The intercourse between Siam and Tonkin requires special notice. The exact extent of Tonkin is not known accurately, but all travellers agree that it is a more densely populated country than France, and some imagine that it is of equal extent.

Although situated in the tropics, it enjoys a climate of perpetual spring, and the air which by rights should be burning hot is cooled by the South and North winds which blow alternately for 6 months each in the year. The rainy season begins in April and lasts until August. At this season the leafy trees have their branches weighed down by masses of fruit, the countryside luxuriates in vegetation and promises a rich harvest of rice. There is neither corn nor grapes, but nature supplies their lack by other products. It is true that at times the land is stricken with sterility. The floods destroy the young crops and the drought changes the fertile earth into arid dust.

A range of inaccessible mountains seems to act as a line of defence against foreign invasion. These mountains are clothed with forests containing many fruit trees and inhabited by tigers, deer, and elephants. The interior of the country is occupied by rising ground. The plains are watered by numerous rivers and canals form cheap and facile means of communication. Although the country has so many products of commercial value, the inhabitants give all their attention to fishing.

Kankao is the chief town, and many travellers have compared it favourably with the most populous cities of Asia. There are no imposing edifices with the exception of the royal palace and the arsenal, in other respects it is a confused collection of wooden huts. The foreign trading establishments are the only brick buildings. The ruins of an ancient palace, destroyed during the civil wars, are still visible and the relics point to the pristine glories of the city. The arsenal is a building that would command admiration in Europe. It is furnished with artillery, ammunition and all kinds of warlike stores.

Here the physicist would be struck by the phenomenon of the tides, as the sea ebbs and flows only once in the 24 hours and is only appreciable at the first and last quarters of the moon.

The products are similar to those of other countries of the Indies, but the fruits are finer and more delicious than those of any other Asiatic country. The oranges are large and luscious, but the use of the citron is unsafe as it supplies the mordant used in the dyeing of cotton.

Cultivated fruits include sweet potatoes yams, bananas, mangos, limes, cocoanuts and pineapples. The elephants are the largest and most active of those found in Asia. Temperance is a national virtue and their staple articles of diet are merely rice, vegetables, roots, and salt fish. They observe festivals at which game of all sorts is eaten and especially at weddings and funerals they indulge in all manner of good cheer. They devour horseflesh buffalo and goat meat, dogs, rabbits, rats, frogs, shell fish and all kinds of fish. For dessert they have the most excellent fruits, the odour and colour and taste of which are pleasing to all the senses. Cleanliness is noticeable in all their dishes. The tables and crockery as well as they themselves are perfumed. In formal feasts the guests keep profound silence, and speech before the conclusion of the repast would be considered impolite. This restraint during their meals might be attributed to their voracious appetites. Their usual beverage is a kind of tea with which on festal occasions they mingle arrack. They manufacture strong drink from rice and other vegetables.

The Tonkinese have flat oval faces. Their teeth, naturally white, are blackened so as to avoid the reproach that they resemble those of dogs or elephants. Though of a swarthy complexion they are fairer than the other inhabitants of the Indies. They have long thick black hair. They are active and cunning and seem adapted by nature to be an accomplished race; but idleness, the vice of the climate is a check to industry and renders them poverty stricken. Their insensate passion for gambling reduces the wealthiest to beggary. Having lost all their money, jewels and other possessions, they will wager their wives and children and even their horses to which they are greatly attached.

The dress of the Tonkinese consists of a long robe reaching to the heels. The grandees are dressed in silk or English cloth. The populace and soldiery wear robes of cotton stuff reaching to the knees. Fishermen and workmen, who are obliged to spend their time out of doors, wear hats made of straw or leaves. The King is the only person permitted by law to wear shoes. The common people go bare-foot but this is no discomfort in a land where the soil is sandy. This custom is in vogue in Abyssinior and in all warm countries and only foreigners find that it is distasteful. They however wear sandals as do the officials and the learned men affect the same fashion. The latter allow their nails to grow long as a sign of their rank. Men and women used to be obliged to wear their hair bound up, as a mark of their vassalage, during the time when this kingdom was a dependent state of China, but at the present time they wear it loose over their shoulders. The nation has borrowed its arts, science and etiquette from the Chinese. Their language which is monosyllabic, greatly resembles Chinese, and inflexions of the voice determine the signification of the syllables. The Tonkinese have many guttural and dental consonants which are very difficult to be pronounced by foreigners. Their writing is in vertical columns, they make use of similar writing implements to those of China and they use silk or the bark of trees instead of paper. They have no taste whatever for art and science. It is true they have poets and musicians who are fairly successful in imaginative works. They have also made a certain amount of progress in morality for which they have adapted the maxims in the books of Confucius. They have teachers for all branches of accomplishments but no school for scientific knowledge, and they have only a very slight acquaintance with mathematics.

