Occhan.—The Occhans are a class of temple priests, usually officiate as pujaris at Pidari and other Amman (Grama Devata) temples. They are for the most part Saivites, but some belong to the Vadagalai or Tengalai Vaishnava sects. Some of the pujaris wear the sacred thread when within the temple. Their insignia are the udukkai, or hour-glass shaped drum, and the silambu, or hollow brass ring filled with bits of brass, which rattle when it is shaken. In the Chingleput district, some Occhans act as dancing-masters to Devadasis, and are sometimes called Nattuvan.

The name Occhan is derived from the Tamil ochai, meaning sound, in reference to the usual mode of invoking the Grama Devatas (village deities) by beating on a drum and singing their praises. It has been suggested that Occhan is a contracted form of Uvacchan, which occurs in certain old inscriptions.1 Of these, the oldest is dated Sakha 1180 (A.D. 1258), and refers to the tax on Uvacchas. Another inscription, in which the same tax is referred to, is dated Sakha 1328 (A.D. 1406). In both these inscriptions, Uvacchan has been interpreted as referring to Jonakas, who are a class of Muhammadans. This is one of the meanings given by Winslow,2 who also gives “a caste of drummers at temples, Occhan.”

In the northern districts, the Occhans are divided into five sections, called Marayan, Pandi, Kandappan, Periya or Pallavarayan, and Pulavan. Marayan is also the name of temple priests in Travancore, on whom the title Occhan is bestowed as a mark of royal favour by the Travancore sovereigns.3 The Occhans have many titles, e.g., Archaka or Umai Archaka, Devar, Parasaivan, Mudaliar, Vallabarayan, Pusali, Pulavar, and Kamban. Of these, the last two are said to be derived from the Tamil epic poet Kamban, who is traditionally believed to have belonged to the Occhan caste. There is a legend that Kamban was on his way to the residence of a king, when he heard an oil-monger, who was driving his bulls, remonstrate with them, saying “Should you kick against each other because the poet Kamban, like the Occhan he is, hums his verse?” On hearing this, Kamban approached the oil-monger, and went with him to the king, to whom he reported that he had been insulted. By order of the king, the oil-monger burst forth into verse, and explained how his bulls had taken fright on hearing Kamban’s impromptu singing. Kamban was greatly pleased with the poet oil-monger, and begged the king to let him go with honours heaped on him.

In the southern districts, more especially in Madura and Tinnevelly, it is usual for an Occhan to claim his paternal aunt’s daughter in marriage. In the northern districts, a man may also marry his maternal uncle’s or sister’s daughter. Brahman Gurukkals officiate at marriages. In their puberty, marriage, and death ceremonies, the Occhans closely follow the Pallis or Vanniyans. The dead are burnt, and Brahmans officiate at the funeral ceremonies.

The caste is an organised one, and there is usually a headman, called Periyathanakaran, at places where Occhans occur.

Oda vandlu (boatmen).—A synonym of Mila, a fishing caste in Ganjam and Vizagapatam. Some prosperous Milas have adopted Oda Balija as their caste name. (See Vada.)

Odan.—An occupational name of a class of Nayars, who are tile-makers.

Odari.—The Odaris or Vodaris are Tulu-speaking potters in the South Canara district. Those who have abandoned the profession of potter call themselves Mulia, as also do some potters, and those who are employed as pujaris (priests) at bhuthasthanas (devil shrines). In many cases, the headman combines the duties of that office with those of pujari, and is called Mulia. Otherwise his title is Gurikara.

The Canarese potters in South Canara, in making pots, use the ordinary wheel, which is rotated by means of a long stick. The wheel of the Odaris is more primitive, consisting of a small disc, concave above, made of unburnt clay, fitting by means of a pebble pivot into a pebble socket, which is rotated by hand.

Like other Tulu castes, the Odaris worship bhuthas, but also reverence Venkataramana.

In their marriage ceremonial, the Odaris follow the Bant type. At the betrothal, the headmen or fathers of the contracting couple exchange betel, and the party of the future bridegroom give a ring to the people of the bride-elect. The marriage rites are completed in a single day. A bench is placed within the marriage pandal (booth), and covered with clothes brought by the Madivali (washerman caste). The bridegroom is conducted thither by the bride’s brother, and, after going round three times, takes his seat. He is generally preceded by women carrying lights, rice and fruits before him. The lamp is hung up, and the other articles are deposited on the ground. One by one, the women throw a grain of rice, first over the lamp, and then a few grains over the head of the bridegroom. Then the barber comes, and, after throwing rice, shaves the face of the bridegroom, using milk instead of water. The bride is also shaved by a barber woman. The pair are decorated, and brought to the pandal, where those assembled throw rice over their heads, and make presents of money. Their hands are then united by the headman, and the dhare water poured over them by the maternal uncle of the bride.

An interesting rite in connection with pregnancy is the presentation of a fowl or two to the pregnant woman by her maternal uncle. The fowls are tended with great care, and, if they lay eggs abundantly, it is a sign that the pregnant woman will be prolific.

The dead are either buried or cremated. If cremation is resorted to, the final death ceremonies (bojja) must be celebrated on the eleventh or thirteenth day. If the corpse has been buried, these ceremonies must not take place before the lapse of at least a month.

