  THE simplest form of interlacing the threads is the plain or tabby weave. In this weave the threads intersect as often as possible, and thus the greatest possible amount of firmness and strength is obtained from a given quantity of material by this weave, with the exception of leno or cross weaving, where additional firmness and strength is obtained by the warp threads being partly twisted round each other in weaving. Plain cloths may be ornamented by using threads of different colours and of different thicknesses, as, for instance, if four picks of blue and four picks of white are alternately put into a cloth, the warp of which is composed of four ends blue and four ends white alternately, a check is formed although the weave is quite plain. A check may also be formed on a plain cloth by using one or more thick threads at intervals in both warp and weft. There is, of course, a limit to the number of threads of a certain count which can be put into a plain cloth. Assuming that the counts of warp and weft are equal, and that the number of picks per inch required is the same as the ends, the number of threads per inch which can be satisfactorily put into the cloth would not much exceed half the number which could be placed side by side in one inch. Some allowance must be made for the threads being bent out of a straight line FIG. 172. FIG. 173. Plain cloth can be made by using two shafts, but four are usually taken with the draft, as shown at Fig. 172. This prevents overcrowding the healds. By tying the first and second together and the third and fourth together, the effect is the same as by using only two staves, only two lifts being required. FIG. 174. FIG. 175. Twills.—The simplest twill is the “2 and 1” twill, which is woven with three shafts. A section through this twill is given at Fig. 173, where it will be seen the weft passes under one end and over two. The structure of the fabric is better shown on “point paper,” as at Fig. 174. The spaces between the perpendicular lines represent the warp threads or “ends,” and the spaces between the horizontal lines represent the weft threads or “picks.” By filling in the first square on the first pick, it is shown that the first end is lifted for that pick; Twilled weaves enable a larger number of threads of a given count to be put into a fabric than in a plain cloth, and therefore these weaves are employed in the production of the heavier kinds of cloths where closeness of the threads is also desired. FIG. 176. With three staves the twill given at Fig. 174 is the only one which can be woven. The same twill may be woven with the warp predominating on the face, and this would be represented on paper as at Fig. 176, where two ends are shown to be lifted on each of the three picks. In weaving this pattern three staves would be taken with the draft, as given for Fig. 174 (see Fig. 175). The first stave will be lifted for the first pick, the second stave for the second pick, and the third stave for the third pick. These three lifts being repeated over an indefinite number of times will produce small diagonal lines running at an angle of 45 degrees across the piece, if the number of warp and weft threads in a given space are equal. This twill is sometimes called a “Jean,” and is used in the production of a fabric of that name, as well as in “Jeannettes,” the latter with warp predominating on the face of the cloth. In all these fabrics a large range of qualities is made. With four staves the following twills can be made:— 1. One up, three down; 2. Two up, two down; 3. Three up, one down. These are shown on point paper at Figs. 177, 178, and 179 respectively. The third pattern is really the same as the first, being the reverse of that pattern. It is advisable, however, to consider them as two distinct patterns, since they give different effects when used for purposes of combination, as will be seen later. FIG. 177. FIG. 178. FIG. 179. Five-shaft Twills.—With five shafts of staves the possible twills are— 1. One up, four down; 2. Two up, three down; 3. Three up, two down; 4. Four up, one down; 5. Two up, one down, one up, one down; 6. Two down, one up, one down, one up. FIG. 180. FIG. 181. FIG. 182. FIG. 183. FIG. 184. FIG. 185. These are shown on point paper at Figs. 180 to 185 inclusive. There are really only three different methods of interlacing the threads in these six patterns; but, as stated previously, different effects are produced in combination twills by all of them. Six-shaft Twills.—With the increase in the number of shafts the number of twills increases very quickly, as with a 1. One up, five down; 2. Two up, four down; 3. Three up, three down; 4. Four up, two down; 5. Five up, one down; 6. Three up, one down, one up, one down; 7. Three down, one up, one down, one up; 8. Two up, two down, one up, one down; 9. Two down, two up, one down, one up. There are here five distinct methods of intersection, the remaining four patterns being reverses. The patterns are shown on point paper at Figs. 186 to 194. FIG. 186. FIG. 187. FIG. 188. FIG. 189. FIG. 190. FIG. 191. FIG. 192. FIG. 193. FIG. 194. Eight-shaft Twills.—With a “repeat” of eight ends and picks the number of changes which can be made in the basis of the twill is much larger, and as the size of the repeat increases the possible twills increase enormously. A selection of eight-end twills is given at Figs. 195 to 204 inclusive. Satin Weaves.