep stirring it while fusing; and whenever it appears to be overheated, and rising too high in the pot, lift it from the fire for a few minutes. When it appears completely fused, mix in 2 gallons of hot oil, and pour the mixture into the set-pot; continue the boiling for 3 hours longer, and during that time introduce the same quantity of driers as before directed: draw out the fire, and let it remain until morning; then boil it until it rolls hard, as before directed: leave it to cool, and afterwards mix with turpentine. Pale amber varnish.—Fuse 6 pounds of fine picked, very pale transparent amber in the gum-pot, and pour in 2 gallons of hot clarified oil. Boil it until it strings very strong. Mix with 4 gallons of turpentine. This will be as fine as body copal, will work very free, and flow well upon any work it is applied to: it becomes very hard, and is the most durable of all varnishes; it is very excellent to mix in copal varnishes, to give them a hard and durable quality. Observe; amber varnish will always require a long time before it is ready for polishing. Best Brunswick black.—In an iron pot, over a slow fire, boil 45 pounds of foreign asphaltum for at least 6 hours; and during the same time boil in another iron pot 6 gallons of oil which has been previously boiled. During the boiling of the 6 gallons, introduce 6 pounds of litharge gradually, and boil until it feels stringy between the fingers; then ladle or pour it into the pot containing the boiling asphaltum. Let the mixture boil until, upon trial, it will roll into hard pills; then let it cool, and mix it with 25 gallons of turpentine, or until it is of a proper consistence. Iron-work black.—Put 48 pounds of foreign asphaltum into an iron pot, and boil for 4 hours. During the first 2 hours, introduce 7 pounds of red lead, 7 pounds of litharge, 3 pounds of dried copperas, and 10 gallons of boiled oil; add 1 eight-pound run of dark gum, with 2 gallons of hot oil. After pouring the oil and gum, continue the boiling 2 hours, or until it will roll into hard pills like japan. When cool, thin it off with 30 gallons of turpentine, or until it is of a proper consistence. This varnish is intended for blacking the iron-work of coaches and other carriages, &c. A cheap Brunswick black.—Put 28 pounds of common black pitch, and 28 pounds of common asphaltum made from gas tar, into an iron pot; boil both for 8 or 10 hours, which will evaporate the gas and moisture; let it stand all night, and early next morning, as soon as it boils, put in 8 gallons of boiled oil; then introduce, gradually, 10 pounds of red lead, and 10 pounds of litharge, and boil for 3 hours, or until it will roll very hard. When ready for mixing, introduce 20 gallons of turpentine, or more, until of a proper consistence. This is intended for engineers, founders, ironmongers, &c.; it will dry in half an hour, or less, if properly boiled. Axioms observed in the making of copal varnishes.—The more minutely the gum is run, or fused, the greater the quantity, and the stronger the produce. The more regular and longer the boiling of the oil and gum together is continued, the more fluid or free the varnish will extend on whatever it is applied to. When the mixture of oil and gum is too suddenly brought to string by too strong a heat, the varnish requires more than its just proportion of turpentine to thin it, whereby its oily and gummy quality is reduced, which renders it less durable; neither will it flow so well in laying on. The greater proportion of oil there is used in varnishes, the less they are liable to crack, because the tougher and softer they are. By increasing the proportion of gum in varnishes, Concluding observations.—All body varnishes are intended and ought to have 11/2 lbs. of gum to each gallon of varnish, when the varnish is strained off, and cold; but as the thinning up, or quantity of turpentine required to bring it to its proper consistence, depends very much upon the degree of boiling the varnish has undergone, therefore, when the gum and oil have not been strongly boiled, it requires less turpentine for that purpose; whereas, when the gum and oil are very strongly boiled together, a pot of 20 gallons will require perhaps 3 gallons above the regular proportionate quantity; and if mixing the turpentine is commenced too soon, and the pot not sufficiently cool, there will be frequently above a gallon and a half of turpentine lost by evaporation. All carriage, wainscot, and mahogany varnish ought to have fully 1 pound of gum for each gallon, when strained and cold; and should one pot require more than its proportion of turpentine, the following pot can easily be left not quite so strongly boiled; then it will require less turpentine to thin it up. Gold sizes, whether pale or dark, ought to have fully half a pound of good gum copal to each gallon, when it is finished; and the best black japan, to have half a pound of good gum, or upwards, besides the quantity of asphaltum. Fine mastic, or picture varnish.