  OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY. The Gaelic alphabet consists of eighteen letters: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u. Of these, five are vowels, a, e, i, o, u; the rest consonants. In explaining the powers of the letters, and of their several combinations, such obstacles lie in the way that complete success is not to be expected. In order to explain, in writing, the sounds of a particular language, the only obvious method is to represent them by the letters commonly employed to exhibit similar sounds in some well-known living language. But there are sounds in the Gaelic to which there are none perfectly similar in English, nor perhaps in any modern European tongue. Besides, the same combination of letters does not invariably represent the same sound in one age that it did in a former, or that it may do in the next. And this may be equally true of the letters of the Gaelic alphabet, whose powers are to be taught; and of the letters of any other language, by whose sounds the powers of the former are to be explained. A diversity of pronunciation is very distinguishable also in different districts of the Highlands of Scotland, even in uttering the same words written in the same manner. Though the powers of the letters, then, may be explained to a certain degree of accuracy, yet much will still remain to be learned by the information of the ear alone. Although the chief use of the vowels be to represent the vocal sounds of speech, and that of the consonants to represent its articulations, yet, as in many languages, so in Gaelic, the consonants sometimes serve to modify the sound of the vowels with which they are combined; while, on the other hand, the vowels often qualify the sound of the consonants by which they are preceded or followed. It may not appear obvious at first sight how a vowel should be employed, not to represent a vocal sound, but to modify an articulation. Yet examples are to be found in modern languages. Thus, in the English words, George, sergeant, the e has no other effect than to give g its soft sound; and in guest, guide, the u only serves to give g its hard sound. So in the Italian words giorno, giusto, and many others, the i only qualifies the sound of the preceding consonant. The same use of the vowels will be seen to take place frequently in Gaelic orthography. Besides the common division of the letters into Vowels and Consonants, it is found convenient to adopt some further subdivisions. The Vowels are divided into broad and small: a, o, u, are called broad vowels; e, i, small vowels. The Consonants are divided into Mutes and Liquids: Mutes, b, c, d, f, g, m, p, t; Liquids, l, n, r, s[3]. They are also divided into Labials, Palatals, and Linguals, so named from the organs employed in pronouncing them: Labials, b, f, m, p; Palatals, c, g; Linguals, d, l, n, r, s, t. The aspirate h is not included in any of these divisions[4]. OF THE SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS[5]. All the vowels are sometimes long, sometimes short. A long vowel is often marked with an accent, especially when the quantity of the vowel determines the meaning of the word; as, bÀs death, sÀil the heel, cÀraid a pair, rÌs again, mÒ more, lÒn a marsh; which are distinguished by the accent alone from bas the palm of the hand, sail a beam, caraid a friend, ris to, lon the elk. All the vowels, but especially the broad ones, have somewhat of a nasal sound when preceded or followed by m, mh, n, nn. No vowels are doubled in the same syllable like ee, oo, in English. In almost all polysyllables, excepting some words compounded with a preposition, the accent falls on the first syllable[6]. The other syllables are short and unaccented, and the vowels in that situation have in general the same short obscure sound. Hence it happens that the broad vowels in these syllables are often used indiscriminately. There are no quiescent final vowels. A.A has three sounds. 1. The first is both long and short; long, like a in the English words far, star; as, Àr slaughter, Àth a ford, grÀdh, 2. Both long and short, before dh and gh. This sound has none like it in English. Long, as, adhbhar a cause, adhradh worship; short, as, lagh a law, magh a field, adharc a horn. 3. Short and obscure, like e in mother; as, an, a the, ar our, ma if, and in the plural termination a or an. E.E has three sounds. 1. Both long and short: long, like e in where, there; as, È, sÈ he, rÈ during. This e is generally marked with a grave accent. Short, like e in met; as, le with, leth half. 2. Long, as, rÉ the moon, cÉ the earth, and dÉ yesterday. This e is commonly marked with an acute accent. 3. Short, like e in mother; as, duine a man, ceannuichte bought. I.I has two sounds. 1. Both long and short, like ee in seem: long, as, mÌn smooth, righ a king; short, as, min meal, crith trembling. 2. Short and obscure, like i in this; as, is am, art, &c. O.O has three sounds. 1. Both long and short: long, somewhat like o in more; as, mÒr great, Òr gold, dÒchas expectation; short, like o in hot; as, mo my, do thy, dochann harm. 2. Both long and short: long, nearly like o in old; as, lom bare, toll a hole; short, as, lomadh making bare, tolladh boring. 3. Both long and short, like (2) a[7]: long, as, foghlum to learn; short, as, roghuinn choice, logh to forgive. U.U has one sound, both long and short, like oo in fool: long, as, Ùr fresh, Ùraich to renew; short, as, ubh an egg, urras a surety. OF THE DIPHTHONGS. There are thirteen Diphthongs reckoned in Gaelic; ae, ai, ao, ea, ei, eo, eu; ia, io, iu; oi; ua, ui. Of these, ao, eu, ia, ua, are always long; the others are sometimes long, sometimes short. Ae.The sound of ae is made up of (1) a long, and (1) e short. This diphthong hardly occurs, except in Gael a Gaul or Highlander, and Gaelic the Gaelic language[8]. Ai.The sound of ai is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or like that of the former. 1. Made up of (1) a and (1) i: the a long, the i short; as, fÀidh a prophet; the a short, the i short; as, claidheamh a sword. 2. Made up of (2) a and (1) i: the a long, the i short; as, saighde arrows. Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the i often loses its sound, and only serves to qualify the sound of the following consonant[9]; hence, 3. Like (1) a alone: long, as, fÀisg squeeze, fÀilte salutation; short, as, glaic a hollow, tais soft. 4. Like (2) a alone: short, as, airm arms, gairm a call. Ao.1. The sound of ao is like (2) a, long: as, caora a sheep, faobhar the edge of a tool, saothair labour. Ea.The sound of ea is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or like that of one of them. 1. Made up of (2) e and (1) a: e very short, a long, as, beann a summit, pinnacle, feall deceit; a short, as, meal to enjoy, speal a scythe. Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the a frequently loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, 2. Like (1) e, long: as, dean do; short, as, fear a man, bean a woman. 3. Like (2) e, long: as, easlan sick; short, as, fead whistle. After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the e loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence, 4. Like (1) a, long: as, cÈard an artificer; short, as, geal white. 5. Like (3) a, short: as, itheadh eating, coireach faulty. Ei.The sound of ei is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or like that of e alone. 1. Made up of (1) e and (1) i: e long, i short, as, sgeimh beauty; e short, as, meidh a balance. 2. Made up of (2) e and (1) i: e long, i short, as, feidh deer; e short, as, greigh a herd, stud. Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the i loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, 3. Like (1) e alone: long, as, mÈise of a plate. 4. Like (2) e alone: long, as, Éigin necessity; short, as, eich horses. Eo.The sound of eo is either made up of the sounds of both vowels, or like that of o alone. 1. Made up of (2) e and (1) o: e very short, o long, as, beo alive, eolas knowledge; o short, as, beothail lively. After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the e loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence, 2. Like (1) o: long, as, leomhann a lion; short, as, deoch drink. Eu.The sound of eu is like (2) e alone: long, as, teum to bite, gleus trim, entertainment. One of the most marked variations of dialect occurs in the pronunciation of the diphthong eu, which, instead of being pronounced like long e, is over all the North Highlands commonly pronounced like ia; as, nial, ian, fiar, for neul, eun, feur. Ia.The sound of ia is made up of the sounds of both the vowels. 1. Made up of (1) i and (1) a: both of equal length, as, fial liberal, iar west. 2. Made up of (1) i and (2) a: of equal length, as, fiadh a deer, ciall common sense. In cia which? iad they, ia is often found like (1) È. Io.The sound of io is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or like one of them alone. 1. Made up of (1) i and (3) o: i long, o short, as, diol to pay, fior true; i short, as, iolach a shout, ionnsuidh an attack. Before a Lingual or Palatal, not quiescent, the o sometimes loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, 2. Like (1) i: long, as, iodhol an idol; short, as, crios a girdle, biorach pointed. After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the i 3. Like u in fun, short and obscure: as, cionta guilt, tiondadh to turn. Iu.The sound of iu is either made up of the sound of both the vowels, or like u alone. 1. Made up of (1) i and (1) u: i short, u long, as, fiÙ worthy; u short, as, iuchair a key. After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the i loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence, 2. Like (1) u: long, as, diÙ worst part, refuse; short, as, tiugh thick, giuthas fir. Oi.The sound of oi is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or like that of o alone. 1. Made up of (1) o and (1) i: o long, i short, as, Òigh a virgin; o short, as, troidh a foot. 2. Made up of (3) o and (1) i: o long, i short, as, oidhche night. Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the i loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, 3. Like (1) o long: as, mÒid more; short, as, toic wealth. 4. Like (2) o long: as, fÒid a turf; short, as, fois rest. 5. Like (3) o short; as, coileach a cock, doire a wood. Ua.The sound of ua is made up of the sounds of both the vowels. 1. Made up of (1) u and (1) a, equally long; as, cuan the sea, fuar cold. 2. Made up of (1) u and (2) a; as, tuadh a hatchet, sluagh people. Ui.The sound of ui is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or like that of u alone. 1. Made up of (1) u and (1) i: u long, i short, as, suigheag a rasp-berry; u short, as, buidheann a company. Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the i loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, 2. Like (1) u long: as, dÙil expectation, cÙig five; short, as, fuil blood, muir the sea. OF THE TRIPHTHONGS. There are five Triphthongs, in each of which i is the last letter: aoi, eoi, iai, iui, uai. In these the two first vowels have the same sounds and powers as when they form a diphthong. The final i is sounded short; but before a Palatal or a Lingual, not quiescent, it loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant. Aoi.1. Made up of ao and (1) i; as, caoidh lamentation, aoibhneas joy, laoigh calves. 2. Like ao; as, caoineadh wailing, maoile baldness. Eoi.1. Made up of (2) eo and (1) i; as, geoigh geese. 2. Like (1) eo; as, meoir fingers. 3. Like (2) eo; as, deoir tears, treoir ability. Iai.1. Like (1) ia; as, fiaire more awry. Iui.1. Like (2) iu; as, ciÙil of music, fliuiche more wet. Uai.1. Made up of (1) ua and (1) i; as, luaithe quicker. 2. Made up of (2) ua and (1) i; as, cruaidh hard, fuaim sound. 3. Like (1) ua; as, uair time, an hour, cluaise of an ear. OF THE POWERS OF THE CONSONANTS. The simple powers of the consonants differ not much from their powers in English. Those called mediae by the writers on Greek grammar, viz., b, d, g, approach nearer in force to the corresponding tenues p, t, c, than they do in English. In accented syllables, where, if the vocal sound be short, the voice necessarily rests on the subsequent articulation, the consonants, though written single, are pronounced with the same degree of force as when written double in English; as, bradan a salmon, cos a foot; pronounced braddan, coss. No consonants are written double except l, n, r. A propensity to aspiration is a conspicuous feature in the Gaelic tongue[10]. The aspirating of a consonant has been In treating of the consonants separately, it will be convenient to depart a little from the alphabetical order of the letters, and to consider first the Labials, next the Palatals, and lastly the Linguals. LABIALS. P.1. Plain. Like p in English; as, poll a pool, pill return. 2. Aspirated. Like ph or f in English; as, a' phuill of the pool, phill returned[11]. B.1. Plain. Like b in English; as, baile a town, beo alive. 