—In simple twills every pick is interlaced with the warp in the same manner, but each successive pick commences, as it were, one end further to the right or to the left, thus enabling every end to be bound into the cloth in FIG. 195. FIG. 196. FIG. 197. FIG. 198. FIG. 199. FIG. 200. FIG. 201. FIG. 202. FIG. 203. FIG. 204. FIG. 205. The commonest form of satin is the five shaft, and this can be woven with five shafts with a straight draft lifted in the order 1, 3, 5, 2, 4. The relation between this satin and a five-end twill is shown at Fig. 180, where it will be seen that on the second pick of the satin the third end is lifted, on the third pick the fifth end is lifted, then the second is lifted, and lastly the fourth. This distribution of the points of intersection produces a satin. A slight twill effect is given by most of these weaves, but it is nothing like so decided as where the adjacent ends are lifted on successive picks, as in twilled cloths. The direction of the twill in the satin at Fig. 205 is from right to left. This five-shaft satin weave is used with weft preponderating over warp, and also the reverse. Immense quantities of cloth With the warp predominating a cheaper fabric is produced, as less time is required to weave a given length. “Drills” are woven on this principle, the proportion of warp to weft being about two to one. FIG. 206. Satins may be produced on any number of shafts from five upwards. Fig. 206 is commonly called a four-shaft satin, but this is better classed as a broken twill. The principle of its structure is essentially different to that of a true satin. A simple method of making a satin weave on any number of ends is to find the first number which is not a measure of the number of staves used, and take this as the basis of constructing the satin, as follows: The first number which is not a measure of five is 2. Then, taking this as the basis of the satin, assuming that the first stave is lifted for the first pick, the third stave must be lifted for the second pick. This gives the number of ends to be “skipped” over, and thus we can obtain the satin by skipping over one each time, viz. 1, 3, 5, 2, 4. It is advisable to put the numbers in a line or in a circle, and re-arrange them underneath. The order of lifting the staves for an eight-end satin can be obtained as follows:—The first number which is not a measure of eight is 3. Then, taking this as the basis, we lift the first stave for the first pick and the fourth stave for the second pick, FIG. 207. FIG. 208. FIG. 209. A six-stave satin is irregular. It is impossible to form a satin with six staves by “skipping” over a regular number of staves each pick, but the points of intersection can be separated and a satisfactory satin formed by lifting the staves in the order, 1, 3, 5, 2, 6, 4, or 1, 4, 2, 6, 3, 5. These are shown on point paper at Figs. 208 and 209. A six-end satin weave is extremely useful, as it takes rather more material than a five, and its irregular appearance is an advantage for some purposes. Fig. 210 is a seven-end satin. FIG. 210. FIG. 211. Fig. 211 is a ten-end satin. Three is the first number which is not a measure of ten, therefore three is taken as a basis in constructing the satin, and the fourth stave is lifted for the second pick, and the others in regular order. Fig. 212 is a twelve-end satin. The basis in this case is five, as five is the first number which is not a measure of twelve. FIG. 212. FIG. 213. Combined Twills.—A useful class of pattern is obtained by combining pick and pick two simple twills. If two eight-end twills are combined in this manner, a pattern repeating on eight ends and sixteen picks is produced. At Fig. 213 a “three and five plain” twill is combined with a “three, two, one, two,” twill, and different effects may be obtained by combining the same twills in all the possible positions. Figs. 214 to 220 show the effect produced by all the changes in the relative position of the two twills. An immense number of patterns can be made on this principle, as all the simple twills may be combined in every position, and in each case a different pattern results. On six ends we have seen that nine simple twills can be made, and as each may be combined with the others in six different positions, the number of patterns which can be obtained from this system of combination is as follows:—Fig. 186 combined with each of the others in one position each gives eight patterns, and as there are six positions in which they can be combined, this gives forty-eight patterns. Fig. 187 combined with Figs. 188 to 194 gives seven patterns, and these in six positions give forty-two patterns. Fig. 188 combined with Figs. 189 to 194 gives six patterns, and in the six positions give thirty-six patterns. By going through all the changes in FIG. 214. FIG. 215. FIG. 216. FIG. 217. FIG. 218. FIG. 219. FIG. 220. Drafting.—The arrangement of the draft is a very important matter in connection with dobby or tappet weaving. In the case of simple twills, satins, and other regular weaves, as each end, or warp thread, in the design is required to be lifted differently, a separate stave is required for each end in the design, but in some patterns this is not the case. Fig. 221 is a stripe design composed of twenty ends of five-shaft satin and sixteen ends plain. The least number of shafts on which this could be woven is seven, five for the satin and two for the plain. The number of picks to the round, or the FIG. 221. FIG. 222. FIG. 223. FIG. 224. FIG. 225. FIG. 226. FIG. 227. When two weaves which consist of different arrangements of the same ends are combined in stripe form, the same shafts will do for both weaves. Fig. 225 illustrates this principle. In the design there are sixteen ends of an eight-end twill, “2 up 2 down, 1 up 1 down, 1 up 1 down,” and sixteen ends of a mixed effect, which is simply a re-arrangement of the ends of the twill. Each of the ends in the crape or mixed weave can be drawn through the same stave as one of the ends in the twill, as will be seen from the draft (Fig. 226) given with this design, and thus the whole design can be woven with eight staves. If the staves are lifted to form the twill with the first sixteen ends, the different order of drawing the ends in the second part of the draft causes the desired change in the pattern. The pegging or lifting plan (Fig. 227) will therefore be the first eight ends of the twill. FIG. 228. FIG. 229. FIG. 230. FIG. 231. FIG. 232. FIG. 233. One of the most useful principles of drafting is the V draft, or point draft. Fig. 228 is a design based upon this principle; the design is repeated twice over in order to show the effect better, and it will be seen that the basis of the pattern is a “four and four” twill. The first eight ends are drawn from right to left, and by reversing the draft, as in Fig. 229, the pattern is made to repeat on fourteen ends. The pegging plan (Fig. 230) will be the first eight ends and picks of the design. The first and eighth staves have each only one end out of the fourteen drawn through them, whilst all the other staves have two ends in each pattern. The number on each stave could be made equal by making the pattern repeat on sixteen ends and reversing the draft from the ninth stave, with an eight-end twill basis. FIG. 