Odde.—The Oddes or Voddas, who are commonly called Wudders, are summed up by Mr. H. A. Stuart4 as being “the navvies of the country, quarrying stone, sinking wells, constructing tank bunds, and executing other kinds of earthwork more rapidly than any other class, so that they have got almost a monopoly of the trade. They are Telugu people, who came originally from Orissa, whence their name. Were they more temperate, they might be in very good circumstances, but, as soon as they have earned a small sum, they strike work and have a merry-making, in which all get much intoxicated, and the carouse continues as long as funds last. They are very ignorant, not being able even to calculate how much work they have done, and trusting altogether to their employer’s honesty. They are an open-hearted, good-natured lot, with loose morals, and no restrictions regarding food, but they are proud, and will only eat in the houses of the higher castes, though most Sudras look down upon them. Polygamy and divorce are freely allowed to men, and women are only restricted from changing partners after having had eighteen. Even this limit is not set to the men.”

Women who have had seven husbands are said to be much respected, and their blessing on a bridal pair is greatly praised. There is a common saying that a widow may mount the marriage dais seven times.

In the Census Report, 1871, the Oddes are described as being “the tank-diggers, well-sinkers, and road-makers of the country who live in detached settlements, building their huts in conical or bee-hive form, with only a low door of entrance. They work in gangs on contract, and every one, except very old and very young, takes a share in the work. The women carry the earth in baskets, while the men use the pick and spade. The babies are usually tied up in cloths, which are suspended, hammock fashion, from the boughs of trees. They are employed largely in the Public Works Department, and in the construction and maintenance of railways. They are rather a fine-looking race, and all that I have come across are Vaishnavites in theory, wearing the trident prominently on their foreheads, arms, and breasts. The women are tall and straight. They eat every description of animal food, and especially pork and field-rats, and all drink spirituous liquors.”

Of the Oddes, the following brief accounts are given in the Nellore, Coimbatore, and Madura Manuals:—

Nellore.—“These people are the tank-diggers. They sometimes engage in the carrying trade, but beyond this, they only move about from place to place as they have work. The word Vodde or Odde is said to be a corruption of the Sanskrit Odhra, the name for the country now called Orissa, and the people are ordinarily supposed to have emigrated from the Uriya country. Besides Telugu, they are said to speak a peculiar dialect among themselves; and, if this should turn out to be Uriya, the question might be regarded as settled. The laborious occupation of the men tends to develop their muscles. I have seen some very fine men among the tribe.”

Coimbatore.—“Numerous, owing to the hard nature of the subsoil and the immense and increasing number of irrigation wells, which demand the labour of strong men accustomed to the use of the crowbar, pick-axe, and powder. They are black, strong, and of good physique, highly paid, and live on strong meat and drink.”

Madura.—“An itinerant caste of tank-diggers and earth-workers. They are Telugus, and are supposed to have come southward in the time of the Nayyakkans. Possibly Tirumala sent for them to dig out his great teppakulam, and assist in raising gopuras. They are a strong, hard-working class, but also drunken, gluttonous, and vicious. And but little faith can be placed in their most solemn promises. They will take advances from half a dozen employers within a week, and work for none of them, if they can possibly help it.”

In Mysore numbers of Oddes are now permanently settled in the outskirts of large towns, where both sexes find employment as sweepers, etc., in connection with sanitation and conservancy. Some Oddes are, at the present time (1908), employed at the Mysore manganese mines. The tribe is often found concerting with the Korachas, Koramas, and other predatory classes in committing dacoities and robberies, and it has passed into a proverb that they would rather bear any amount of bodily torture than confess or disclose the truth regarding the crimes attributed to them. Some Oddes have settled down as agriculturists and contractors, and some are very prosperous. For example, there are a few Oddes near Kuppam in the North Arcot district, whose credit is so good that any rich merchant would advance them large sums of money. A wealthy Odde, worth nearly a lakh of rupees, worried my assistant for half an anna, wherewith to purchase some betel leaf. It is recorded by Bishop Whitehead,5 in the diary of a tour in the Nizam’s Dominions, that, at Khammamett, “the Waddas who have become Christians have for some time past possessed land and cattle of their own, and are well-to-do people. One of the headmen, who was presented to me after service, said that he had 80 acres of land of his own.”

Some of the timber work in the Nallamalai hills, in the Kurnool district, is done by Oddes, who fell trees, and keep bulls for dragging the timber out of the forests. Under the heading “Uppara and Vadde Vandlu,” the Rev. J. Cain gives6 the following account of the distribution of wages. “The tank-diggers had been paid for their work, and, in apportioning the share of each labourer, a bitter dispute arose because one of the women had not received what she deemed her fair amount. On enquiry it turned out that she was in an interesting condition, and therefore could claim not only her own, but also a share for the expected child.”

