CHAPTER III THE BEGINNINGS OF THE CHIEF JUSTICE'S CAREER; AMERICAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW; MARBURY v . MADISON.
Marshall’s accession to the bench was marked by an impressive circumstance. For ten years or more, he alone gave all the opinions of the court to which any name was attached, except where the case came up from his own circuit, or, for any reason, he did not sit. In the very few cases where opinions were given by the other justices, it was in the old way, seriatim,—the method followed before Marshall came in, as it was also the method of contemporary English courts. Whatever may have been the purpose of the Chief Justice in introducing this usage, there can be no doubt as to the impression it was calculated to produce. It seemed, all of a sudden, to give to the judicial department In 1812, when a change took place, the court had been for a year without a quorum. Moreover, Judge Story had just come to the bench, a man of quite too exuberant an intellect and temperament to work well as a silent side-judge. We remark, also, at the beginning of that term, that the Chief Justice was not in attendance, having, as the reporter tells us, “received an injury by the oversetting of the stage-coach on his journey from Richmond.” And it may be added that just at this time the anxious prayer of Jefferson was answered, and a majority of the judges were Republicans. From whatever cause, henceforward there was a change; and without returning to the old In most of Marshall’s opinions, one observes the style and special touch of a thoughtful and original mind; in some of them the powers of a great mind, in full activity. His cases relating to international law, as I am assured by those competent to judge, rank with the best there are in the books. As regards most of the more familiar titles of the law, it would be too much to claim for him the very first rank. In that region he is, in many respects, equaled or surpassed by men more deeply versed in the learning and technicalities of the law, in what constitutes that “artificial perfection of reason” which Coke used to glorify as far transcending any man’s natural reason,—men such as Story, Kent, or Shaw, or even the reformer, Mansfield, whom he greatly admired, Eldon, or Blackburn. But in the field of constitutional law, a region not open to an English lawyer,—and especially in one department of it, that relating to the nature and scope of the National I do not forget our own Webster, or others, in saying that to Marshall (if we may use his own phrase about Washington), “more than to any other individual, and as much as to one individual was possible,” do we owe that prevalence of sound constitutional opinion and doctrine at the North that held the Union together; to that combination in him, of a great statesman’s sagacity, a great lawyer’s lucid exposition and persuasive reasoning, a great man’s candor and breadth of view, and that judicial authority on the bench, allowed naturally the nation whose image flamed in the heart of Lowell, a generation since, as he greeted her coming up out of the Valley of the Shadow of Death:— “Oh Beautiful, my country, ours once more!… Among the nations bright beyond compare!… What were our lives without thee? What all our lives to save thee? We reck not what we gave thee, We will not dare to doubt thee, But ask whatever else, and we will dare!” It was early in Marshall’s day that the Supreme Court first took the grave step of disregarding an act of Congress,—a coÖrdinate department,—which conflicted with the National Constitution. The right to deal thus with their legislatures had already been asserted in the States, and once or twice it had really been exercised. Had the question related to a conflict between that Constitution and the enactment of a State, it would have been a simpler matter. These two questions, under European written constitutions, are regarded as different ones. It is almost necessary to the working of a federal system that the general government, and each of its departments, should be free to disregard acts of any department of the local states which may be inconsistent with the federal constitution. And so in Switzerland and Germany the federal courts thus treat local enactments. But there is not under any written constitution in Europe a country where a court deals in this way with the act of its coÖrdinate legislature. In Germany, at one time, this was done, under the In the colonial period, while we were dependencies of Great Britain, our legislation was subject to the terms of the royal charters. Enactments were often disallowed by the English Privy Council, sometimes acting as mere revisers of the colonial legislation, and sometimes as appellate judicial tribunals. Our people were, in this way, familiar with the theory of a dependent legislature, one whose action was subject to reversal by judicial authority, as contrary to the terms of a written charter of government. When, therefore, after the war of independence, our new sovereign, namely, ourselves, the people, came to substitute for the old royal charters the people’s charters, what we call our “constitutions,”—it was natural to expect some legal restraint upon legislation. It