234. FIG. 235. FIG. 236. The V draft is used in a great variety of forms. It is not only in stripes that it is used. It is very often employed in weaving all-over spot effects and diamond patterns. FIG. 237. Fig. 231 shows the principle applied to an all-over design. The draft (Fig. 232) is given, showing how the ends are drawn through the thirteen staves required to weave the pattern, and FIG. 238. A very effective method of employing this draft is illustrated at Fig. 234. This is a stripe design, and the general appearance would lead one to suppose that a larger number of staves are required to weave it than the eighteen actually required. Fig. 235 is the draft and Fig. 236 the pegging plan for this design. FIG. 239. FIG. 240. Another class of pattern produced by the V draft is the “diaper” style. Fig. 237 is a small design of this kind, and it It is not always advisable to draft a pattern to its lowest number of staves, as it is not worth while saving one or two staves at the expense of an irregular draft. FIG. 241. Dice Checks.—Fig. 239 is a simple dice check pattern. Alternate squares of warp and weft twill form the check effect, A still more fancy dice effect is given at Fig. 241. The bindings are on the five-end satin basis, and the blocks of warp and weft satin are arranged so that the design repeats on fifty ends and picks. It is necessary in this class of binding to commence the satin in the position indicated in the design. By a judicious arrangement of the warp and weft blocks a large variety of patterns can be produced. The principle is extensively employed in the production of fabrics for both the home and shipping trades. FIG. 242. FIG. 243. “Barley corn” patterns are a related style. The structure of these cloths is shown at Figs. 242 and 243. The former pattern is manufactured on an extensive scale, as it is a fabric in regular use for making-up purposes. Fig. 243 has the weft square rather larger than the warp, and is usually made in rather a better quality than Fig. 242. In fine makes the size of the squares is often increased. FIG. 244. FIG. 245. FIG. 246. FIG. 247. FIG. 248. FIG. 249. FIG. 250. FIG. 251. FIG. 252. FIG. 253. FIG. 254. FIG. 255. Patterns produced by Re-arrangements of Twills.—If the ends of any twill be re-arranged in some regular order, another pattern of a different character is produced. For example, by re-arranging the eight-end twill given at Fig. 244 in “satin order” the effect at Fig. 245 is produced. The method of re-arrangement is to take the first end of the twill design and place it in the first place in the re-arrangement. The fourth end of the twill is then placed in the second end of the re-arrangement, the seventh end of the twill in the third place, and so on, the satin order used being 1 4, 7 2, 5 8, 3 6. Fig. 246 re-arranged in this manner gives the effect at Fig. 247, and, as will be seen from the remaining figures (Figs. 248–255), FIG. 256. FIG. 257. FIG. 258. FIG. 259. FIG. 260. FIG. 261. FIG. 262. FIG. 263. Combined twills may also be re-arranged in this manner for the production of new effects. Figs. 256 and 258 are two five-end combined twills, and the effect produced by re-arranging the ends in five-end satin order is shown at Figs. 257 and 259, respectively. FIG. 264. FIG. 265. Fig. 260 is an eight-end combined twill, and Fig. 261 shows the effect produced by its re-arrangement in eight-end satin order. FIG. 266. FIG. 267. Fig. 262 is a twelve-end combined twill, and when re-arranged in twelve-end satin order Fig. 263 is produced. The effects produced by re-arrangement in satin order are, as a rule, mixed effects of a less decided character than the original twill. There are many other useful systems of drafting or re-arranging patterns. FIG. 268. FIG. 269. FIG. 270. Fig. 265 is the re-arrangement of Fig. 264 in the order 1 2, Fig. 267 is obtained by re-arranging Fig. 266 in the order of the draft 1 2, 4 5, 7 8, 2 3, and so on, the draft repeating on sixteen ends. Another useful draft (Fig. 270) as a basis for re-arrangement is the one employed in producing Fig. 269 from Fig. 268. The order of the draft is shown along with the design; the order runs, 2 1, 3 2, 4 3, and so on, repeating on sixteen ends. FIG. 271. FIG. 272. Some novel effects are obtained by re-arranging the ends of a sixteen-end twill in the order 1 4, 7 2, 5 8, 3 6, 9 12, 15 10, 13 16, 11 14. The effect of this system is shown at Fig. 272, which is the result of re-arranging Fig. 271 in the above order. The system is of course applicable to other twills than those on sixteen ends. Twills combined to form Square Patterns.—Simple twills may be combined to form “square” patterns by taking alternate picks of each. If two eight-end twills are combined in this manner only four picks of each twill will be used in the combination. The principle will be understood from Fig. 273. This is a pattern composed of alternate picks of two ten-end twills making an effect repeating on ten ends and ten picks. The effect given by re-arranging this in satin order is shown at Fig. 274. FIG. 273. FIG. 274. FIG. 275. Fig. 275 is a twelve-end pattern made on the same principle, and if this is re-arranged in satin order, another effect is obtained. Fig. 276 is a sixteen-thread pattern, and when re-arranged this produces the rather peculiar pattern Fig. 277. FIG. 276. FIG. 277. An immense variety of useful weaves may be obtained on this system of combination, the effects being perhaps more useful than when the patterns occupy twice as many picks as ends. Unequal Twills combined.—Some useful fancy effects are obtained by combining two unequal twills FIG. 278. Check Patterns produced by Re-arrangement of Twills.—If an eight-end twill “three and five plain” is re-arranged in the order 1 4, 7 2, 5 8, 3 6, the effect shown in the square A (Fig. 279), and if this be again re-arranged in the same order, the original twill results. It follows, therefore, that by placing the pattern A above the twill and drawing the ends through eight staves as indicated in the draft (Fig. 280), a check pattern will be formed. The draft which produces the crape from the twill also produces the twill from the crape. The FIG. 279. FIG. 280. Honeycomb Cloth.