The healing art is very imperfectly understood in Tonkin, experience is their only guide, and the doctors combine their profession with those of surgeon and apothecary. Their medical books on the preparation of drugs are most vague in their principles. Cupping glasses and caustics are used in obstinate cases only. The usual medicaments are made from gums, roots and herbs. They cure fever, eruptions, jaundice and small-pox by dieting and infusions. Certain diseases are attributed to fogs and exhalations. Astrology bars the way to medical progress, certain days are supposed to be unlucky, and on these days the patient is allowed to suffer rather than that medicines should be administered. Their skill in the arts is shown by their articles of lacquer ware, porcelain, and in the smelting of metals.

The rivers and canals by which the country is intersected are favourable to internal trade. Each town has its fairs and markets to which many foreigners are attracted. But there is very little maritime commerce, for the reason that their ships are too small to brave the dangers of the stormy seas. Foreign imports are saltpetre, sulphur, cloth, all sorts of woollen goods, spices, lead and guns. Foreign currency only is used and no race is more skilful in the art of money changing, as they are able to appreciate or depreciate the exchange values at their pleasure.

Trade would be in a flourishing condition if the Tonkinese were as active as they are industrious, but, sunk into the slough of idleness, they divide their time between sleeping and eating. When they are not actually eating, they smoke, dance or sing. By a cowardly policy, the government puts obstacles in the way of industry, the vassal States of the Empire are excluded from any participation in sources of wealth. The rapacity of the tax-gathers is an effectual check to competition, as people are not anxious to spend their energies on work, the fruit of which is reaped by others. The Tonkinese by nature a suspicious and distrustful race are somewhat chary of the overtures of foreigners and being too fearful of danger are unable to gain any advantage. The legislative code of Tonkin has been borrowed from China, and the administration of the law is in the hands of corrupt persons who sacrifice the innocent poor to the guilty rich. Each provincial governor is judge in his own province. Polygamy is the rule all over Tonkin and no woman can boast of the title "wife." The bonds of these unions or rather of this concubinage, are easily broken. The man gives the woman a writing of divorcement which restores the woman to all her rights. The woman cannot obtain divorce no matter whether she have just grounds or no, and if she is convicted of adultery she is condemned to be trampled to death by elephants. Her paramour dies by another form of torture. The eldest son, after his father's death, receives the whole of the estate and the paternal authority on condition that he provides for his brothers until they are married. The daughters have no share in the heritage. Other laws are similar to those in force in other countries of the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Their love of display is noticeable in their marriage feasts. Actors of both sexes perform dances to the accompaniment of a big drum, and the performance is followed by a concert given by hired musicians. Few ceremonies take place without a show of cock-fighting on which considerable wagers are laid. Girls are married at the age of sixteen and seventeen years, and parental consent is required to make the union legitimate. The brides see their husbands on their wedding day for the first time and priests are excluded from the ceremony and the festivities.

Their funeral rites are the works of superstition, astrologers are appointed to indicate the place of burial and the corpse is kept for several months until some favourable omen indicates a suitable spot. During this delay the relatives of the deceased offer the usual food to the corpse as if it were still alive. It is kept in a room illuminated by torches. Incense and gilt paper on which are painted figures of various animals are burnt in its honour and the relatives pay it a daily visit and prostrate themselves with every appearance of woe.

Those who accompany the funeral procession are dressed in coarse garments and walk barefoot. They support themselves with sticks and their slow tottering step is a sign of their grief.