—Put 5 pounds of fine picked gum mastic into a new 4-gallon tin bottle; get ready 2 pounds of glass, bruised as small as barley; wash it several times; afterwards dry it perfectly, and put it into the bottle with 2 gallons of turpentine that has settled some time; put a piece of soft leather under the bung; lay the tin on a sack upon the counter, table, or any thing that stands solid; begin to agitate the tin, smartly rolling it backward and forward, causing the gum, glass, and turpentine, to work as if in a barrel-churn for at least 4 hours, when the varnish may be emptied out into any thing sufficiently clean, and large enough to hold it. If the gum is not all dissolved, return the whole into the bottle, and agitate as before, until all the gum is dissolved; then strain it through fine thin muslin into a clean tin bottle: leave it uncorked, so that the air can get in, but no dust; let it stand for 9 months, at least, before it is used; for the longer it is kept, the tougher it will be, and less liable to chill or bloom. To prevent mastic varnish from chilling, boil 1 quart of river sand with 2 ounces of pearl-ashes; afterwards wash the sand three or four times with hot water, straining it each time; put the sand on a soup-plate to dry, in an oven; and when it is of a good heat, pour half a pint of hot sand into each gallon of varnish, and shake it well for 5 minutes; it will soon settle, and carry down the moisture of the gum and turpentine, which is the general cause of mastic varnish chilling on paintings. Common mastic varnish.—Put as much gum mastic, unpicked, into the gum-pot as may be required, and to every 23/4 pounds of gum pour in 1 gallon of cold turpentine; set the pot over a very moderate fire, and stir it with the stirrer; be careful, when the steam of the turpentine rises near the mouth of the pot, to cover it with the carpet, and carry it out of doors, as the vapour is very apt to catch fire. A few minutes’ low heat will perfectly dissolve 8 pounds of gum, which will, with 4 gallons of turpentine, produce, when strained, 41/2 gallons of varnish; to which add, while yet hot, 5 pints of pale turpentine varnish, which improves the body and hardness of the mastic varnish. Crystal varnish, may be made either in the varnish-house, drawing-room, or parlour. Procure a bottle of Canada balsam, which can be had at any druggist’s; draw out the cork, and set the bottle of balsam at a little distance from the fire, turning it round several times, until the heat has thinned it; then have something that will hold as much as double the quantity of balsam; carry the balsam from the fire, and, while fluid, mix it with the same quantity of good turpentine, and shake them together until they are well incorporated: in a few days the varnish is fit for use, particularly if it is poured into a half-gallon glass or stone bottle, and kept in a gentle warmth. This varnish is used for maps, prints, charts, drawings, paper ornaments, &c.; and when made upon a larger scale, requires only warming the balsam to mix with the turpentine. White hard spirit-of-wine varnish.—Put 5 pounds of gum sandarac into a 4-gallon tin bottle, with 2 gallons of spirits of wine, 60 over proof, and agitate it until dissolved, exactly as directed for the best mastic varnish, recollecting, if washed glass is used, that it is convenient to dip the bottle containing the gum and spirits into a copperful of hot water every 10 minutes—the bottle to be immersed only 2 minutes at a time—which will greatly assist the dissolving of the gum; but, above all, be careful to keep a firm hold over the cork of the bottle, otherwise the rarefaction will drive the cork out with the Brown hard spirit varnish—is made by putting into a bottle 3 pounds of gum sandarac, with 2 pounds of shellac, and 2 gallons of spirits of wine, 60 over proof; proceeding exactly as before directed for the white hard varnish, and agitating it when cold, which requires about 4 hours’ time, without any danger of fire; whereas, making any spirit varnish by heat is always attended with danger. No spirit varnish ought to be made either near a fire or by candle light. When this brown hard is strained, add 1 quart of turpentine varnish, and shake and mix it well: next day it is fit for use. The Chinese varnish, comes from a tree, which grows in Cochin-China, China, and Siam. It forms the best of all varnishes. Gold lacker.—Put into a clean 4-gallon tin, 1 pound of ground turmeric, 11/2 ounces of powdered gamboge, 31/2 pounds of powdered gum sandarac, 3/4 of a pound of shellac, and 2 gallons of spirits of wine. After being agitated, dissolved, and strained, add 1 pint of turpentine varnish, well mixed. Red spirit lacker.
Pale brass lacker.