—In this style of cloth the threads are interlaced so as to form squares, the centres of which are lower than the ridges which form the sides. Fig. 281 is a honeycomb pattern on ten ends and ten picks. It will be noticed that the ridges or raised portions of the honeycomb are formed by the gradually increasing floats of the weft and warp threads. The hollows are formed by the threads weaving plain for a few ends and picks. Any size of pattern, within reasonable limits, may be formed on this principle. Fig. 282 is a 16 × 16 honeycomb on the same principle. For smaller sizes the principle requires a little alteration. Fig. 283 is a good 8 × 8 honeycomb, and gives a fairly good FIG. 281. FIG. 282. FIG. 283. FIG. 284. Mock Lenos, or Lace Weaves.—These weaves are very extensively used in cotton manufacture. The imitation of leno fabrics can be made extremely close, often so close as to deceive even experienced buyers. The simplest kind is the pattern at Fig. 285, a “three and three” pattern. The threads are interlaced in such a manner that the first ends are pulled together by the second and fifth picks, and the picks are pulled together in threes by the second and fifth ends, and as the shed is crossed between the third and fourth picks, the crack in the cloth appears there. The open effect is greatly increased if the ends are reeded “three in a dent,” the first FIG. 285. FIG. 286. FIG. 287. FIG. 288. A “five and five” pattern is given at Fig. 287. The second, fourth, seventh, and ninth ends serve to pull the picks together in fives, and to make a decided crack in the cloth between the fifth and sixth picks in the pattern. The same thing takes place with the ends, they are pulled together in fives, by the second, fourth, seventh, and ninth picks. Probably the best open effect is produced by Fig. 288. This is called a “five and one” mock leno or lace. To Five ends one dent, Skip a dent, One end one dent, Skip a dent. Two repeats of the pattern are shown at Fig. 288, only six ends and six picks being required to weave it. The first five picks are pulled together by the second and fourth ends, and as the shed is crossed between the fifth and sixth picks and between the sixth and the succeeding pick, the single pick No. 6 is shown in the middle of the crack between the bars of five picks. The same thing takes place with the ends. It is not absolutely necessary to reed the pattern other than two in a dent; an open effect is produced with the ordinary reeding, but the special reeding greatly increases it. Cords.—Cords can be formed in cloth by simply making a number of threads lift together, as in Fig. 289. The cord may be made across the piece by putting a number of picks in a shed, as shown at Fig. 290. This principle of forming cords has its disadvantages. If the cord is going lengthwise of the piece a large number of picks per inch is required to give a good and fine effect, and there is always a tendency to show a perforated appearance in cords made on this principle, owing to the threads being pulled together in threes or fours, or whatever number of threads go to form a cord. FIG. 289. FIG. 290. A good cord up the piece may be made by taking six or eight ends of six-end satin and two plain ends. Fig. 291 is a pattern of this kind. The six-end satin is used because the plain ends would make wrong bindings with a five-end satin and the ends would slip. This principle of making cords is very useful, as the effect being produced from the warp, the cost is less than if produced from the weft. FIG. 291. FIG. 292. FIG. 293. FIG. 294. FIG. 295. FIG. 296. For dobby patterns it is necessary to keep the number of shafts as low as possible, and cords requiring only two shafts above the plain are made as in Figs. 292 and 293. Fig. 294 gives a cord across the piece, and is of rather a firmer character than an ordinary four and four cord. Fig. 295 shows a useful principle of making cords across the piece. Two picks are taken together, and three double picks from a cord. The three plain picks serve to define the cord. A better effect is FIG. 297. FIG. 298. Fig. 297 gives a cord up the piece. The back of the cloth is plain, each pick taking an equal part in forming the back. The plain also serves to spread the ends, and so produces a firmer cloth than would be obtained if the cord were formed on the principle of Fig. 299. Sometimes the back of the cord is required to be rather looser, and is woven to a small twill. At Fig. 298 a twelve-end cord is shown on this principle, with a 2 and 1 twill pattern at the back. FIG. 299. FIG. 300. Another form of cord is illustrated at Fig. 299. This shows a cord up the piece caused by every pick interweaving with the first and second ends, and only half the picks interweaving with the remaining six ends. The ends interweaving with half the picks are looser than the other two ends, and therefore have a raised appearance. The face of the cloth is plain, with the lines formed by the two ends running up the piece. A smaller cord is FIG. 301. FIG. 302. FIG. 303. FIG. 304. Crapes.—This is a name given to weaves of a small “seedy” effect. Good effects of this kind are produced by Figs. 302 and 303, which repeat on ten ends and six picks, and six ends and six picks, respectively. Another very largely used pattern is that at Fig. 304. This is a pattern of rather peculiar construction, as both sides of the cloth are alike, and the small floats of three are bent somewhat out of a straight line. The reason for this can be seen by a careful examination of the pattern. Patterns of the same character, FIG. 305. FIG. 306. Fancy Effects.—Some novel effects can be produced on the principle of Fig. 306. Two picks are floated on the top of a plain cloth every ten picks, and these loose picks are bound only by two ends out of every twelve. The loose picks are pulled in opposite directions by the loose ends, and the result is that small hexagonal figures are formed after the manner shown at Fig. 307. By using coloured ends and picks for the loose ones a still better effect is obtained. FIG. 307. FIG. 308. Crimp Stripes.—These are usually produced by having two warps at different tensions. The warp to weave the crimp is lightly weighted as compared with the warp of the other stripe, which may be plain or satin as desired, and is let off intermittently. If the crimp warp is very hard twisted the effect is Huck Patterns.