A legend is current to the effect that, long ago, the Oddes were ordered to dig a tank, to enable the Devatas and men to obtain water. This was done, and they demanded payment, which was made in the form of a pinch of the sacred ashes of Siva to each workman, in lieu of money. When they reached home, the ashes turned into money, but they were not satisfied with the amount, and clamoured for more. The god, growing angry, cursed them thus: “What you obtain in the forests by digging shall be lost as soon as you reach high ground.” Parvati, taking pity on them, asked Siva to give them large sums of money. Whereon Siva, hollowing out a measuring-rod, filled it with varahans (gold coins), and gave it to the maistry. He also filled a large pumpkin with money, and buried it in a field, where the Oddes were working. The measuring-rod was pawned by the maistry for toddy. The Oddes, noticing the raised mound caused by the burying of the pumpkin, left it untouched to show the depth that they had dug. A buffalo, which was grazing in a field close by, exposed the pumpkin, which the Oddes, not suspecting its contents, sold to a Komati.

According to another legend, the Oddes were employed by God, who had assumed a human form, and was living amongst them. On one occasion, God had to perform a certain ceremony, so he gave the Oddes an advance of three days’ pay, and ordered them not to worry him. This they failed to do, and were accordingly laid under a curse to remain poor for ever.

A further legend is current among the Oddes to the effect that, when Siva and Parvati were walking one sultry day upon the earth, they got very hot and thirsty. The drops of perspiration which fell from Siva were changed by him into a man with a pick and crowbar, while those falling from Parvati turned into a woman carrying a basket. The man and woman quickly sunk a well, with the cooling waters of which the god and goddess refreshed themselves, and in gratitude promised the labourers certain gifts, the nature of which is not now known, but neither was satisfied, and both grumbled, which so incensed Siva that he cursed them, and vowed that they and their descendants should live by the sweat of their brows.

Among the Oddes, the following sayings are current:—

The Oddes live with their huts on their heads (i.e., low huts), with light made from gathered sticks, on thin conji (gruel), blessing those who give, and cursing those who do not.

Cobras have poison in their fangs, and Oddes in their tongues.

Though wealth accumulates like a mountain, it soon disappears like mist.

At recent times of census, the following occupational sub-divisions were returned:—Kallu or Rati (stone-workers) and Mannu (earth-workers), Manti or Bailu (open space), between which there is said to be no intermarriage. The endogamous sub-divisions Natapuram and Uru (village men), Bidaru (wanderers), and Konga (territorial) were also returned. Beri was given as a sub-caste, and Odderazu as a synonym for the caste name. In Ganjam, Bolasi is said to be a sub-division of the Oddes. The caste titles are Nayakan and Boyan. The similarity of the latter word to Boer was fatal, for, at the time of my visit to the Oddes, the South African war was just over, and they were afraid that I was going to get them transported, to replace the Boers who had been exterminated. Being afraid, too, of my evil eye, they refused to fire a new kiln of bricks for the new club chambers at Coimbatore until I had taken my departure.

It is noted, in the Mysore Census Report, 1891, that “the caste divides itself into two main branches, the Kallu and Mannu Vaddas, between whom there is no social intercourse of any kind, or intermarriage. The former are stone-workers and builders, and more robust than the latter, and are very dexterous in moving large masses of stone by rude and elementary mechanical appliances. They are hardy, and capable of great exertion and endurance. The Kallu Vaddas consider themselves superior to the Mannu Vaddas (earth diggers). Unlike the Kallu Vaddas, the Mannu Vaddas or Bailu Vaddas are a nomadic tribe, squatting wherever they can find any large earthwork, such as deepening and repairing tanks, throwing up embankments, and the like. They are expert navvies, turning out within a given time more hard work than any other labouring class.” The Mannu Oddes eat rats, porcupines, and scaly ant-eaters or pangolins (Manis pentadactyla).

Of exogamous septs, the following may be cited:—

At the Mysore census, 1901, a few returned gotras, such as arashina (turmeric), huvvina (flowers), honna (gold), and akshantala (rice grain).

“The women of the Vaddevandlu section of the tank-digger caste,” the Rev. J. Cain writes,7 “only wear the glass bracelets on the left arm, as, in years gone by (according to their own account), a seller of these bracelets was one day persuading them to buy, and, leaving the bracelets on their left arms, went away, promising to return with a fresh supply for their right arms. As yet he has not re-appeared.” But an old woman explained that they have to use their right arm when at work, and if they wore bangles on it, they would frequently get broken.

In some places, tattooing on the forehead with a central vertical line, dots, etc., is universally practiced, because, according to the Odde, they should bear tattoo marks as a proof of their life on earth (bhulokam) when they die. Oddes, calling themselves Pachcha Botlu, are itinerant tattooers in the Ganjam, Vizagapatam and Godavari districts. While engaged in performing the operation, they sing Telugu songs, to divert the attention of those who are being operated on.

The office of headman, who is known as Yejamanadu, Samayagadu, or Pedda (big) Boyadu, is hereditary, and disputes, which cannot be settled at a council meeting, are referred to a Balija Desai Chetti, whose decision is final. In some cases, the headman is assisted by officers called Chinna (little) Boyadu, Sankuthi, and Banthari. An Odde, coming to a place where people are assembled with shoes on, is fined, and described as gurram ekki vachchinavu (having come on a horse). The Oddes are very particular about touching leather, and beating with shoes brings pollution. Both the beater and the person beaten have to undergo a purificatory ceremony, and pay a fine. When in camp at Dimbhum, in the Coimbatore district, I caught hold of a ladle, to show my friend Dr. Rivers what were the fragrant contents of a pot, in which an Odde woman was cooking the evening meal. On returning from a walk, we heard a great noise proceeding from the Odde men who had meanwhile returned from work, and found the woman seated apart on a rock and sobbing. She had been excommunicated, not because I touched the ladle, but because she had afterwards touched the pot. After much arbitration, I paid up the necessary fine, and she was received back into her caste.