But observe, that those who make lackers, frequently want some paler, and some darker, and sometimes inclining more to the particular tint of certain of the component ingredients. Therefore, if a 4-ounce phial of a strong solution of each ingredient be prepared, a lacker of any tint can be produced at any time. Preparation of linseed oil for making varnishes.—Put 25 gallons of linseed oil into an iron or copper pot that will hold at least 30 gallons; put a fire under, and gradually increase the heat, so that the oil may only simmer, for 2 hours; during that time the greatest part of its moisture evaporates; if any scum arises on the surface, skim it off, and put that aside for inferior purposes. Then increase the gradually, and sprinkle in, by a little at a time, 3 lbs. of scale litharge, 3 lbs. of good red lead, and 2 lbs. of Turkey umber, all well dried and free from moisture. If any moist driers are added, they will cause the oil to tumefy; and, at the same time, darken it, causing it to look opaque and thick, ropy and clammy, and hindering it from drying and hardening in proper time; besides, it will lie on the working painting like a piece of bladder skin, and be very apt to rise in blisters. As soon as all the driers are added to the oil, keep quietly stirring the driers from the bottom of the pot; otherwise they will burn, which will cause the oil to blacken and thicken before it is boiled enough. Let the fire be so regulated that the oil shall only boil slowly for three hours from the time all the driers were added; if it then ceases to throw up any scum, and emits little or no smoke, it is necessary to test its temperature by a few quill tops or feathers. Dip a quill top in the oil every two minutes, for when the oil is boiled enough, the quill top will crackle or curl up quite burnt; if so, draw out the fire immediately, and let the oil remain in the pot at least from 10 to 24 hours, or longer if convenient, for the driers settle much sooner when the oil is left to cool in the pot, than when it is immediately taken out. Poppy oil.—Into four pints of pure soft water, put two ounces of foreign white vitriol; warm the water in a clean copper pan, or glazed earthen jar, until the vitriol is dissolved; pour the mixture into a clean glass or stone bottle, large enough to contain three gallons; then add to the solution of vitriol one gallon and a half of poppy oil, cork and agitate the bottle regularly and smartly for at least two hours; then pour out the contents into a wide earthenware dish: leave it at rest for eight days, when the oil will be clean and brilliant on the surface, and may be taken off with a spoon or flat skimmer, and put up in a glass bottle and exposed to the light, which in a few weeks renders the oil exceedingly limpid and colourless. Nut-oil, or oil of walnuts, is extracted by expression; and that which is extracted without heat, is certainly the most pale, pure, and nutritive seasoning, and retains an exquisite taste of the fruit. That designed for the arts is of inferior quality, and is plentifully imported to us from France; the heat it undergoes in its torrefaction, previous to its expression, disposes it to dry more quickly than that expressed by the cold process; but, at the same time, the heat, though it frees it from its unctuous quality, gives it more colour. When it has been extracted by the cold process, it may be prepared in the same way as directed for the poppy oil. In the above article I have retained the workmen’s names—gum, white vitriol, &c., instead of resin, sulphate of zinc, &c. In Mr. Spedding’s system, the whole of the return air came in one current to his rarefying furnace (see letter C, fig. 1158.), whether it was at the explosive point or not. This distribution was often fraught with such danger, that a torrent of water had to be kept in readiness, under the name of the waterfall, to be let down to extinguish the fire in a moment. Many explosions at that time occurred, from the furnaces below, and also down through tubes from the furnaces above-ground. About the year 1807, Mr. Buddle had his attention intensely occupied with this most important object, and then devised his plan of a divided current, carrying that portion through the active furnace C, fig. 1158., and the portion of the air from the foul workings of the air which, descending in the downcast pit A, coursed through the clean workings, up the dumb furnace D, till it reached a certain elevation in B, the upcast pit, above the fireplace. The pitmen had a great aversion, however, at first, to adopt this plan, as they thought that the current of air, by being split, would lose its ventilating power; but they were, ere long, convinced by Mr. Buddle to the contrary. He divides the main current into two separate streams, at the bottom of the pit A, as shown by darts in the figure; the feathered ones, representing that part of the pit in which the course of the current of air is