—This is the name given to a class of patterns used for towellings. The object is to get a firm cloth with a rough surface. Fig. 309 is a weave of this description, but there are many others in use. The pattern repeats on ten ends and eight picks, and can be drafted down to be woven on five shafts. FIG. 309. Extra Warp.—When some warp ends are used for figuring without taking any part in forming the ground or body of the fabric, they are termed “extra warp” threads. The principle is much used for putting coloured spots or figures on grounds of a different colour or material. In Fig. 310 the ends on which the black squares occur are “extra ends,” as they take no part in forming the ground of the fabric. In this figure the black squares represent the warp lifted. Where FIG. 310. FIG. 311. FIG. 312. The extra ends may be of the same colour as the ground, but of thicker material, and may be used with the object of increasing the width of the pattern. Fig. 312 is a small striped design illustrating this principle. The ground is plain, and the extra warp threads, if of sufficient thickness, give a bold well-covered figure, which enables the design to be woven on nine shafts. Extra Weft.—Extra weft spots may be woven on exactly the same principle by taking the weft “extra” instead of the warp. Fig. 313 is a small spot design on the “extra weft” principle. The cloth would require to have twice as many picks per inch as there are ends per inch. FIG. 313. The ground may be either plain, twill, or satin, but if it is required to bind the extra material a twill is preferable. Fig. 314 is the commencement of a small design for an extra weft figure on a “two and two” twill ground, showing how the extra weft may be bound to the ground of the fabric FIG. 314. FIG. 315. It is impossible to bind extra weft to a plain ground or to a warp satin ground in the ordinary manner, as there is no float to hide the binding under. It may, however, be bound to a warp satin ground by means of stitching threads, after the manner shown in Fig. 315. This is an extra weft spot on a warp twill ground, and the loose picks at the back of the cloth are bound by the stitching thread A. This thread is really an extra warp thread, and it is lifted in such a position that the binding is hidden under the warp floats of the twill ground. One of these threads may be used at intervals of an eighth to a quarter of an inch. In binding extra warp the same principle applies. Extra warp may be bound to a warp ground by lifting it between two warp floats, or it may be bound to a weft ground by using an extra stitching pick on the principle illustrated in Fig. 315. FIG. 316. Extra warp or weft is often used to produce a solid figure on a light or open ground. Fig. 316 is a small design of this kind, in which one half the picks are thrown out of the cloth in the ground of the pattern. The design gives a very close imitation of a figured leno cloth, if woven with suitable yarns. To obtain a good effect there should be at least twice the number of picks per inch that there are ends or warp threads. When the cloth is taken out of the loom the loose threads are clipped and passed through a shearing machine, where the loose threads are cut off close to the figure. The extra picks should be bound round the figure by weaving Extra Warp and Extra Weft combined.—Where extra warp and extra weft are used together in the same part of the design, the structure is a little more complicated. A small check pattern of this description is given at Fig. 317. Every alternate end and every alternate pick are extra, and all the even numbered ends and picks belong to the ground cloth, which in this case is woven plain. In making designs employing both extra warp and weft, it is advisable to put the dots of the ground weave on the point paper first. Then dots may be put on to lift the extra warp where it is required to form the figure, and if it is required to throw the extra weft to the back of the ground cloth when the extra warp is on the face, the ground ends must be lifted on the extra weft picks where required. FIG. 317. In Fig. 317 the ground weave is shown in solid squares; the extra warp is lifted by the small circles, and the extra weft is thrown to the back of the plain cloth by the small dots, which lift all the ground ends on the extra picks where the extra warp is lifted. This design is made for single picks, but in the majority of looms there are only change boxes at one side, and so the design must be arranged for two picks alternately of ground and extra weft. Double Weft Face.—Double weft-faced cloths are made on the principle shown at Fig. 318. There is a face weft and a backing weft, and both sides of the cloth may be made alike by using only one count of weft. FIG. 318. The pattern is a four and one twill for both face and back, and it is important that the binding should take place under the floats of the twill, after the manner described in binding extra weft. The face pattern may be different from the back, but it is not possible to back a cloth with every pattern on this principle, as the binding must not show through to the face, and therefore the back pattern must be selected so as to give this result. Fig. 319 is an eight-end twill backed with weft, the back pattern in this case being a “seven and one” twill. FIG. 319. FIG. 320. FIG. 321. FIG. 322. Suppose it is desired to put a weft back to the pattern, Fig. 320, and to have two face picks to one back pick. The face pattern must be put on the face picks as in Fig. 321, and the back pattern must then be put on in such a manner that Two wefts of different colours may be made to form reversible figures by making them change places, first one being on the face, and then the other. The principle is shown at Fig. 322, where the alternate picks are of different colours. The two wefts should be thick enough to cover well, and a fine warp should be used. Double Warp Face.—This is the same as “double weft face” weaving, with the exception that two warps are used instead of two wefts. A four and one twill backed with warp is shown at Fig. 323. It is necessary to have the warp threads close enough together to hide the bindings. Fancy patterns may be backed with warp by binding the backing warp under warp floats in the face cloth. FIG. 323. FIG. 324. FIG. 325. Corkscrew twills are those which have a warp face on both sides of the cloth. The weave is chiefly used in the manufacture of worsted coatings, and similar goods, but is often employed in cotton designs. An eleven-thread corkscrew is given at Fig. 324, and a fifteen-thread pattern is given at Fig. 325. The weave requires a large number of warp threads per inch to give a good effect. Padded Cloths.