2. Aspirated. Like v in English, as, bhuail struck. In the end of a syllable the articulation is sometimes feeble, and often passes into the vocal sound of u[12]; as in marbh[13] dead, garbh rough, dabhach a vat. M.1. Plain. Like m in English; as, mac a son, cam crooked. 2. Aspirated. Somewhat like v in English, but more feeble and nasal; as, mhathair O mother, lamh the hand. The sound mh has the same relation to that of bh, as the sound of m has to that of b. Sometimes, like bh, it becomes a vocal sound like a nasal u; as, in damh an ox, samhradh summer: and sometimes the articulation becomes so feeble as not to be perceived; as, comhradh speech, domhainn deep. F.1. Plain. Like f in English, as, faigh to get, fÒid a turf. 2. Aspirated. Quiescent; as, fheara O men. In fhuair found, the aspiration is retained, and the word is pronounced as if written huair. It is probable that it was originally written and pronounced fuair[14]; that huair is but a provincial pronunciation[15]; and that to adapt the spelling in some shape to this pronunciation, the word came to be written fhuair. PALATALS AND LINGUALS. In treating of the Diphthongs (ai, ea, ei, &c.) notice has been often taken of the powers of certain vowels in modifying the sound of the adjoining consonants. This refers to a twofold mode of pronouncing the Palatal and Lingual consonants, whether plain or aspirated. The difference between these two modes of pronunciation is, in some consonants, abundantly striking; in others it is minute, but sufficiently discernible to an ear accustomed to the Gaelic. The one of these modes of articulation belongs to Palatals and Linguals, chiefly when connected with a broad vowel; the other belongs to them when connected with a small vowel. Hence, the former may be called the broad sound, the latter the small sound of a Palatal or a Lingual. These sounds are not distinguished in writing, but may be known, for the most part, by the relative situation of the letters. C.1. Plain. Broad: like c in come, curb; as, cÙl the back, cridhe the heart. 2. Small: like c in care, cure; as, taic support, circe of a hen[16]. 3. Aspirated. Broad: like the Greek ?, as pronounced in Scotland, in ???a; as, croch to hang, chaidh went. 4. Small: like ? in ????; as, chi shall see, eich horses. G.1. Plain. Broad: like g in go, rogue; as, gabh to take, glor speech, bog soft. 2. Small: like g in give, fatigue; as, gin to produce, thig shall come, tilg to throw. 3. Aspirated. Broad: has no sound like it in English; ghabh took, ghleidh kept. 4. Small: nearly like y in young; as, ghin produced. 5. Gh in the end of a syllable is often quiescent; as, righ a king, tiugh thick, fuigheall remainder. T.1. Plain. Broad: nearly like t in tone, bottom; as, tog to raise, trom heavy, brat a covering. 2. Small: like ch in cheek, choose; as, tinn sick, caillte lost. 3. Aspirated. Like h in house; as, thig shall come, throisg fasted, maith good. 4. Quiescent: in the middle of a polysyllable, in the end of a long syllable, and in certain tenses of a few irregular verbs when preceded by d'; as, snitheach[17] watery, sÌth peace, an d' thug e? did he give? also in the pronoun thusa thou. D.1. Plain. Broad: nearly like d in done; as, dol going, dlÙ near, close, ciod what. 2. Small: like j in June, jewel; as, diÙ refuse, maide a stick, airde height. D, after ch, is commonly sounded like c; as, bochd poor, pronounced as if written bochc[18]. 3. Aspirated[19]. Broad: like broad gh, as, dhruid did shut, gradh love. 4. Small: like small gh; as, dhearc looked. 5. Quiescent; as, fÀidh a prophet, cridhe a heart, radh saying, bualadh striking. RULE.—The consonants c, g, t, d, have their SMALL sound, when, in the same syllable, they are preceded, or immediately followed, by a SMALL VOWEL; in all other situations they have their BROAD sound. S.1. Plain. Broad: like s in sun, this; as, speal a scythe, cas a foot, sÙil an eye, scian a knife. 2. Small: like sh in show, rash; as, bris to break, sÈimh quiet, sniomh to twine, stÉidh foundation. 3. Aspirated: like h in him; as, shuidh sat, shrann snorted. Before l and n, it is almost, if not altogether, quiescent; as, shlanuich healed, shniomh twisted. S followed by a mute consonant is never aspirated. RULE.—S has its SMALL sound, when, in the same syllable, it is preceded or followed by a SMALL VOWEL, with or without an intervening Lingual. In all other situations it has its BROAD sound. Except. S is broad in is am. It is small in so this, sud yon. It is customary to give s its broad sound in the beginning of a word, when the former word ends with r, in which case the r also has its broad sound; as, chuir sinn we put, air son on account. Of L, N, R. A distinction between a consonant when plain, and the same consonant when aspirated, has been easily traced thus far. This distinction readily discovers itself, not only in the pronunciation and orthography, but also (as will be seen in its proper place) throughout the system of inflection. It takes place uniformly in those consonants which have been already considered. With respect to the remaining linguals, l, n, r, a corresponding distinction will be found to take place in their pronunciation, and likewise in the changes they suffer by inflection. This close correspondence between the changes incident to l, n, r, and the changes which the other consonants undergo, seems to be a sufficient reason for still using the same discriminative terms in treating of their powers, though these terms may not appear to be so strictly applicable to these three consonants as to the rest. The powers of l, n, r, shall accordingly be explained under the divisions plain and aspirated, broad and small. L.1. Plain. Broad: has no sound like it in English; lom bare, labhair speak, mall slow, alt a joint, ald a brook, slat a rod, dlÙ near. 2. Small: like ll in million; as, linn an age, lion fill, pill to return, slighe a way. 3. Aspirated. Broad: like l in loom, fool; as, labhair spoke, lom feminine of lom bare, mol to praise, dhlÙ feminine of dlÙ near. 4. Small: nearly like l in limb, fill; as, a linn his age, lion filled, mil honey, dligheach due, lawful. N.1. Plain. Broad: has no sound like it in English; nuadh new, naisg bind, lann a blade, carn a heap of stones. 2. Small: like n in the second syllable of opinion; as, nigh wash, binn melodious, cuirn heaps of stones. 