When a girl reaches puberty, she is confined in a special hut, in which a piece of iron, margosa leaves (Melia Azadirachta), sticks of Strychnos Nux-vomica, and the arka plant (Calotropis gigantea) are placed, to ward off evil spirits. For fear of these spirits she is not allowed to eat meat, though eggs are permitted. On the seventh day, a fowl is killed, waved in front of the girl, and thrown away. At the end of the period of pollution, the hut is burnt down. Sometimes, when the girl bathes on the first day, a sieve is held over her head, and water poured through it. In some places, on the eleventh day, chicken broth, mixed with arrack (liquor), is administered, in order to make the girl’s back and waist strong. The hen, from which the broth is made, must be a black one, and she must have laid eggs for the first time. The flesh is placed in a mortar, pounded to a pulp, and boiled, with the addition of condiments, and finally the arrack.

Both infant and adult marriages are practiced. The marriage ceremony, in its simplest form, is, according to Mr. F. S. Mullaly,8 not a tedious one, the bride and bridegroom walking three times round a stake placed in the ground. In the more elaborate ritual, on the betrothal day, the bride-price, etc., are fixed, and an adjournment is made to the toddy shop. The marriage rites are, as a rule, very simple, but, in some places, the Oddes have begun to imitate the marriage ceremonies of the Balijas. On the third day, the contracting couple go in procession to a tank, where the bridegroom digs up some mud, and the bride carries three basketfuls thereof to a distance. The following story is narrated in connection with their marriage ceremonies. A certain king wanted an Odde to dig a tank, which was subsequently called Nidimamidi Koththacheruvu, and promised to pay him in varahalu (gold coins). When the work was completed, the Odde went to the king for his money, but the king had no measure for measuring out the coins. A person was sent to fetch one, and on his way met a shepherd, who had on his shoulders a small bamboo stick, which could easily be converted into a measure. Taking this stick, he returned to the king, who measured out the coins, which fell short of the amount expected by the Oddes, who could not pay the debts, which they had contracted. So they threw the money into the tank, saying “Let the tank leak, and the land lie fallow for ever.” All were crying on account of their misery and indebtedness. A Balija, coming across them, took pity on them, and gave them half the amount required to discharge their debts. After a time they wanted to marry, and men were sent to bring the bottu (marriage badge), milk-post, musicians, etc. But they did not return, and the Balija suggested the employment of a pestle for the milk-post, a string of black beads for the bottu, and betel leaves and areca nuts instead gold coins for the oli (bride-price).

The Oddes are in some places Vaishnavites, in others Saivites, but they also worship minor deities, such as Ellamma, Ankamma, etc., to whom goats and sheep are sacrificed, not with a sword or knife, but by piercing them with a spear or crowbar. Writing at the commencement of the nineteenth century, Buchanan states9 that “although the Woddaru pray to Vishnu, and offer sacrifices to Marima, Gungama, Durgama, Putalima, and Mutialima, yet the proper object of worship belonging to the caste is a goddess called Yellama, one of the destroying spirits. The image is carried constantly with their baggage; and in her honour there is an annual feast, which lasts three days. On this occasion they build a shed, under which they place the image, and one of the tribe officiates as priest or pujari. For these three days offerings of brandy, palm wine, rice, and flowers are made to the idol, and bloody sacrifices are performed before the shed. The Woddas abstain from eating the bodies of the animals sacrificed to their own deity, but eat those which they sacrifice to the other Saktis.”

The dead are generally buried. By some Oddes the corpse is carried to the burial-ground wrapped up in a new cloth, and carried in a dhubati (thick coarse cloth) by four men. On the way to the grave, the corpse is laid on the ground, and rice thrown over its eyes. It is then washed, and the namam (Vaishnavite sect mark) painted, or vibuthi (sacred ashes) smeared on the forehead of a man, and kunkumam (coloured powder) on that of a female. Earth is thrown by those assembled into the grave before it is filled in. On the karmandhiram day, or last day of the death ceremonies, the relations repair to a tank or well outside the village. An effigy is made with mud, to which cooked rice, etc., is offered. Some rice is cooked, and placed on an arka (Calotropis) leaf as an offering to the crows. If a married woman has died, the widower cuts through his waist thread, whereas a widow is taken to the water’s edge, and sits on a winnow. Her bangles are broken, and the bottu is snapped by her brother. Water is then poured over her head three times through the winnow. After bathing, she goes home, and sits in a room with a lamp, and may see no one till the following morning. She is then taken to one or more temples, and made to pull the tail of a cow three times. The Oddes of Coimbatore, in the Tamil country, have elaborated both the marriage and funeral ceremonies, and copy those of the Balijas and Vellalas. But they do not call in the assistance of a Brahman purohit.

A woman, found guilty of immorality, is said to have to carry a basketful of earth from house to house, before she is re-admitted to the caste.