—To obtain a raised effect on cords or figures, thick weft may be inserted between the face and back cloth, or between the face cloth and backing ends when there is no backing weft used. This thick weft takes no part in forming either the face or back cloth, and is simply held in position by the binding of the backing material to the face cloth. FIG. 326. A simple example of this principle of weaving is given at Fig. 326. This pattern may be woven with one shuttle, and a fine raised cord across the piece is formed. The backing warp threads, on which the solid squares are placed, should be on a separate beam, and should be heavily weighted as compared with the other ends. All the marks in the design represent the warp lifted, so that the empty squares represent warp left down. It will be noticed that the heavily-weighted ends are only lifted for two picks in every ten, and this forms a cord effect. There are three picks in each cord which do not interweave with either the face or backing ends, but they serve to increase the boldness of the cord by giving it a raised appearance. The three picks which form the padding are the second, fourth, and sixth in the design. The section at Fig. 327 will better explain the principle of the pattern. There are five plain picks in the cord, two plain picks between the cords, and three padding picks, making altogether ten to the round. These cloths are known as PiquÉs. FIG. 327. FIG. 328. Another padded effect is given at Fig. 328. The double pick is the padding weft, and should be of thick material. The plain face cloth is developed in small dots, and the backing ends in solid squares. The padding picks in this pattern are pulled out of a straight line, and a diamond effect is produced on the cloth. Double Cloths.—Double-warp-face and double-weft-face cloths are usually classed as double cloths, but they are essentially different from double cloths made from two warps and two wefts. FIG. 329. FIG. 330. Figs. 329 and 330 will show how two separate cloths, one above the other, can be woven in one loom. The first figure shows one of the face ends only lifted, and a pick being put in the face or top cloth. It will be noticed that both back ends are in this case down along with one of the face ends. The second figure shows both face ends lifted and one of the back ends, whilst a pick is being put in the back cloth. Two separate cloths of any pattern may be woven by simply lifting the face ends out of the way when a pick is being put in the back cloth. If a pick is put in the face and back cloth alternately, the cloths will be bound together at both selvedges; but if two picks are put in each cloth alternately, they are only bound at one side. This will be seen from Figs. 331 and 332. In the former the pick passes from the face cloth to the back cloth at one side, and from the back cloth to the face cloth at the FIGS. 331, 332. The following directions for double cloth designing will be found useful. First mark off the face and back ends and picks respectively. Then on the face ends and face picks put the face pattern, and on the back ends and back picks put the back pattern. On every back pick lift every face end. This will make the two cloths separate. FIG. 333. FIG. 334. FIG. 335. Fig. 333 is the design for two separate plain cloths bound at both sides of the loom, and Fig. 334 is the pattern for the Fig. 335 is a design for a double cloth with a two and two twill face and a plain back. The design is end and end, and pick and pick. FIG. 336. The binding of the two cloths together is a very important matter. It must be done in such a manner that the bindings are not visible on the face of the fabric. To find the best position for binding the two cloths together it is generally advisable to make a section showing the first two picks in the pattern, as at Fig. 336. A position can then be found for passing a back pick over a face end where the floats of weft in the face pattern will hide the binding. It will be seen that this can be done effectually by passing the back pick over the fourth face end, and so in the design the fourth face end is not lifted when the first back pick is being put in. Sometimes the face cloth is required to be much finer than the back, and so there may be two face ends and two face picks to one back end and one back pick. FIG. 337. FIG. 338. Figs. 337 and 338 show a design for a fabric of this description, the face pattern being a two and two twill, and the back plain. Before commencing to put the design on paper, it is best FIG. 339. Fig. 339 shows how the binding may be effected by placing the two patterns in a certain position in relation to each other. The binding in this, as in the previous case, is made by passing a back pick over a face end. The binding may also be made by lifting a back end over a face pick where the warp floats in the face cloth would cover it. A design illustrating this kind of binding is given at Fig. 340. The face pattern is a “four and four” twill and the back a two and two twill, and there are two threads of face to one of back. The two cloths are bound together by lifting the first back end on the first face pick where the binding dot comes between two warp floats. The full squares in the figure represent the face ends lifted; the small dots represent the back ends lifted; and the circles show all the face ends lifted on the back picks, which keep the two cloths quite separate. The cross on the first pick effects the binding. FIG. 340. The question as to which is the better system of binding depends upon the character of the two cloths. If the face Three-, and more ply Cloths.—Any number of cloths may be woven separately, one above the other, or several may be bound together to form a very thick fabric. Fig. 341 is a design for weaving four plain cloths, one above the other, and if the picks are woven in the order given in the design it will weave a cloth four times the width of the loom when opened out. The passage of the weft from one cloth to the other is shown at Fig. 342. FIG. 341. FIG. 342. Figured Double Plain Cloths.