3. Aspirated. Broad: like n in no, on; as, nuadh feminine of nuadh new, naisg bound, shnamh swam, sean old[20], chon of dogs, dÀn a poem. 4. Small: like n in keen, near; as, nigh washed, shniomh twisted, coin dogs, dÀin poems. In an when followed by a Palatal, the n is pronounced like ng in English; as, an gille the lad, an comhnuidh always. N, after a mute, is in a few instances pronounced like r[21]; as in mnathan women, cnatan a cold, an t-snÀth of the yarn; pronounced mrathan, cratan, &c. R.1. Plain. Nearly like r in roar; as, ruadh reddish, righ a king, ruith run, torr a heap, ceartas justice. 2. Aspirated. Broad: nearly like r in rear; as, car a turn, ruith ran, mÒr great. 3. Small: has no sound like it in English; a righ O king, seirbhe satiety, mÒir gen. of mÒr great. The plain, aspirated, broad, and small sounds of these Linguals are not distinguished in writing; but they may, for the most part, be known from the relative position of the letters. RULE.—L, N, R, have their PLAIN sound when, in the same syllable, they are immediately preceded by a plain Liquid, or immediately followed by a plain Lingual; also in the beginning of certain cases and tenses; in all other situations, they have their ASPIRATED sound. They have their SMALL sound when, in the same syllable, they are preceded or followed by a small vowel, with or without an intervening Liquid; in other situations, they have their BROAD sound. H.H is never used as an independent radical letter. When prefixed to a word beginning with a vowel, it is pronounced like h in how; as, na h-Òighean the virgins, na h-oidhche of the night. The following scheme exhibits a succinct view of the letters, both singly and in their several combinations. The first column contains the letters whose sound is to be exhibited; the prefixed figures marking the number of different sounds denoted by the same letter. The second column explains the sounds by examples or by references. The third column contains Gaelic words, with their translation, in which the several sounds are exemplified. Vowels.
Diphthongs.
Triphthongs.
Consonants
There is no doubt that the Gaelic has been for many ages a written language. It is equally certain that its orthography, since it was first committed to writing, has undergone In the first exhibition of the sounds of a living language, by alphabetical characters, it is probable that the principle which regulated the system of orthography was, that every elementary sound should be represented by a corresponding character, either simple or compounded, and that the same sound should be represented by the same character. If different sounds were represented by the same letter; if the same sound were represented by different letters; if more letters were employed then were necessary to exhibit the sound; or if any sound were not represented by a corresponding character; then the written language would not be an adequate representation of the spoken. It is hardly to be supposed that, in the first rude attempts at alphabetical writing, the principle above laid down could be strictly and uniformly followed. And though it had, yet, in the course of a few generations, many causes would occur to bring about considerable departures from it. A gradual refinement of ear, and increasing attention to euphonia; contractions and elisions brought into vogue by the carelessness or the rapidity of colloquial speech, or by the practice of popular speakers; above all, the mixture of the speech of different nations would introduce numberless varieties into the pronunciation. Still, those who wrote the language might choose to adhere to the original orthography for the sake of retaining the radical parts, and preserving the etymon of vocables undisguised, and for maintaining an uniformity in the mechanism of the inflections. Hence the pronunciation and the orthography would disagree in many instances, till at length it would be found expedient to alter the orthography, and to adapt it to such changes in the speech or spoken language as long use had established, in order to maintain what was most necessary of all, a due correspondence between the mode of speaking and the mode of writing the same language. It will probably be found on inquiry that in all languages when the speech has undergone material and striking changes, On the other hand, numberless examples might be adduced from any living language to prove that the written language does not adapt itself, on all occasions and with strict uniformity, to the sounds of speech. Words are written differently which are pronounced alike. The same combinations of letters, in different situations, represent different sounds. Letters are retained in writing, serving to point out the derivations of words, after they have been entirely dropped in speaking. From such facts as these, it appears a just conclusion that written language generally follows the spoken language through its various revolutions, but still at a certain distance,—not dropping so far behind as to lose sight of its precursor, nor following so close as to be led through all its fantastic deviations. Here a question occurs of importance in settling the orthography of any particular tongue: How near ought the written language to correspond to the spoken, and where may a disagreement between them be allowed with It is obvious that in speech the articulations (which are represented by consonants in writing) are the least liable to variation. Vowel sounds are continually varying. In this variety chiefly consists that diversity of tone and dialect which is found in the speech of different districts of the same country, where the same words are spoken. The changes, too, which are introduced by time fall with greater effect on the vowel sounds than on the articulations. This circumstance will strike an observer who steps into any deliberative assembly, where the speakers are of different ages. St Jerome makes a remark on the reading of Hebrew, which is applicable, in some measure, to the pronunciation of all languages: "Nec refert utrum Salem aut Salim nominetur; cum vocalibus in medio literis perraro utantur Hebraei; et pro voluntate lectorum, ac varietate regionum, eadem verba diversis sonis atque accentibus proferantur." It may be observed that the superior stability of the articulations above the vowel sounds is the natural consequence of the position of the organs of speech in uttering them. The different modifications of the vowel sounds are effected by minute changes in the conformation of the organs; those of the articulations are made by more distinct and