The following note on a reputed cure for snake poisoning used by Oddes was communicated to me by Mr. Gustav Haller. “A young boy, who belonged to a gang of Oddes, was catching rats, and put his hand into a bamboo bush, when a cobra bit him, and clung to his finger when he was drawing his hand out of the bush. I saw the dead snake, which was undoubtedly a cobra. I was told that the boy was in a dying condition, when a man of the same gang said that he would cure him. He applied a brown pill to the wound, to which it stuck without being tied. The man dipped a root into water, and rubbed it on the lad’s arm from the shoulder downwards. The arm, which was benumbed, gradually became sensitive, and at last the fingers could move, and the pill dropped off. The moist root was rubbed on to the boy’s tongue and into the corner of the eye before commencing operations. The man said that a used pill is quite efficacious, but should be well washed to get rid of the poison. In the manufacture of the pill, five leaves of a creeper are dried, and ground to powder. The pill must be inserted for nine days between the bark and cambium of a margosa tree (Melia Azadirachta) during the new moon, when the sap ascends.” The creeper is Tinospora cordifolia (gul bel) and the roots are apparently those of the same climbing shrub. There is a widespread belief that gul bel growing on a margosa tree is more efficacious as a medicine than that which is found on other kinds of trees.

The insigne of the caste at Conjeeveram is a spade.10

“In the Ceded Districts,” Mr. F. S. Mullaly writes,11 “some of the Wudders are known as Donga Wuddiwars, or thieving Wudders, from the fact of their having taken to crime as a profession. Those of the tribe who have adopted criminal habits are skilful burglars and inveterate robbers. They are chiefly to be found among the stone Wudder class, who, besides their occupation of building walls, are also skilful stone-cutters. By going about under the pretence of mending grindstones, they obtain much useful information as to the houses to be looted, or parties of travellers to be attacked. In committing a highway robbery or dacoity, they are always armed with stout sticks. Burglary by Wudders may usually be traced to them, if careful observations are made of the breach in the wall. The implement is ordinarily the crowbar used by them in their profession as stone-workers, and the blunt marks of the crowbar are, as a rule, noticeable. They will never confess, or implicate another of their fraternity, and, should one of them be accused of a crime, the women are most clamorous, and inflict personal injuries on themselves and their children, to deter the police from doing their duty, and then accuse them of torture. Women and children belonging to criminal gangs are experts in committing grain thefts from kalams or threshing-floors, where they are engaged in harvest time, and also in purloining their neighbours’ poultry. Stolen property is seldom found with Wudders. Their receivers are legion, but they especially favour liquor shopkeepers in the vicinity of their encampment. Instances have been known of valuable jewellery being exchanged for a few drams of arrack. In each Wudder community, there is a headman called the Ganga Raja, and, in the case of criminal gangs of these people, he receives two shares of spoil. Identifiable property is altered at once, many of the Wudders being themselves able to melt gold and silver jewellery, which they dispose of for about one-tenth of the value.”

It has been said of the navvies in England that “many persons are quite unaware that the migratory tribe of navvies numbers about 100,000, and moves about from point to point, wherever construction works are going forward, such as railways, harbour, canals, reservoirs and drainage works. Generally the existence of these works is unknown to the public until their completion. They then come into use, but the men who risked their lives to make them are gone nobody knows where. They are public servants, upon whose labours the facilities of modern civilised life largely depend, and surely, therefore, their claim on our sympathies is universal.” And these remarks apply with equal force to the Oddes, who numbered 498,388 in the Madras Presidency at the census, 1901.

In the Census Report, 1901, Odderazulu is given as a synonym of Odde. One of the sections of the Yerukalas is also called Odde. Vadde (Odde) Cakali (Tsakala) is recorded, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as the name for those who wash clothes, and carry torches and palanquins.

Oddilu.—The Oddilu are described12 by the Rev. J. Cain as principally raftsmen on the Godavari river, who have raised themselves in life, and call themselves Sishti Karanamalu. He states further that they are Kois (or Koyis) who are regarded as more honourable than any of the others, and have charge of the principal velpu (tribal gods).

Odhuvar (reader or reciter).—A name for Pandarams, who recite hymns in temples.

Odisi.—A sub-division of Bhondari.

Odiya.—It is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that “this is the principal Uriya caste of farmers in Ganjam. Odia and Uriya are different forms of one and the same word, and this caste name simply means a native of the Odia or Uriya country, as Telaga means a man of the Telugu country. In both cases, therefore, we find a number of persons included, who are in reality members of some other caste. The total number of sub-divisions of Odia, according to the census schedules, is 146, but a number of these are names of various Uriya castes, and not true sub-divisions. The largest sub-division is Benaito, which is returned by 62,391 persons. The Nunia sub-division, the next largest, was returned by 9,356 individuals.” It is further recorded, in the Census Report, 1901, that Odiya, Oriya, or Uriya “is one of the vaguest terms in the whole of Table XIII (Caste and Tribe). The Odiyas are a race by themselves, split up into many castes. ‘Odiya’ also often means merely a man who speaks Oriya. The term is, however, so constantly returned by itself without qualification, that Odiya has perforce figured in the tables of all the censuses as a caste. The Odiyas of the hills differ, however, from the Odiyas of the plains, the Odiyas of Ganjam from those of Vizagapatam, and the customs of one muttah (settlement) from those of the next.” Mr. Narasing Doss writes to me that “Odiya literally means an inhabitant of Odissa or Orissa. There is a separate caste called Odiya, with several sub-divisions. They are cultivators by profession. Marriage is infant or adult. They employ Brahmans at ceremonials. Widows and divorcees are remarried. They eat fish and meat, but not fowls or beef, and do not drink liquor. They burn the dead. Members of the Nagabonso sept claim to be descendants of Nagamuni, the serpent rishi.”