—If the warp be taken with alternate ends of two colours and picked in the same manner, figures, checks, or stripes can be formed by weaving two separate cloths of the different coloured yarns, making both cloths solid colour, and making them change places so as to form the desired figure. Fig. 343 is a design for a small check pattern on this principle. The odd ends and picks are, we will suppose, black; and the even numbered ends and picks white. It will be seen that in the bottom left-hand square FIG. 343. FIG. 344. If all the black ends and picks are brought together and all the white ends and picks brought together, the pattern of both sides of the cloth can plainly be seen as well as the ground weave. Fig. 345 will show this. The face pattern is shown on the first sixteen ends and picks, and the back pattern on the second sixteen ends and picks, whilst the ground weave is shown for both cloths in the opposite corner squares. The patterns may be designed in this manner, and the full effect produced by arranging the draft so as to give the required effect in the cloth. FIG. 345. Some fine effects may be obtained by inserting a thick end in the form of padding between two plain cloths, and binding the cloths together so as to make the thick end form a cord. The cords may run either lengthwise or across the piece. FIG. 346. FIG. 347. Double plain cloths may be bound together by using sufficient material to cover well, but the binding is difficult to make without being visible. This principle of binding is shown at Figs. 398 and 399. Leno Fabrics.—In a previous chapter the method of interlacing the threads in simple gauze has been shown. With the two staves and one doup required to weave gauze a considerable variety of patterns can be woven. A “five and one cross-over” has already been given, but it will be obvious that the number of plain picks in each bar of the cross-over may be any odd number. A “seven and one,” “eleven and one,” and so on, are regular weaves. Where the crossing thread weaves plain first at one side and then the other of the standard end, a simple crack is made in the cloth between the bars of plain, and there is no single pick in the middle of the crack. The most common pattern of this FIG. 348. In all these fabrics the effect is decidedly of an open or transparent nature. In some leno fabrics the object is not to get an open effect but to get zigzag effects by crossing a thick end over a few plain ends. A simple pattern of this kind was given at Fig. 139 in dealing with leno weaving, but the effect may be varied by making the crossings at irregular intervals. FIG. 349. Fig. 349 is a fancy crossing in which the thick doup end is crossing over three double plain ends. Fig. 350 is another fancy effect on the same principle. The marks on the plain ends show when these ends are lifted. When the thick crossing ends all work in the same direction a “wave” effect is produced, which is often employed in conjunction with the “diamond” or FIG. 350. FIG. 351. By using two doups a great variety of effect can be obtained. Fig. 351 shows a method much practised of making the picks bend out of a straight line. It is obvious that this will require two doups, because one doup thread has to be lifted for the first six picks, and the other doup thread does not lift until the fourth pick in the pattern. FIG. 352. Check Lenos.—Where alternate squares of leno and plain are required to be woven, it is necessary to have two doups if the leno is required to be woven four ends in a dent, with two ends crossing two, as in Fig. 352. It has been shown how a check leno or gauze can be woven with only one doup at FIG. 353. FIG. 354. FIG. 355. For dobby weaving, the leno principle is chiefly used in the production of striped fabrics. One of the most popular With three doups some very elaborate effects can be obtained, but the increased cost is rather prohibitive. A thick end can be crossed round a pair of ends weaving leno, as in Fig. 355. It is necessary to bring the end from the back stave round the doup B before crossing under the pair of leno ends, as this would make the crossing easier. Weft Pile Fabrics, Velvets, and Corduroys.—Practically all cotton velvets are woven on the weft pile principle. The intricate nature of the loom required for weaving warp cut-pile prevents its adoption for cotton pile fabrics. There is no doubt that a warp pile woven over wires is superior to any weft pile fabric, all the pile being perfectly even. The principle upon which weft pile is formed is illustrated at Figs. 356 and 357, the former showing the pile uncut, and the latter cut. FIG. 356. FIG. 357. In weft pile fabrics the pile weft is usually “extra weft” issuing out of the ground fabric only between every pair of ends. This forms grooves or “races” in the fabric, which allow of the insertion of a “knife and guide” which cuts the pile about the middle of the float. At Fig. 356 the ground fabric FIG. 358. If there are 260 picks per inch, and one pick out of every four belongs to the plain ground fabric or “back,” as it is sometimes called, there will be sixty-five picks per inch in the plain, and the pile weft is “extra” material forming grooves for the cutter’s knife on the face of the cloth. FIG. 359. After the cloth is woven it is stiffened, and stretched in a frame for cutting. Fig. 359 shows the kind of knife used for this purpose. The guide A is selected so as to fit under the float easily and lift the centre of the float to the cutting edge B. The cutter inserts the knife and guide every two ends or “race,” and thus in a common velvet, as at Fig. 358, one-third of the pile picks are cut each time the knife is run up the piece. The arrows show the ends where the knife is inserted. Machine cutting is now adopted to some extent The term velvet is used by retailers and the general public as referring to silk velvet, and by them all cotton pile fabrics are termed velveteens; but in the trade the lighter and finer classes of cotton weft pile fabrics are velvets, and the heavier kinds, such as those used for clothing purposes, are called “velveteens.” There is no very definite line drawn between the two classes. Velvets are usually sold by weight when in the grey state. The pattern given at Fig. 329 is made to weigh from 18 lbs. to 30 lbs. for 100 or 110 yards, 24 inches