was not always found in terms; indeed, it was at first hardly ever, if at all, But this, although, as we may well think, a sound conclusion, was not a necessary one; and it was long denied by able statesmen, judges, and lawyers. An elaborate and powerful dissenting opinion by Chief Justice Gibson, of Pennsylvania, containing the most searching argument on the subject with which I am acquainted, given in 1825, It is not always noticed that in making our Federal Constitution, there was an avoidance of any explicit declaration of such a power as touching federal legislation, while it was carefully provided for as regards the States. In the Federal Convention, there was great anxiety to control the States, in certain particulars; and various plans were put forward, such as that Congress should have a negative on state laws, and that governors of the States should be appointed by the federal authority, with power to negative state acts. But all these, at last, were rejected, and the matter took the shape of a provision that the Constitution and the constitutional laws and treaties of the United States should be the supreme law of the respective States; and the judges of the several States should be bound thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. Later, the Committee on Style changed the phrase “law of the respective States” to “law of the land.” But the language, as to binding the judges, was As to any method of protecting the federal system within its own household, that is to say, as against Congress, it was proposed in the convention, for one thing, that each House of Congress might call upon the judges for opinions; and, again, it was urged, and that repeatedly and with great persistence, that the judges should be joined with the executive in passing on the approval or disapproval of legislative acts,—in what we call the veto power. It was explicitly said, in objecting to this, that the judges would have the right to disregard unconstitutional laws anyway,—an opinion put forward by some of the weightiest members. Yet some denied it. And we observe that the power was not expressly given. When we find such a power expressly denied, and yet not expressly given; and when we observe, for example, that leading public men, e.g., so conspicuous a member of the convention Turning now to the actual practice under the government of the United States, we find that the judges of the Supreme Court had hardly taken their seats, at the beginning of In observing, historically, the earlier conceptions of the judges of the Supreme Court as to the method of dealing with unconstitutional legislation, one or two other transactions should be looked at. In 1792 (1 U. S. Statutes, 243) a statute was enacted which required the circuit court, partly composed, as we have seen, of the judges of the Supreme Court, to pass on the claims of certain soldiers and others demanding pensions, and to report to the Secretary of War; who was, in turn, to revise these returns and report to Congress. The judges found great difficulty in acting under this statute, because it imposed on them duties not judicial in their nature; and they expressed their views in various ways. In one circuit, the judges thinking it improper to act under this statute in their judicial capacity, for the reason above-named, consented from charitable motives to serve as “commissioners.” In the Pennsylvania circuit, the three judges wrote, in a letter to the President, that “on a late painful occasion” they had held the law invalid; and they now stated the matter to him, as being the person charged with the duty of “taking care that the laws be faithfully executed.” They assured him that while this judicial action of disregarding an act of Congress had been necessary, it was far from pleasant. The judges of another circuit, before which no case had come, wrote a similar letter to the President, declaring their reasons for thinking the law invalid. In this same year, 1792, the Pennsylvania case came regularly up to the Supreme Court, and was argued there. It is to be remarked, then, that this matter These non-judicial communications of opinion to the President seem, as has been said, to have proceeded on the theory of furnishing information to one whose official duty it was to see that the fundamental law was faithfully carried out; just as “Councils of Revision,” established by the constitutions of Pennsylvania and Vermont, were to report periodically as to infractions of the constitution. It was, perhaps, these practices of private communication between the President and the judges that led very soon to another interesting matter,—a formal request by the President, in 1793, for an opinion from the judges on twenty-nine questions relating to the treaties with France. This request accorded with a colonial practice of asking such opinions from judges; a usage centuries After this, there was an occasional allusion in the opinions of the Supreme Court to the question of the power of that court to pass on the constitutionality of Federal enactments as being an undecided and more or less doubtful question. But not until 1803, early in Marshall’s time, was the point judicially presented to the Supreme Court. It came up in