The nearest relative throws himself on the ground at intervals and the corpse-bearers tread him under foot. The corpse is dressed in rich attire and, as a safeguard against poverty in the next world, a piece of gold and some pearls are placed in its mouth. On certain days in the year offerings of food and incense are made at the tomb that the dead may not lack support.

Although many festivals are celebrated, it seems that they are all due to religious influences. The most noteworthy is the feast of tombs, which is celebrated on the anniversary of the death of the persons in question and bountiful feasts are offered to them. The King and the nobility celebrate their birthdays with great pomp, and their marriage days with dances, concerts, and theatrical performances. At a certain festival, the King followed by all his court, blesses the produce of the soil. He drives the plough and makes several furrows as a tribute to agriculture. There is another ceremony at which exorcisms are made to rid the land of evil spirits. New year's day is an occasion of great rejoicings. Booths are set up where men and women perform dramatic pieces and sing to the accompaniment of the orchestra. Everybody appears to be mad with joy and no business is transacted. All work is at a standstill, the halls of justice are closed and the seal of state is put away in its case. Criminals have no fear of punishment during the feast. The license which reigns supreme during this season exposes the women to outrage and they never appear unless with an ample guard.

The Monarch has but a semblance of real power, the commander-in-chief is the real ruler and it is the latter whom the Europeans regard as King. He has a large body-guard and is attended by a corps of 300 elephants, whereas the actual king, buried in the obscurity of his palace with his wife and children, is served by faithless menials who act as spies on his movements. It is surprising that the commander-in-chief allows the existence of this phantom ruler, but the Tonkinese have such veneration for the master that it would be a dangerous matter to attempt to supersede him.

The commander-in-chief has usually a force of 150,000 infantry and from 10,000 to 20,000 cavalry under his orders. Recruits are eager to join the colours, but at the sight of the enemy their courage evaporates and, as bravery is not one of their characteristics, they are more ready to dig entrenchments than to make sorties therefrom. The commander has no great confidence in his men, at least if we can form an opinion from a letter written to the commander of the Dutch forces in the Indies.

"I have," he remarks, "300,000 infantry 10,000 cavalry, 2,000 elephants, 30,000 musketeers and 1,000 pieces of artillery at my disposal, I beg you to send 200 men and 3 ships to assist me." After such a pompous display of the numbers under his command, one cannot fail to draw the logical conclusion.

The majority of the military positions of trust are confided to eunuchs, enervated by the luxury of court life. Ability is not the road to success, although the posts are not obtainable by bribery, all of them are put up for sale to the highest bidder, because in a kingdom of vast extent in which the eye of the ruler is unable to penetrate the remotest parts, the grandees are always the sharers of intrigue and never of the worth that hides itself in the shade.

The whole strength of their united navy would be unable to hold its own against one of our warships.

Their men-of-war are flat vessels about 70 feet long, and 10 amidships and can be used for coast defence only. The soldiers who are the rowers are directed in their movements by the sound of a drum.

The soldiery, scattered over the kingdom, is supposed to protect the roads, but often by attacks on travellers, abuses the trust of the governors to whom it is subordinated. In time of peace the soldiers are armed with clubs which are formidable weapons in their hands and they break the legs or thighs of those who resist or try to run away.

All civil disputes are summarily disposed of by the magistrates. The offender is obliged to offer meat and drink to the other party in the suit so that their differences may be forgotten over the feast. The creditor is absolute master of his insolvent debtors whom he can treat with every indignity. Criminals are punished in proportion to their crimes. Theft is not punished by death, but by the loss of a limb or of some part of the body. Murderers are condemned to death by decapitation. They are led to the scene of the crime or to their house as a place of execution. If there are several criminals, there are several executioners who on a given signal decapitate their victims simultaneously. The Tonkinese are the least cruel people of the Indies in the punishment of guilty persons. By law life may be bought at a price, and only the poor actually suffer the extreme penalty.

Although the eunuchs are objects of popular scorn, they have considerable power, and as their misfortune smooths the path to honours, it is often the case that self mutilation is practised by ambitious men of advanced age without fearing the pain and sequelae of the operation. Their surgeons perform the operation skilfully, and they have a method by which many accidents are avoided. The patient is thrown into a deep sleep which lessens the shock of the operation, and experience has shown that the torpid state induced, is a protection against fever and inflammation which so often occurs after such operations.