wide, the yarns being as previously stated, and the various weights obtained by altering the number of picks per inch. About 25 lbs. per 110 yards is a medium weight. The usual width for home trade velvets is 24 inches (grey), but for shipping 22½ inches is a very common width. The pieces are usually woven two or three in a width of the loom, and afterwards torn asunder. FIG. 360. The length of the pile may be increased by increasing the length of the float. Fig. 360 is a pattern with a seven float, and four pile picks to each backing, or ground pick. This is usually called an E1 velvet, a term probably handed down from the origination of the pattern. Until well into the last century the pattern Fig. 358 was the only weave used in the production of cotton velvets, and a patent was obtained for this E1 velvet, and the term “Patent” is still regularly used when referring to velvets with a longer pile than a five float. An E1 velvet requires considerably more picks per inch than a “common velvet.” A good make will contain 400 or more picks per inch of 60’s or 70’s weft, woven in a 74 Stockport reed with 2-70’s twist. Sometimes the points where the pile weft intersects are distributed in satin order as in Fig. 361, but this makes no appreciable difference, as the picks are so piled up on the top of each other that the bindings of the four pile picks are practically in a horizontal line in either of the methods given. FIG. 361. FIG. 362. Fig. 362 is a design for a velvet with a nine float, and five pile picks to one back pick or “binder,” as they are sometimes termed. This would require a still larger number of picks, and would easily take 500 picks per inch of 70’s weft. FIG. 363. A cloth is made with the same length of pile as the above, but with only four picks of pile to each back pick. This pattern requires fifty picks to complete it, as will be seen from Fig. 363. The pile in this case will be much more firmly bound into the ground cloth than is the case in Fig. 362. Fast Pile Velvets.—When the pile weft is only bound under one end it is rather liable to wear out, especially by rubbing at the back. To obviate this, the pile weft is bound in the manner shown at Fig. 364, by which it is rendered much faster. The method of binding detracts from the richness of the pile obtained from a given quantity of material, but the fabric possesses much better wearing qualities. Fig. 365 shows the structure of an ordinary fast pile velvet with a plain ground, and four pile picks to each back pick. FIG. 364. FIG. 365. FIG. 366. A regular make of this fabric is as follows: Width 26 inches, length 104 yards, weight 30 to 34 lbs. 76 reed, 420 picks per inch, 2-70’s twist, 50’s weft. Twill Backed Velvets.—Some of the finest kinds of velvet are made with a twill back. The chief advantage of a twill back over a plain is that the bindings of the pile weft into the ground are hidden by the twill floats at the back. This renders the pile much faster than a common velvet; in fact, twill backs are usually sold as fast pile velvets. FIG. 367. Fig. 366 is a section showing the structure of the fabric, and it will be easily understood that the pile cannot be so easily pulled out at the back, owing to the weft covering the bindings. Fig. 367 is the design for a good make of this kind of velvet, the back is a two and one twill, and the pile weft floats over eleven ends. An important thing to remember about twill backs is, that In the weave under notice, five pile picks are taken between the first two back picks, two between the second and third, and five between the third and first. This enables the proper bindings to be made. This weave gives one of the best cloths that are made. It is usually woven with about 600 picks per inch of 60’s weft, in a 76 reed with a 2-70’s twist. FIG. 368. Another pattern of the same kind which will take still more weft is given at Fig. 368. In this there are five pile picks to each backing pick, and the pattern repeats on thirty-six picks. Plushes.—When much longer piles are required the fabric is called “plush.” These can be made on exactly the same principles as the foregoing, or the principle embodied in Fig. 369 may be used. In this weave the pile is bound in much oftener than in the shorter piled cloths, as a long pile is much easier to pull out than a short one, and therefore requires more firmly binding. The ground picks also in this weave are all alike, i.e. they all pass under the same ends, and this does not hold the pile weft as firmly as a proper plain back, although it utilizes the binding of the pile weft as forming part of the back pattern. The bindings of the four pile picks together form a plain pick, and the back of the cloth thus appears perfectly plain. To preserve an even surface of pile it is necessary to distribute the points, where the first pick in each four commences, in satin order. As there are in Fig. 369 FIG. 369. For a longer pile the weft would require to be bound under more ends, especially if the backing picks are not crossed. Cord Velvets.—A simple cord velvet can be made on the principle of Fig. 370. The two plain ends on every six bind all the pile picks in the form of a cord up the piece, and there is one ground pick to four pile picks. The cutter’s knife is only run up every cord, and so the cutting operation is much cheaper and more easily done than in the case of velvets. After cutting, the pile is brushed, and the fibres spread out so as to cover the space between the two binding ends as much as possible. An eight-end cord on the same principle is given at Fig. 371. FIG. 370. FIG. 371. Round cords are made by employing floats of two lengths. In the previous cords all the floats are equal, but in Fig. 372 one float is a “thirteen” and the other a “fifteen.” When these are cut in the middle, the short float forms the outside of a cord, and the long float the inside, which gives the cord a round appearance. Fig. 373 shows the appearance of the two pile picks when cut. FIG. 372. FIG. 373. As a rule, these cords are used for very heavy fabrics, and twill and satin backs are chiefly used, and as the pile weft is usually much thicker than velvet weft, there are not so many pile picks between the ground picks. A smaller cord on the same principle is given at Fig. 374. FIG. 374. |
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