operose inflections of the organs. It seems, then, a warrantable conclusion that, of the elementary constituents of speech, viz., articulations and vowel sounds, the articulations are, in their own nature, ESSENTIAL, PERMANENT, and PREDOMINANT; the vowel sounds, comparatively considered, are ADJUNCTIVE, FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE. Further, all the vowel sounds that usually occur in speech seem to be uttered with equal ease, in whatever situation they occur, as the same organs are employed for all. In forming the common articulations of speech, as different organs are employed, a degree of difficulty is sometimes felt in making a transition from one articulation to another. If this theory be just, it ought to follow that, in all polished tongues, an agreement will be found among those irregularities which affect the articulations, that is not so observable in those which affect the vowel sounds. There is reason to believe that, if a full comparison were made between different languages, this would accordingly be found to be the case. Let it be observed, then, that in speech a deference has been usually paid to the articulations which has not been paid to the vowel sounds, inasmuch as the latter have been changed from the state in which the structure of each tongue had at first placed them, frequently and from peculiar taste or humour; the former more rarely, and for the most part from necessity. If this observation be found to be well supported, we shall have the sanction of general practice in favour of the conclusion that was formerly If it appear, then, that the vowel sounds in speech are perpetually varying in the mouths of different speakers, from causes which either elude our search, or, when discovered, are seen to be of small importance, may we not judge that it would be equally vain and improper to attempt to make Writing follow all these minute variations; and that, however it may happen that the same vowel sound may be represented in many instances by different letters, and different vowel sounds by the same letters, yet this disagreement between Speech and Writing must be connived at, for the sake of preserving some degree of uniformity, where alone it can be preserved, in the written language? If it appear, again, that the variations from the established analogy which are made on the articulations are less frequent, and proceed from causes obvious and cogent, ought not these variations to be exhibited in writing, for preserving that general correspondence between the written and the spoken language which ought to be preserved, as far as the limited powers of letters will permit, and without which the words I speak and those I write do not belong to the same language? One exception from this principle seems allowable in the case of quiescent consonants. It may be inferred, from the practice of all living languages, that consonants whereof the corresponding articulations have been suppressed in speaking may yet be retained with propriety in writing, when they are requisite to point out the derivation of vocables, or the radical part of declinable words. But this exception ought to be allowed only to a moderate extent, for the reasons already assigned; to which it may be added, that the far greater part of the suppressed articulations can be easily discovered and retraced to their roots, without any index in the written any more than in the spoken language to point them out. These observations being premised, I shall proceed to explain the present state of Gaelic Orthography, and shall endeavour to assist the reader in forming a judgment of its merit, and how far it may admit of improvement. I. It may be laid down as one settled principle in orthography, that each letter or combination of letters in the written language ought always to denote one and the same sound. From the explanation that has been given of the powers of the letters, it may be seen how far this principle has been regarded in the Gaelic. Though almost every one of the letters represents more than one sound, yet there is an evident affinity between the several sounds of the same letter. And it may be readily allowed that less confusion and inconvenience follow from exhibiting a few kindred sounds by the same letter, than would have taken place had the characters been multiplied to such a degree as that a separate one could have been appropriated to each minute variety of sound. It is obvious to remark, as a departure from this principle, that in the case of the consonants l, n, r, the distinction between their plain and their aspirated state is not marked in writing, but that in both states the consonant is written in one way. In the middle and end of words, as has been shown, this distinction may be known from the relative situation of the letters. In the beginning of certain cases and tenses of declinable words, it may often be known from their grammatical connection, but is not marked by any graphical index whatever. The proper reading is to be determined by the sense of the passage, instead of the sense being understood by the proper reading. It is not easy to discover how those who first committed the Gaelic to writing neglected to mark such a material distinction. Inconveniencies and ambiguities not unfrequently arise from this cause, which have been long felt and regretted. Is there room to hope that it is not yet too late to recommend a method of remedying this defect? The method I would suggest is the most simple and obvious of any. It is to annex to the initial l, n, and r, in their aspirated state, the letter h, just as has been II. Another principle of authority in regulating orthography is, that each sound ought always to be represented by one and the same letter, or combination of letters. The deviations from this rule in Gaelic are extremely few. The sound of ao is represented sometimes by a alone, sometimes by o alone. The sound of gh is represented also by dh; and final c often, though corruptly, represents the same sound with chd. III. A third principle in orthography is, that no more letters ought to be employed than are necessary to represent the sound. There are probably few polished languages in which departures from this rule are not found in abundance. Reasons have been already mentioned which render it expedient to retain letters in writing many words, after the corresponding sounds have been dropped in pronouncing the same words. Quiescent letters, both vowels and consonants, are