free from explosive mixture, or does not contain above one-thirtieth of carburetted hydrogen, as indicated by its effect upon the flame of a candle. The naked darts denote the portions of the mine where the air, being charged to the firing point, is led off towards D, the dumb furnace, which communicates with the hot upcast shaft, out of reach of the flame, and thence derives its power of draught. By suitable alterations in the stoppings (see the various transverse lines, and the crosses), any portion of the workings may, by the agency of the furnace, be laid out of, or brought within, the course of the vitiated current, at the pleasure of the skilful mine-viewer; so that, if he found it necessary, he could confine, by proper arrangements of his furnace, all the vitiated current to a mere gas-pipe or drift, and direct it wholly through the dumb furnace. The quantity of air put down into the Wallsend colliery, at the time of the last dreadful accident, 18th June, 1835, was not less than 5000 cubic feet per minute, whence it has been justly inferred that the explosion was caused by the rashness of a wasteman carrying a light through a door into a foul drift. Till the cutting out of the pillars commences (see the right end of the diagram), the ventilation of the several passages, boards, &c., may be kept perfect, supposing the working extended no further than a, or b; because, as long as there are pillars standing, every passage may be converted into an air-conduit, for leading a current of air in any direction, either to C, the burning, or D, the dumb furnace. But the first pillar that is removed deranges the ventilation at that spot, and takes away the means of carrying the air into the further recess towards c. In taking out the pillars, the miners always work to windward, that is to say, against the stream of air; so that, whatever gas may be evolved, shall be immediately carried off from the people at work. When a range of pillars has been removed, as at d, e, f, no power remains of dislodging the gas from the section of the mine beyond a, b; and as the pillars are successively cut away to the left hand of the line a, b, the size of the goaf, or void, is increased. This vacuity is a true gas-holder, or reservoir, continually discharging itself at the points g, h, i, into the circulating current, to be carried off by the gas-pipe drift at the dumb furnace, but not to be suffered ever to come in contact with flame of any description. The next range of working, is the line of pillars to the left of a, b; the coal having been entirely cleared out of the space to the right, where the place of the pillars is marked by dotted lines. The roof in the waste soon falls down, and gets fractured up to the next seam of coal, called the yard-coal seam, which, abounding in gas, sends it down in large quantities, and keeps the immense gasometer, or goaf below, continually replenished. See Stove. At the end of 10, 12, 15, or 20 days the vessels are opened, to ascertain, by the materials having become white, if the operation be completed. Detached glossy crystals will be perceived on the surface of the plates; in which case the grapes are thrown away, and the plates are placed upright in a corner of the verdigris cellar, one against the other, upon pieces of wood laid on the ground. At the end of two or three days they are moistened by dipping in a vessel of water, after which they are replaced in their former situation, where they remain seven or eight days, and are then subjected to momentary immersion, as before. This alternate moistening and exposure to air is performed six or eight times, at regular intervals of about a week. As these plates are sometimes dipped into damaged wine, the workmen term these immersions, one wine, two wines, &c. By this treatment, the plates swell, become green, and covered with a stratum of verdigris, which is readily scraped off with a knife. At each operation every vessel yields from five to six pounds of verdigris, in a fresh or humid state; which is sold to wholesale dealers, who dry it for exportation. For this purpose, they knead the paste in wooden troughs, and then transfer it to leathern bags, a foot and a half long, and ten inches in diameter. These bags are exposed to the sun and air till the verdigris has attained a sufficient degree of hardness. It loses about half its weight in this operation; and it is said to be knife-proof, when this instrument, plunged through the leathern bag, cannot penetrate the loaf of verdigris. The manufacture of verdigris at Montpellier is altogether domestic. In most wine farm-houses there is a verdigris cellar; and its principal operations are conducted by the females of the family. They consider the forming the strata, and scraping off the verdigris, the most troublesome part. Chaptal says that this mode of making verdigris would admit of some improvements: for