the case of Marbury v. Madison, It was more than half a century before that happened again. Marbury v. Madison was a remarkable case. It was connected intimately with certain executive action for which Marshall as Secretary of State was partly responsible. For various reasons the case must have excited peculiar interest in his mind. Within three weeks before the end of Adams’s administration, on February 13, 1801, while Marshall was both Chief Justice and Secretary And another thing. The Supreme Court had consisted heretofore of six judges. This same act provided that after the next vacancy there should be five judges only. Such arrangements as these, made by a party just going out of power, were not ill calculated to create, in the mind of the party coming in, the impression of an intention to keep control of the judiciary as long as possible. There were, to be sure, other reasons for some of this action. Several judges of the Supreme Court, as we have seen, had signified to Washington, in 1790, the opinion Again, in approaching the case of Marbury v. Madison, it is to be observed that another matter relating to the Supreme Court had been dealt with. This act of February 13, 1801, provided that the two terms of the court, instead of being held, as hitherto, in February and August, should thereafter be held in June and December. Accordingly, the court sat in December, 1801. It adjourned, as it imagined, to June, 1802. But, on March 8 of that year, Congress, under the new administration, repealed the law of 1801, unseated all the new judges, and reinstated the old system, with its August and February terms. And then, a little later in the year, the August If the legislation of 1801 was calculated to show the importance attached by an outgoing political party to control over the judiciary, that of 1802 might indicate how entirely the incoming party agreed with them, and how well inclined they were to profit by their own opportunities. How was it, meantime, with the judiciary itself? Unfortunately, the Supreme Court had already been drawn into the quarrel. For, at the single December term, in 1801, held under the statute of that year, an application had been made to the court by four persons in the District of Columbia for a rule upon James Madison, Secretary of At last the court came together, in February, 1803, and found the mandamus case awaiting its action. It is the first one reported at that term. Since Marshall had taken his seat, there had as yet been only If it be asked what was decided in Marbury v. Madison, the answer is that this, and only this, was decided, namely, that the court had no jurisdiction to do what they were asked to do in that case (i. e. to grant a writ of mandamus, in the exercise of their original jurisdiction), because the Constitution allowed to the court no such power; and, although an act of Congress had undertaken to confer this jurisdiction on them, Congress had no power to do it, and therefore the act was void, and must be disregarded by the Unfortunately, instead of proceeding as courts usually do, the opinion began by passing upon all the points which the denial of its own jurisdiction took from it the right to treat. It was elaborately laid down, in about twenty pages, out of the total twenty-seven which comprise the opinion, that Madison had no right to detain the commissions; and that mandamus would be the proper remedy in any court which had jurisdiction to grant it. And thus, as the court, by its decision in this case, was sharply reminding the legislature of its limitations, so by its dicta, and in this irregular method, it intimated to the President, also, that his department was not exempt from judicial control. In this way Marshall made a very noticeable remark in his opinion, seeming to point to the chief executive himself, and not merely to his secretary, when he said, “It is not the office of the person to whom the writ is directed, but the nature of the thing to be done, by which the propriety or impropriety of issuing the mandamus is to be determined;”—a hint that, on an appropriate occasion, the judiciary might issue orders personally to him. This remark got illustration a few years later, in 1807, when the Chief Justice, at the trial of Aaron Burr in Richmond, ordered a subpoena to the same President, Thomas Jefferson, directing him to bring thither certain documents. It was a strange conception of the relations of the different departments of the government to each other, to imagine that a subpoena, that is to say an order accompanied with a threat of punishment, was a legitimate judicial mode of communicating with the chief executive. On Jefferson’s part, this order It was partly to the tendency on Marshall’s part, just mentioned, to give little thought, often, to ordinary conventions, and partly to his kindness of heart, that we should attribute another singular occurrence,—the fact that he attended a dinner at the house of an old friend, one of Burr’s counsel, when he knew that Burr was to be present, and when that individual, having previously been brought to Richmond under arrest, examined by Marshall, and admitted to bail, was still awaiting the action of the grand jury with reference to further judicial |