not unfrequent in Gaelic. Though these quiescent letters have no sound themselves, they are not always without effect in pronunciation, as they often determine the sound of other letters. Most, if not all, the quiescent vowels seem to have been introduced for this purpose. They ascertain the broad or the small sound of the adjoining We have seen that the Labials b, m, f, p, whether aspirated or not, have no distinction of broad and small sound. It cannot, then, be necessary to employ vowels, either prefixed or postfixed, to indicate the sound of these. Thus, abuich ripe, gabhaidh will take, chromainn I would bow, ciomaich captives, have been written with a broad vowel in the second syllable, corresponding to the broad vowel in the first syllable; yet the letters abich, gabhidh, chrominn, ciomich, fully exhibit the sound. The prepositive syllable im, when followed by a small vowel, is written im, as in imlich to lick, imcheist perplexity. But when the first vowel of the following syllable is broad, it has been the practice to insert an o before the m, as in iomlan complete, iomghaoth a whirlwind, iomluasg agitation. Yet the inserted o serves no purpose, either in respect of derivation, of inflection, or of pronunciation. The unnecessary application of the rule in question appears most unequivocally in words derived from other languages. From the Latin words imago, templum, liber, are formed in Gaelic iomhaigh, teampull, leabhar. Nothing but a servile regard to the rule under consideration could have suggested the insertion of a broad vowel in the first syllable of these words, where it serves neither to guide the pronunciation, nor to point out the derivation. Another case, in which the observation of this rule seems to be wholly unnecessary, is when two syllables of a word are separated by a quiescent consonant. Thus in gleidheadh keeping, itheadh eating, buidheann a company, dligheach lawful, the aspirated consonants in the middle are altogether quiescent. The vocal sound of the second syllable is sufficiently expressed by the last vowel. No good reason, then, appears for writing a small vowel in the second syllable. Thus far it is evident that the rule respecting the correspondence of vowels is wholly impertinent in the case of syllables divided by Labials, or by quiescent consonants. If we examine further into the application of this rule, we shall find more cases in which it may be safely set aside. Many of the inflections of nouns and verbs are formed by adding one or more syllables to the root. The final These observations apply with equal justness to the tenses of verbs, as will be seen by comparing the following examples: creid-idh will believe, stad-aidh will stop; chreid-inn I would believe, stad-ainn I would stop; creid-eam let me believe, stad-am let me stop; creid-ibh believe ye, stad-aibh stop ye. The same observations may be further applied to derivative words, formed by adding to their primitives the syllables The foregoing observations appear sufficient to establish this general conclusion, that in all cases in which a vowel serves neither to exhibit the vocal sound, nor to modify the articulations of the syllable to which it belongs, it may be reckoned nothing better than an useless incumbrance. There seems, therefore, much room for simplifying the present system of Gaelic Orthography, by the rejection of a considerable number of quiescent vowels[26]. Almost the only quiescent consonants which occur in Gaelic are d, f, g, s, t, in their aspirated state. When these occur in the inflections of declinable words, serving to indicate the Root, or in derivatives, serving to point out the primitive word, the omission of them might, on the whole, be unadvisable. Even when such letters appear in their absolute form, though they have been laid aside in pronunciation, yet it would be rash to discard them in writing, as they often serve to show the affinity of the words in which they are found to others in different languages, or in different dialects of the Celtic. The aspirated form of the consonant in writing sufficiently shows that, in speaking, its articulation is either attenuated or wholly suppressed. The writers of Gaelic seem to have carefully avoided bringing into apposition two vowels which belong to different syllables. For this purpose they have sometimes introduced a quiescent consonant into the middle of compound or of inflected words; as, gneidheil, or rather gnethail kindly, made up of gnÈ and ail; beothail lively, made up of beo and ail; diathan gods, from the singular dia; lathaibh days, from the singular lÀ, &c. It may at least bear a question, whether it would not be better to allow the vowels to denote the sound of the word by their own powers, without the intervention of quiescent consonants, as has been done in From the want of an established standard in orthography, the writers of Gaelic, in spelling words wherein quiescent consonants occurred, must have been often doubtful which of two or three consonants was the proper one, and may therefore have differed in their manner of spelling the same word. Accordingly we find, in many instances, the same words written by different writers, and even at different times by the same writer, with different quiescent consonants. This variation affects not indeed the pronunciation, or does it in a very slight degree. Hence, however, some who judge of the language only from its appearance in writing, have taken occasion to vilify it, as unfixed and nonsensical[27]. A proper attention to the affinity which the Scottish Gaelic bears to some other languages, particularly to other dialects of the Celtic, might contribute to fix the orthography in some cases where it appears doubtful, or has become variable[28]. IV. The last principle to be mentioned, which ought to regulate orthography, is that every sound ought to be represented by a corresponding character. From this rule there is hardly a single deviation in Gaelic, as there is no sound in the spoken language which is not, in some measure, A few observations on the mode of writing some particular words, or particular parts of speech, remain to be brought forward in the sequel of this work, which it would be premature to introduce here. The Scottish writers of Gaelic in general followed the Irish orthography, till after the middle of the last century. However that system may suit the dialect of Ireland, it certainly is not adapted to the Gaelic of this country. In the Gaelic translation