example, the acetification requires a warmer temperature than what usually arises in the earthen vessels; and the plates, when set aside to generate the coat of verdigris, require a different degree of heat and moisture from that requisite for the other operations. Verdigris is a mixture of the crystallized acetate of copper and the sub-acetate, in varying proportions. According to Vauquelin’s researches, there are three compounds of oxide of copper and acetic acid; 1. a subacetate, insoluble in water, but decomposing in that fluid, at common temperatures changing into peroxide and acetate; 2. a neutral acetate, the solution of which is not altered at common temperatures, but is decomposed by ebullition, becoming peroxide and superacetate; and, 3. superacetate, which in Mr. Phillips has given the following analyses of French and English verdigris; Annals of Philosophy, No. 21.—
Distilled verdigris, as it was long erroneously called, is merely a binacetate or superacetate of copper, made by dissolving, in a copper kettle, one part of verdigris in two of distilled vinegar; aiding the mutual action by slight heat and agitation with a wooden spatula. When the liquor has taken its utmost depth of colour, it is allowed to settle, and the clear portion is decanted off into well glazed earthen vessels. Fresh vinegar is poured on the residuum, and if its colour does not become deep enough, more verdigris is added. The clear and saturated solution is then slowly evaporated, in a vessel kept uniformly filled, till it acquires the consistence of syrup, and shows a pellicle on its surface; when it is transferred into glazed earthen pans, called oulas in the country. In each of these dishes, two or three sticks are placed, about a foot long, cleft till within two inches of their upper end, and having the base of the cleft kept asunder by a bit of wood. This kind of pyramid is suspended by its summit in the liquid. All these vessels are transported into crystallizing rooms, moderately heated with a stove, and left in the same state for 15 days, taking care to maintain an uniform temperature. Thus are obtained very fine groups of crystals of acetate of copper, clustered round the wooden rods; on which they are dried, taken off, and sent into the market. They are distinctly rhomboidal in form, and of a lively deep blue colour. Each cluster of crystals weighs from five to six pounds; and, in general, their total weight is equal to about one-third of the verdigris employed. The crystallized binacetate of commerce consists, by my analysis, of—acetic acid, 52; oxide of copper, 39·6; water, 8·4, in 100. I have prepared crystals which contain no water. There is a triple acetate of copper and lime, which resembles distilled verdigris in colour. It was manufactured pretty extensively in Scotland some years ago, and fetched a high price, till I published an analysis of it in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. It is much inferior, for all uses in the arts, to the proper binacetate. The cendres bleues en pÂte of the French, though analogous, are in some respects a different preparation. To make it, dissolve sulphate of copper in hot water, in such proportions that the liquid may have a density of 1·3. Take 240 pound measures of this solution, and divide it equally into 4 open-headed casks; add to each of these 45 pound measures of a boiling-hot solution of muriate of lime, of specific gravity 1·317, whereby a double decomposition will ensue; with the formation of muriate of copper and sulphate of lime, which precipitates. It is of consequence to work the materials well together at the moment of mixture, to prevent the precipitate agglomerating in unequal masses. After leaving it to settle for 12 hours, a small quantity of the clear liquor may be examined, to see whether the just proportions of the two salts have been employed, which is done by adding either sulphate of copper or muriate of lime. Should either cause much precipitation, some of the other must be poured in till the equivalent decomposition be accomplished; though less harm results from an excess of sulphate of copper than of muriate of lime. The muriate of copper is to be decanted from the subsided gypsum, which must be drained and washed in a filter; and these blue liquors are to be added to the stronger; and the whole distributed, as before, into 4 casks; composing in all 670 pound measures of a green liquor, of 1·151 specific gravity. Meanwhile, a magma of lime is to be prepared as follows:—100 pounds of quicklime are to be mixed up with 300 pounds of water, and the mixture is to be passed through a wire-gauze sieve, to separate the stony and sandy particles, and then to be ground in a proper mill to an impalpable paste. About 70 or 80 pounds of this mixture (the beauty of the colour is inversely as the quantity of lime) are to be distributed Before making further use of