I gather that there are three main sections among the Odiyas, viz., Benaito, Nuniya, and Baraghoria, of which the first-named rank above the others in the social scale. From them Oriya Brahmans and Koronos will accept water. The Benaitos and Nuniyas are found all over Ganjam, whereas the Baraghorias are apparently confined to villages round about Aska and Purushothapur. There are numerous exogamous gotras within the caste, among which are Nagasira (cobra), Gonda (rhinoceros), Kochipo (tortoise), and Baraha (boar). The gods of the gotra should be worshipped at the commencement of any auspicious ceremony. The Odiyas also worship Jagannatha, and Takuranis (village deities). A number of titles occur in the caste, e.g., Bissoyi, Podhano, Jenna, Bariko, Sahu, Swayi, Gaudo, Pulleyi, Chando, Dolei, and Torei.

When an unmarried girl is ill, a vow is taken that, if she recovers, she shall be married to the dharma devata (sun), which is represented by a brass vessel.

People of mixed origin sometimes call themselves Odiyas, and pass as members of this caste. Some Bhayipuos, for example, who correspond to the Telugu Adapapas, call themselves Odiyas or Beniya Odiyas.

Odiya Toti.—A Tamil synonym for Oriya Haddis employed as scavengers in municipalities in the Tamil country.

Ojali.—The Ojali, Vojali, or Ozolu are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as being “Telugu blacksmiths in the Vizagapatam Agency. They eat beef, but are somewhat superior to the Paidis and Malas in social position. They are also called Mettu Kamsali.” It is stated in the Vizagapatam Manual that, during the reign of Chola Chakravati, the Kamsalas (artisans) claimed to be equal to Brahmans. This offended the sovereign, and he ordered their destruction. Some only escaped death by taking shelter with people of the ‘Ozu’ caste. As an acknowledgment of their gratitude many of the Kamsalas have ozu affixed to their house-name, e.g., Kattozu, Lakkozu.

Okkiliyan.—Okkiliyan is the Tamil synonym for Vakkaliga, the large caste of Canarese cultivators, and the name is derived from okkalu, meaning cultivation or agriculture. In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Vakkaligas or Okkiliyans are described as “Canarese cultivators, who originally belonged to Mysore, and are found mainly in Madura and Coimbatore. The caste is split up into several sub-divisions, the names of two of which, Nonaba and Gangadikara, are derived from former divisions of the Mysore country. Each of these is again split up into totemistic exogamous sections or kulas, some of which are Chinnada (gold), Belli (silver), Khajjaya (cake), Yemme (buffalo), Alagi (pot), Jola (cholum: a millet).” The Vakkaligas say they are descendants of the Ballal Rajah of Anegundi, and that they left their homes in pursuit of more suitable occupation, and settled themselves in Konganad (Coimbatore). The Okkiliyans, whom I have investigated, were settled in the Tamil country in the Coimbatore district, where they were engaged as cultivators, bakers, milk-vendors, bricklayers, merchants, cart-drivers, tailors, cigar manufacturers, and coolies. They returned the following eight endogamous sub-divisions:—

• (1) Gangadikara, or those who lived on the banks of the Ganges.
• (2) Gudi, temple.
• (3) Kire (Amarantus), which is largely cultivated by them.
• (4) Kunchu, a tassel or bunch.
• (5) Kamati, foolish. Said to have abandoned their original occupation of cultivating the land, and adopted the profession of bricklayer.
• (6) Gauri, Siva’s consort.
• (7) Bai.
• (8) Sanu.

Like other Canarese castes, the Okkiliyans have exogamous septs (kuttam or kutta), such as Belli (silver), Kasturi (musk), Pattegara (headman), Aruva, Hattianna, etc. By religion they are both Saivites and Vaishnavites. Those of the Aruva sept are all Saivites, and the Hatti sept are Vaishnavites. Intermarriage between Saivites and Vaishnavites is permitted, even though the former be Lingayats. The Okkiliyans also worship village deities, and sacrifice goats and fowls to Magaliamma and Koniamma.

The Kiraikkarans of Coimbatore, whose main occupation is cultivating kirai (Amarantus) and other vegetables, are said to be Kempati Okkiliyans, i.e. Okkiliyans who emigrated from Kempampatti in Mysore.