of the New Testament, printed in 1767, not only were most of the Irish idioms and inflections which had been admitted into the Scottish Gaelic writings rejected, and the language adapted to the dialect of the Scottish Highlands, but the orthography also was adapted to the language. In later publications, the manner of writing the language was gradually assimilated to that pattern. The Gaelic version of the sacred Scriptures lately published has exhibited a model, both of style and orthography, still more agreeable to the purest Scottish idiom, and has a just title to be acknowledged as the standard in both. Little seems to be now wanting to confer on the orthography of the Scottish Gaelic such a degree of uniformity as may redeem its credit and ensure its stability. This, it is to be hoped, may be attained by a judicious regard to the separate, and especially the relative powers of the letters, to the most common and approved modes of pronunciation, to the affinity of the Scottish Gaelic with other branches of the Celtic tongue, to the analogy of inflection and derivation, and, above all, to the authority of some generally received standard, to which pre-eminence the late Gaelic version of the Scriptures has the only indisputable claim. PART II.OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. The parts of speech in Gaelic may be conveniently divided and arranged as follows:—Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection. Of these, the first five are declinable; the other four are indeclinable. CHAPTER I.OF THE ARTICLE. The Gaelic article an corresponds to the English definite article the. There is in Gaelic no indefinite article corresponding to the English a or an. The inflections of the article are but few. They depend on the gender, the number, and the case, of the noun to which it is prefixed. Hence the article is declined by gender, number, and case, as follows:
In the singular, final n of the article is sometimes cut off, and its absence marked by an apostrophe. The same happens to the initial a of the dative singular. CHAPTER II.OF NOUNS. A Noun is the Name of any person, object, or thing whatsoever, that we have occasion to mention. In treating of Of Gender. In imposing names on sensible objects, the great and obvious distinction of Sex in the animal world suggested the expediency of inventing names, not only for the particular species of animals, but also for distinguishing their Sex. Such are vir, femina; bull, cow; coileach, cearc, &c. To mark at once identity of species, and diversity of Sex, the same word, with a slight change on its form, was applied to both sexes: as equus, equa; lion, lioness; oglach, banoglach. In most languages, distinction of Sex has been marked, not only thus by the form of the noun, but further by the form of the adjective connected with the noun. Most adjectives were furnished with two forms, the one of which indicated its connection with the name of a male, the other its connection with the name of a female. The one was called by grammarians the masculine gender, the other the feminine gender of the adjective. Adjectives possessing thus a two-fold form, must necessarily have appeared under one or other of these forms, with whatever noun they happened to be conjoined. Even nouns significant of inanimate objects came thus to possess one mark of nouns discriminative of Sex, as they happened to be accompanied by an adjective of the masculine or by one of the feminine gender. If any noun was observed to be usually coupled with an adjective of the masculine gender, it was termed by grammarians a masculine noun; if it was found usually coupled with an adjective of the feminine gender, it was termed a feminine noun. Thus a distinction of nouns into masculine and feminine came to be noted, and this also was called gender. It is observable, then, that gender, in grammar, is taken in two different acceptations. When applied to an adjective, When an adjective was to be connected with a noun that denoted an object devoid of Sex, it is not always easy to guess what views might have determined the speaker to use the adjective in one gender rather than in the other. Perhaps Sex was attributed to the object signified by the noun. Perhaps its properties were conceived to bear some resemblance to the qualities characteristic of Sex in living creatures. In many instances, the form of the noun seems to have decided the point. It must be confessed that in this mental process, the judgment has been often swayed by trivial circumstances, and guided by fanciful analogies. At least it cannot be denied that in the Gaelic, where all nouns whatever are ranked under the class of masculines or of feminines, the gender of each has been fixed by a procedure whereof the grounds cannot now be fully investigated or ascertained. Neither the natural nor artificial qualities or uses of the things named, nor the form of the names given them, furnish any invariable rule by which the gender of nouns may be known. It ought to be remembered, however, that the Gaelic is far from being singular in this respect. The oldest language with which we are acquainted, as well as some of the most polished modern tongues, stand in the same predicament. The following observations may serve to give some idea of the analogy of gender in Gaelic nouns; though they do not furnish a complete set of rules sufficient to ascertain the gender of every noun:— Masculines. Nouns signifying males are masculines; as, fear a man, righ a king, sagart a priest, tarbh a bull, cu a dog. Many nouns, signifying the young of animals of either Sex, are masculine, even when the individual objects they denote are mentioned as being of the female Sex; as, laogh a calf, isean a gosling, uan a lamb, &c.[30]. Diminutives in an; as, rothan a little wheel, dealgan a little pin, &c. Derivatives in as, which are, for the most part, abstract nouns; as, cairdeas friendship, naimhdeas enmity, ciuineas calmness, breitheamhnas judgment, ceartas justice, maitheas goodness, &c. Derivatives in air, ach, iche, which are, for the most part, agents; as, cealgair a deceiver, sealgair a huntsman, dorsair a door-keeper, marcach a rider, maraiche a sailor, coisiche a foot traveller, &c. Names of such kinds of trees as are natives of Scotland; as, darach oak, giuthas fir, uimhseann ash. Most polysyllables whereof the last vowel is broad, are masculine. Feminines. Nouns signifying females are feminine; as, bean a woman, mathair a mother, bo a cow, &c. Except bainionnach or boirionnach a female, mart a cow, capull a horse or mare, but commonly a mare, which are masculine, and caileann or cailinn a damsel, masculine or feminine.