this paste, the quantity of water present in it must be determined by drying 100 or 200 grains. If it contain 27 per cent. of dry matter, 12 pounds of it may be put into a wooden bucket (and more or less in the ratio of 12 to to 27 per cent.) capable of containing 171/2 pints; a pound (measure) of the lime paste is then to be rapidly mixed into it; immediately afterwards, a pint and a quarter of a watery solution of the pearlash of commerce, of spec. grav. 1·114, previously prepared; and the whole mixture is to be well stirred, and immediately transferred to a colour-mill. The quicker this is done, the more beautiful is the shade. On the other hand, two solutions must have been previously made ready, one of sal-ammoniac (4 oz. troy dissolved in 31/2 pints of water), and another of sulphate of copper (8 oz. troy dissolved in 31/2 pints of water). When the paste has come entirely through the mill, it is to be quickly put into a jar, and the two preceding solutions are to be simultaneously poured into it; when a cork is to be inserted, and the jar is to be powerfully agitated. The cork must now be secured with a fat lute. At the end of four days this jar and three of its fellows are to be emptied into a large hogshead nearly full of clear water, and stirred well with a paddle. After repose, the supernatant liquid is run off; when it is filled up again with water, and elutriated several times in succession, till the liquid no longer tinges turmeric paper brown. The deposit may be then drained on a cloth filter. The pigment is sold in the state of a paste; and is used for painting, or printing paper-hangings for the walls of apartments. The above prescribed proportions furnish the superfine blue paste: for the second quality, one-half more quicklime paste is used; and for the third, double of the lime and sal ammoniac; but the mode of preparation is in every case the same. This paste may be dried into a blue powder, or into crayons for painters, by exposing it on white deals to a very gentle heat in a shady place. This is called cendres bleues en pierre. The following is, according to M. J. G. Gentele, the process of fabrication in Bremen, Cassel, Eisenach, Minden, &c.:— a. 225 lbs. of sea salt, and 222 lbs. of blue vitriol, both free from iron, are mixed in the dry state, then reduced between mill-stones with water to a thick homogeneous paste. b. 225 lbs. of plates of old copper are cut by scissors into bits of an inch square, then thrown and agitated in a wooden tub containing two lbs. of sulphuric acid, diluted with a sufficient quantity of water, for the purpose of separating the impurities; they are afterwards washed with pure water in casks made to revolve upon their axes. c. The bits of copper being placed in oxidation-chests, along with the magma of common salt and blue vitriol previously prepared in strata of half an inch thick, they are left for some time to their mutual reaction. The above chests are made of oaken planks joined without iron nails, and set aside in a cellar, or other place of moderate temperature. The saline mixture, which is partially converted into sulphate of soda and chloride of copper, absorbs oxygen from the air, whereby the metallic copper passes into a hydrated oxide, with a rapidity proportioned to the extent of the surfaces exposed to the atmosphere. In order to increase this exposure, during the three months that the process requires, the whole mass must be turned over once every week, with a copper shovel, transferring it into an empty chest alongside, and then back into the former one. At the end of three months, the corroded copper scales must be picked out, and the saline particles separated from the slimy oxide with the help of as little water as possible. d. This oxidized schlam, or mud, is filtered, then thrown, by means of a bucket containing 30 pounds, into a tub, where it is carefully divided or comminuted. e. For every six pailfuls of schlam thus thrown into the large tub, 12 pounds of muriatic acid, at 15° BaumÉ, are to be added; the mixture is to be stirred, and then left at rest for 24 or 36 hours. f. Into another tub, called the blue back, there is to be introduced, in like manner, for every six pailfuls of the acidified schlam, 15 similar pailfuls of a solution of colourless clear caustic alkali, at 19° BaumÉ. g. When the back (e) has remained long enough at rest, there is to be poured into it a pail of pure water for every pail of schlam. h. When all is thus prepared, the set of workmen who are to empty the back (e), and those who are to stir (f), must be placed alongside of each. The first set transfer the schlam rapidly into the latter back; where the second set mix and agitate it all the time requisite to convert the mass into a consistent state, and then leave it at rest from 36 to 48 hours. The whole mass is to be now washed; with which view it is to be stirred about with