The hereditary headman of the caste, at Coimbatore, is called Pattakaran, who has under him a Chinna (little) Pattakaran. The headman presides over the caste council meetings, settles disputes, and inflicts fines and other forms of punishment. If a person is accused of using coarse language, he is slapped on the cheek by the Chinna Pattakaran. If, during a quarrel, one person beats the other with shoes, he has to purify himself and his house, and feed some of his fellow castemen. The man who has been slippered also has to undergo purificatory ceremony, but has not to stand a feast. In cases of adultery, the guilty persons have to carry a basket of sand on the head round the quarters of the community, accompanied by the Chinna Pattakaran, who beats them with a tamarind switch. In some places, I am informed, there is a headman for the village, called Uru Goundan, who is subject to the authority of the Nattu Goundan. Several nadus, each composed of a number of villages, are subject to a Pattakar, who is assisted by a Bandari. All these offices are hereditary.

When a Gangadikara girl reaches puberty, her maternal uncle, or his son, constructs a hut of stems of cocoanut leaves, reeds and branches of Pongamia glabra. Every day her relations bring her a cloth, fruits, and flowers. On alternate days she is bathed, and dressed in a cloth supplied by the washerwoman. The hut is broken up, and a new one constructed on the third, fifth, and seventh days. During the marriage ceremony, the bridegroom carries a dagger (katar) with a lime stuck on its tip, and partly covered with a cloth, when he proceeds to the bride’s house with a bamboo, new clothes, the tali (marriage badge), jewels, wrist-thread (kankanam), fruits, cocoanuts, rice, and a new mat, camphor, etc. He must have the dagger with him till the wrist-threads are untied. The barber cuts the nails of the bridegroom. The Pattakaran, or a Brahman priest, takes round the tali to be blessed by those assembled, and gives it to the bridegroom, who ties it on the bride’s neck. The ends of the cloths of the contracting couple, with betel leaves and areca nuts in them, are tied together, and they link together the little finger of their right hands. They then look at the sky, to see the pole-star, Arundati, who was the wife of the ascetic Vasishta, and the emblem of chastity. The marriage booth has four posts, and the milk-post is made of the milk hedge (Euphorbia Tirucalli), to which are tied mango leaves and a wrist-thread. At some Okkiliyan marriages, the caste priest, called Kanigara (soothsayer), officiates at the tali-tying ceremony. Very great importance is attached to the linking of the fingers of the bridal couple by the Kanigara or maternal uncle. The dowry is not given at the time of marriage, but only after the birth of a child. For her first confinement, the woman is taken to her parents’ home, and, after delivery, is sent back to her husband with the dowry. This is not given before the birth of a child, as, in the event of failure of issue or death of his wife, the husband might claim the property, which might pass to a new family.

Among some Okkiliyans the custom is maintained by which the father of a young boy married to a grown-up girl cohabits with his daughter-in-law until her husband has reached maturity.

A dead person, I was informed at Coimbatore, is buried in a sitting posture, or, if young and unmarried, in a recumbent position. As the funeral procession proceeds on its way to the burial-ground, the relations and friends throw coins, fruits, cakes, cooked rice, etc., on the road, to be picked up by poor people. If the funeral is in high life, they may even throw flowers made of gold or silver, but not images, as some of the higher classes do. At the south end of the grave, a hollow is scooped out for the head and back to rest in. A small quantity of salt is placed on the abdomen, and the grave is filled in. Leaves of the arka plant (Calotropis gigantea), or tangedu (Cassia auriculata), are placed in three corners, and a stone is set up over the head. The son, having gone round the grave with a pot of water and a fire-brand, breaks the pot on the stone before he retires. The widow of the deceased breaks her bangles, and throws them on the grave. The son and other mourners bathe, and return home, where they worship a lighted lamp. On the third day, dried twigs of several species of Ficus and jak tree (Artocarpus integrifolia), milk, a new cloth, plantains, tender cocoanuts, cheroots, raw rice, betel, etc., required for worship, are taken to the grave. The twigs are burnt, and reduced to ashes, with which, mixed with water, the figure of a human being is made. It is covered with a new cloth, and flowers are thrown on it. Puja is done to plantains, cocoanut, etc., placed on a plantain leaf, and milk is poured over the figure by relations and friends. The widow breaks her tali string, and throws it on the figure. The son, and the four bearers who carried the corpse to the grave, are shaved. Each of the bearers is made to stand up, holding a pestle. The barber touches their shoulders with holy grass dipped in gingelly (Sesamum) oil. Raw rice, and other eatables, are sent to the houses of the bearers by the son of the deceased. At night the cloths, turban, and other personal effects of the dead man are worshipped. Pollution is removed on the eleventh day by a Brahman sprinkling holy water, and the caste people are fed. They perform sradh. By some Okkiliyans, the corpse is, like that of a Lingayat Badaga, etc., carried to the burial-ground in a structure called teru kattu, made of a bamboo framework surmounted by a canopy, whereon are placed five brass vessels (kalasam). The structure is decorated with cloths, flags, and plantain trees.

The Morasu Vakkaligas, who sacrifice their fingers, are dealt with separately (see Morasu).

Olai.—A sub-division of Palli, the members of which wear an ear ornament called olai.

Olaro.—A sub-division of Gadaba.

Olekara.—See Vilyakara.