At the age of 18 years every man is subject to a poll-tax in proportion to his wealth. The magistrates, soldiers, and learned men however are exempt and it is the poor man that bears the brunt of the taxation as is usual in most countries. The taxes are collected after the harvest and the inhabitants of the remotest parts of the kingdom are forced to bring a certain quantity of fodder for the King's elephants and horses to the store houses in the capital. Every man is in addition obliged to work for six months on public works for which he receives food but no salary. So great is the degradation of human nature in these climates that the inhabitants, less privileged than animals, seem only to exist on the earth for the purpose of watering it with the sweat of their brows.

The grandees and the learned follow the doctrines of Confucius, but its precepts are too simple to be adopted by the common people who can only behold the workings of a deity in the marvellous. The principal belief is that of Fo which is divided into various sects, the most widespread of which was founded by a China man named Lauro who is revered as one of the greatest wonder-workers of the East. His followers give out that his mother carried him in her womb for 70 years without having lost her virginity. He boasted of his intimacy with spirits who revealed the secrets of the future to him. The priests, brought up in ignorance and superstition, attract the minds of the populace by their fables and wonders. They live in extreme poverty as they have none of the grandees for their disciples, and the bounty of the common people is their only source of revenue. A certain number of priests boast they can cure the most stubborn forms of disease by means of charms. When summoned to the patient they make their appearance in a most extraordinary manner in order to render the performance more imposing. They make their exorcisms to the accompaniment of drums, and trumpets. They jump about in the sick room until the fate of the patient is decided either for death or life and whenever the result proves the useless nature of their performance, they have plenty of excuses ready for their non-success.

In Tonkin the gospel-harvest has been more fruitful than in any other of the lands of the Indies. The scorn of the great for the idolatrous priests has contributed to the success of the Missionaries, who have more than 200,000 converts in this kingdom of whom more than 15,000 are under the charge of a French Missionary recently elevated to the rank of Bishop of Agathopolis and who is assisted in his duties by three French priests and four Chinese converts.

I must here recapitulate the causes that ought to be favourable to the success of this undertaking. The aim of the Seminaries of the Foreign Missions is the establishment of a clerical order in all countries of the world. Sacred history tells us that the Apostles and their successors ordained priests among all nations that they converted. People are always more ready to give credence to their fellow citizens who are well known to them rather than to foreigners whose motives are often to them questionable. The native priests know the language better, are better preachers, make themselves better understood and are more readily listened to in the explanation of the mysteries of religion. Knowing the manners and customs of the country they are acquainted with the best methods of combating the natural inclinations of the people and know how to gain their confidence. All the local superstitions are well known to them, and it is easy for them to point out their absurdity and falsity. With all these advantages they can fight against error and triumph over ungodliness. The hierarchical order established by the seminary, can alone inculcate a perfect type of Christianity that will have no further need for foreign intervention on its behalf.

Besides these general reasons there are particular reasons for the Indies. The toils and dangers incurred in penetrating those distant lands, the study of the Indian languages so difficult to learn and to pronounce, the climate often deadly and always unpleasant to foreigners, and the expenses of travelling, render the Indies inaccessible to most of the priests and members of religious societies who are zealous of making conquests for Jesus Christ. The incessant wars that lay waste all the countries of the Indies do not allow the missionaries to go from one country to another when needed to do so by the church. Princes and people cannot understand their dogmas and worship. The idolatrous priests cannot behold their gods trampled underfoot without becoming enraged against men whom they consider impious and sacrilegious. It is in these times of stress that the flock has the greatest need of its pastor. Besides this in this Indies the foreign priests can render no services to those who groan under the sword of persecution. As soon as they appear, their complexions and facial characteristics betray them and as soon as they are recognised, they are haled off to durance vile.

These eastern lands are of such wide extent and so densely peopled that all the priests and members of the religious societies of Europe would hardly be sufficient to instruct such vast multitudes.

For these reasons the sovereign Pontiff has decided to appoint Vicars-apostolic in order to form a national clergy for which the interests of Religion and Politics demand the lasting prosperity.

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