the affusion of water, allowed to settle, and the supernatant liquor is drawn off. This process is to be repeated till no more traces of potash remain among the blue. The deposit must be then thrown upon a filter, where it is to be kept moist, and exposed freely to the air. The pigment is now squeezed in the filter-bags, cut into bits, and dried in the atmosphere, or at a temperature not exceeding 78° Fahr. It is only after the most complete desiccation that the colour acquires its greatest lustre. When the dough is properly prepared, it is reduced to thin ribands, cylinders, or tubes, to form vermicelli and macaroni of different kinds. This operation is performed by means of a powerful press. This is vertical, and the iron plate or follower carried by the end of the screw fits exactly into a cast-iron cylinder, called the bell, like a sausage-machine, of which the bottom is perforated with small holes, of the shape and size intended for the vermicelli. The bell being filled, and warmed with a charcoal fire to thin the dough into a paste, this is forced slowly through the holes, and is immediately cooled and dried by a fanner as it protrudes. When the threads or fillets have acquired the length of a foot, they are grasped by the hand, broken off, and twisted, while still flexible, into any desired shape upon a piece of paper. The macaroni requires to be made of a less compact dough than the vermicelli. The former is forced through the perforated bottom, usually in fillets, which are afterwards formed into tubes by joining their edges together before they have had time to become dry. The lazagnes are macaroni left in the fillet or riband shape. Holland long kept a monopoly of the manufacture of vermillion, from being alone in possession of the art of giving it a fine flame colour. Meanwhile the French chemists examined this product with great care, under an idea that the failure of other nations to rival the Dutch, arose from ignorance of its true composition; some, with Berthollet, imagined that it contained a little hydrogen; and others, with Fourcroy, believed that the mercury contained in it was oxidized; but, eventually, Seguin proved that both of these opinions were erroneous; having ascertained, on the one hand, that no hydrogenous matter was given out in the decomposition of cinnabar, and on the other that M. Tuckert, apothecary of the Dutch court, published, long ago, in the Annales de Chimie, vol. iv., the best account we yet have of the manufacture of vermillion in Holland; one which has been since verified by M. PayssÉ, who saw the process practised on the great scale with success. “The establishment in which I saw, several times, the fabrication of sublimed sulphuret of mercury,” says M. Tuckert, “was that of Mr. Brand, at Amsterdam, beyond the gate of Utrecht; it is one of the most considerable in Holland, producing annually, from three furnaces, by means of four workmen, 48,000 pounds of cinnabar, besides other mercurial preparations. The following process is pursued here:— “The ethiops is first prepared by mixing together 150 pounds of sulphur, with 1080 pounds of pure mercury, and exposing this mixture to a moderate heat in a flat polished iron pot, one foot deep, and two feet and a half in diameter. It never takes fire, provided the workman understands his business. The black sulphuret, thus prepared, is ground, to facilitate the filling with it of small earthen bottles capable of holding about 24 ounces of water; from 30 to 40 of which bottles are filled beforehand, to be ready when wanted. “Three great subliming pots or vessels, made of very pure clay and sand, have been previously coated over with a proper lute, and allowed to dry slowly. These pots are set upon three furnaces bound with iron hoops, and they are covered with a kind of iron dome. The furnaces are constructed so that the flame may freely circulate and play upon the pots, over two-thirds of their height. “The subliming vessels having been set in their places, a moderate fire is kindled in the evening, which is gradually augmented till the pots become red. A bottle of the black sulphuret is then poured into the first in the series, next into the second and third, in succession; but eventually, two, three, or even more, bottles may be emptied in at once; this circumstance depends on the stronger or weaker combustion of the sulphuret of mercury thus projected. After its introduction, the flame rises 4 and sometimes 6 feet high; when it has diminished a little, the vessels are covered with a plate of iron, a foot square, and an inch and a half thick, made to fit perfectly close. In this manner, the whole materials which have been prepared are introduced, in the course of 34 hours, into the three pots; being for each pot, 360 pounds of mercury, and 50 of sulphur; in all, 410 pounds.” The degree of firing is judged of, from time to time, by lifting