Olikala (pyre and ashes).—An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Omanaito.—The Omanaitos or Omaitos are an Oriya cultivating caste, for the following account of which I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. According to a tradition, the ancestor of the caste was one Amatya, a minister of Sri Rama at Ayodhya. After Rama had gone to heaven, there was no one to take care of them, and they took to agriculture. The caste is divided into two endogamous sections, called Bodo (big) and Sanno (little). The latter are regarded as illegitimate children of the former by a Bottada, Gaudo, or other woman. The Bodo section is divided into septs, called Sva (parrot), Bhag (tiger), Kochchimo (tortoise), Naga (cobra), Sila (stone), Dhudho (milk), Kumda (Cucurbita maxima), and Kukru (dog).

The caste headman is called Bhatha Nayak, whose office is hereditary. He arranges council meetings for settling social questions, and takes a leading part in excommunicating members of the caste. Like the Gonds, the Omanaitos cannot tolerate a man suffering from sores, and he is formally excommunicated. To be received back into the caste, he has to give a caste feast, of which the Bhatha Nayak is the first to partake.

Girls are married before or after puberty. A man claims his paternal aunt’s daughter in marriage. As soon as a young man’s parents think it is time that he should get married, they set out, with some sweets and jaggery (crude sugar), for the house of the paternal aunt, where the hand of her daughter is asked for. A second visit of a similar nature is made later on, when the marriage is decided on. An auspicious day is fixed by the Desari. A messenger is sent to the house of the bride-elect with some rice, three rupees, a sheep, and a new cloth, which are presented to her parents, who invite the bridegroom and his party to come on the appointed day. On that day, the bridegroom is conducted in procession, sometimes on horseback, to the bride’s village. There, in front of her hut, a pandal (booth) has been constructed of eight posts of the sal tree (Shorea robusta), and a central post of the ippa (Bassia) tree, to which seven pieces of turmeric and seven mango leaves are tied. At the auspicious moment, the bridegroom is conducted in procession to the booth, and the messenger says aloud to the paternal aunt “The bridegroom has come. Bring the bride quickly.” She stands by the side of the bridegroom, and the Desari links together their little fingers, while the women throw rice coloured with turmeric over them. Water, which has been brought from the village stream at early morn, and coloured with turmeric, is poured over the couple from five pots. They then dress themselves in new cloths presented by their fathers-in-law. A feast is given by the bride’s party. On the following day, the bride is conducted to the home of the bridegroom, at the entrance to which they are met by the bridegroom’s mother, who sprinkles rice coloured with turmeric over them, and washes their feet with turmeric-water. Liquor is then distributed, and a meal partaken of. The Desari takes seven grains of rice and seven areca nuts and ties them up in the ends of the cloths of the contracting couple. On the following day, a feast is held, and, next day, the parties of the bride and bridegroom throw turmeric-water over each other. All then repair to the stream, and bathe. A feast follows, for which a sheep is killed.

It is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District, that in the course of an Omanaito wedding there is a free fight, with mud for missiles.

The remarriage of widows is permitted, and a younger brother may marry the widow of his elder brother. Divorce is allowed, and divorcÉes may marry again.

The Omanaitos worship Takurani and Chamariya Devata, as priest of whom a member of the caste officiates. An annual festival is held in the month of Chaitro.

The dead are burnt. Pollution on account of a death in a family lasts for ten days, during which the caste occupation is not carried out, and the mourners are fed by people of another sept. On the eleventh day a feast is held, at which liquor is forbidden.

The caste title, is usually Nayako, but the more prosperous take the title Patro.

Ondipuli.—Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as Telugu-speaking cultivators and cattle-breeders in the Salem district. The name is sometimes applied to the beggars attached to the Palli caste.

Onnam Parisha (first party).—A section of Elayad.

Onne (Pterocarpus Marsupium).—An exogamous sept of Toreyas, who are not allowed to mark their foreheads with the juice which exudes from the trunk of this tree.

Onteddu.—Onteddu or Onti-eddu is the name of a sub-division of Ganigas or Gandlas, who only use one bullock for their oil-mills.

Opoto.—Opoto or Apoto is the name of the palanquin-bearing section of Gaudos.

Oppamtara.—A title conferred by the Raja of Cochin on some Nayars.

Oppanakkaran (trader).—Telugu traders and agriculturists. Recorded as a sub-division of Balija.

Oppomarango (Achyranthes aspera).—An exogamous sept of Bhondari, the members of which may not use the root as a tooth-brush.

Ore.—An honorific title of Nayars.

Origabhakthudu (saluting devotee).—A class of mendicants, who are said to beg only from Perikes.

Oriya.—Oriya, or Uriya, is a general term for those who speak the Oriya language. At times of census, it has been recorded as a sub-division of various castes, e.g., Sondi and Dhobi.

Oruganti.—A sub-division of Kapu and Mutracha.

Orunul (one string).—A sub-division of Marans, whose widows do not remarry.

Oshtama.—A corrupt form of the word Vaishnava, applied to Satanis, who are called by illiterate folk Oishnamaru or Oshtamaru.

Osta.—Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as the name of a caste of barbers for Muhammadans.

Otattu (tile-makers).—An occupational name for Nayars, who tile or thatch temples and Brahman houses.

Ottaisekkan.—The name, indicating those who work their oil-mill with a single bullock, of a sub-division of Vaniyan.

Ottikunda (empty pot).—An exogamous sept of Kamma.