off the cover; for if the flame rise several feet above the mouth of the pot, the heat is too great; if it be hardly visible, the heat is too low. The proper criterion being a vigorous flame playing a few inches above the vessel. In the last of the 36 hours’ process, the mass should be dexterously stirred up every 15 or 20 minutes, to quicken the sublimation. The subliming pots are then allowed to cool, and broken to pieces in order to collect all the The humid process of Kirchoff has of late years been so much improved, as to furnish a vermillion quite equal in brilliancy to the Chinese. The following process has been recommended. Mercury is triturated for several hours with sulphur, in the cold, till a perfect ethiops is formed; potash lye is then added, and the trituration is continued for some time. The mixture is now heated in iron vessels, with constant stirring at first, but afterwards only from time to time. The temperature must be kept up as steadily as possible at 130° Fahr., adding fresh supplies of water as it evaporates. When the mixture which was black, becomes, at the end of some hours, brown-red, the greatest caution is requisite, to prevent the temperature from being raised above 114°, and to preserve the mixture quite liquid, while the compound of sulphur and mercury should always be pulverulent. The colour becomes red, and brightens in its hue, often with surprising rapidity. When the tint is nearly fine, the process should be continued at a gentler heat, during some hours. Finally, the vermillion is to be elutriated, in order to separate any particles of running mercury. The three ingredients should be very pure. The proportion of product varies with that of the constituents, as we see from the following results of experiments, in which 300 parts of mercury were always employed, and from 400 to 450 of water:—
The first proportions are therefore the most advantageous; the last, which are those of M. Kirchoff himself, are not so good. Brunner found that 300 parts of quicksilver, 114 of sulphur, 75 of caustic potassa, and from 400 to 450 of water, form very suitable proportions for the moist process; that the best temperature was 113° F.; and that 122° was the highest limit of heat compatible with the production of a fine colour. The theory of this process is by no means clear. We may suppose that a sulphuret of potassium and mercury is first formed, which is eventually destroyed, in proportion as the oxygen of the air acts upon the sulphuret of potassium itself. There may also be produced some hyposulphite of mercury, which, under the same influence, would be transformed into sulphuret of mercury and sulphate of potash. Sulphuret of potassium and mercury furnish also vermillion, but it is not beautiful. Red oxide of mercury, calomel, turbith mineral, and the soluble mercury of Hahnemann, treated with the sulphuret of potassium, or the hydrosulphuret of ammonia, are all capable of giving birth to vermillion by the humid way. The vermillion of commerce is often adulterated with red lead, brickdust, dragon’s blood, and realgar. The first two, not being volatile, remain when the vermillion is heated to its subliming point; the third gives a red tincture to alcohol; the fourth exhales its peculiar garlic smell with heat; and when calcined in a crucible with carbonate of soda, and nitre in excess, affords arsenic acid, which may be detected by the usual chemical tests.
To produce violets on printed calicoes, a dilute acetate of iron is the mordant, and the dye is madder. The mordanted goods should be well dunged. A good process for dyeing cottons violet, is—first, to gall, with 18 or 20 pounds of nut-galls for every 100 pounds of cotton; second, to pass the stuff; still hot, through a mordant composed of—alum, 10 pounds; iron-liquor, at 11/2° B., and sulphate of copper, each 5 or 6 pounds; water, from 24 to 28 gallons; working it well, with alternate steeping, squeezing, airing, dipping, squeezing, and washing; third, to madder, with its own weight of the root; and fourth, to brighten with soap. If soda be used at the end, instead of soap, the colour called prune de monsieur will be produced; and by varying the doses of the ingredients, a variety of violet tints may be given. The best violets are produced by dyeing yarn or cloth which has been prepared with oil as for the Turkey-red process. See Madder. For the violet pruneau, a little nitrate of iron is mixed with the alum mordant, which makes a black; but this is changed into violet pruneau, by a madder bath, followed by a brightening with soap. Vitriolic acid, or oil of vitriol, is sulphuric acid; blue vitriol, is sulphate of copper; green vitriol, is green sulphate of iron; vitriol of Mars, is red sulphate of iron; and white vitriol, is sulphate of zinc. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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