[31] Mark, vi. 28. Some nouns denoting a species are feminine, even when the individual spoken of is characterised as a male; as, gabhar fhirionn, a he-goat. Psal. l. 9. Names of countries; as, Albainn Scotland, Eirinn Ireland. Names of musical instruments; as, clarsach a harp, piob, a pipe. Names of the heavenly bodies; as, Grian sun, Gealach moon. Names of diseases; as, teasach a fever, a' ghriuthach the measles, a' bhreac the small-pox, a' bhuidheach the jaundice, a' bhuinneach, a diarrhoea, &c. Collective names of trees or shrubs are feminine; as, giuthasach a fir wood, iugharach a yew copse, seileach a willow copse, droighneach a thorny brake. Diminutives in ag or og; as, caileag a girl, cuachag a little cup. Derivatives in achd; as, iomlanachd fulness, doillearachd duskiness, doimhneachd depth, rioghachd kingdom, sinnsireachd ancestry, &c. Abstract nouns formed from the genitive of adjectives; as, doille blindness, gile whiteness, leisge laziness, buidhre deafness, &c. Many monosyllables in ua followed by one or more consonants are feminine; as, bruach a bank, cruach a heap, cuach a cup, cluas an ear, gruag the hair of the head, sguab a sheaf, tuadh a hatchet, tuath peasantry. Almost all polysyllables, whereof the last vowel is small, except those in air and iche, already noticed, are feminine. A few nouns are of either gender; Salm a Psalm, creidimh belief, are used as masculine nouns in some places, and feminine in others. Cruinne the globe, talamb the earth, land, are masculine in the nominative; as, an cruinne-cÉ the globe of the earth. Psal. lxxxix. 11., xc. 2.—D. Buchan. 1767. p. 12. 15; an talamh tioram the dry land. Psal. xcv. Of Declension. Nouns undergo certain changes significant of Number and of Relation. The forms significant of Number are two: the Singular, which denotes one; and the Plural, which denotes any number greater than one. The changes expressive of Relation are made on nouns in two ways: 1. On the beginning of the noun; 2. On its termination. The relations denoted by changes on the termination are different from those denoted by changes on the beginning; they have no necessary connection together; the one may take place in absence of the other. It seems proper, therefore, to class the changes on the termination by themselves in one division, and give it a name, and to class the changes on the beginning also by themselves in another division, and give it a different name. As the changes on the termination denote, in general, the same relations which are denoted by the Greek and Latin cases, that seems a sufficient reason for adopting the term case into the Gaelic Grammar, and applying it, as in the Greek and Latin, to signify "the changes made on the termination of nouns or adjectives to mark relation".[32] According to this description of them, there are four cases in Gaelic. These may be The changes on the beginning of nouns are made by aspirating an initial consonant; that is, writing h after it. This may be called the Aspirated form of the noun. The aspirated form extends to all the cases and numbers. A noun, whereof the initial form is not changed by aspiration, is in the Primary form. The accidents of nouns may be briefly stated thus. A noun is declined by Number, Case, and Initial form. The Numbers are two: Singular and Plural. The Cases are four: Nominative, Genitive, Dative, and Vocative. The Initial form is twofold: the Primary form, and the Aspirated form peculiar to nouns beginning with a consonant. In declining nouns, the formation of the cases is observed to depend more on the last vowel of the nominative than on The following examples are given of the inflection of nouns of the FIRST DECLENSION.
Formation of the Cases of Nouns of the First Declension. Singular Number. General Rule for forming the Genitive.—The Genitive is formed from the Nominative, by inserting i after the characteristic vowel, as, bÀs mas. death, Gen. sing. bÀis; fuaran m. a fountain, g. s. fuarain; clarsach f. a harp, g. s. clarsaich. Feminine monosyllables likewise add a short e to the Nominative; as, cluas f. an ear, g. s. cluaise; lÀmh a hand, g. s. lÀimhe[34]. Particular Rules for the Genitive.—1. If the nominative ends in a vowel, the genitive is like the nominative; as, trÀ m. a time or season, g. s. trÀ; so also beatha f. life, cro m. a sheepfold, cliu m. fame, duine a man, Donncha Duncan, a man's name, and many others. Except bo f. a cow, g. s. boin; cu m. a dog, g. s. coin; bru f. the belly, g. s. broinn or bronn. 2. Nouns ending in chd or rr have the genitive like the nominative; as, uchd m. the breast, sliochd m. offspring, feachd m. a host, reachd m. statute, cleachd m. habit, beachd m. vision, smachd m. authority, fuachd m. cold, sprochd m. gloom, beannachd m. a blessing, naomhachd f. holiness, earr m. the tail, torr m. a heap. Except slochd g. s. sluichd m. a pit, unless this word should rather be written sloc, like boc, cnoc, soc. 3. Monosyllables ending in gh or th add a for the genitive; as, lagh m. law, g. s. lagha; roth m. a wheel, g. s. rotha; sruth m. a stream, g. s. srutha. Except Àgh m. felicity, grace, or charm, g. s. aigh[35]. 4. Monosyllables characterised by io either drop the o or add a for the genitive; as, siol m. seed, g. s. sÌl; lion m. a net, g. s. lÌn; crioch f. a boundary, g. s. crÌch; cioch f. the pap, g. s. cÌche; fion m. wine, g. s. fiona; crios m. a girdle, g. s. criosa; fiodh m. timber, g. s. fiodha. Except Criost or Criosd m. Christ, which has the gen. like the nominative. 5. Many monosyllables, whose characteristic vowel is a or o, change it into u and insert i after it; as, gob m. the bill of a bird, g. s. guib; crodh m. kine, g. s. cruidh; bolg or balg m. a bag, g. s. builg; clog or clag m. a bell, g. s. cluig; lorg f. a staff, g. s. luirge; long f. a ship, g. s. luinge; alt m. a 6. Polysyllables characterised by ea change ea into i; as, fitheach m. a raven, g. s. fithich; cailleach f. an old woman, g. s. caillich[36]. These two suffer a syncope, and add e; buidheann f. a company, g. s. buidhne; sitheann f. venison, g. s. sithne. Of monosyllables characterised by ea, some throw away a and insert i; as, each m. a horse, g. s. eich; beann f. a peak, g. s. beinne; fearg f. anger, g. s. feirge. Some change ea into i; as, breac m. a trout, g. s. bric; fear m. a man, g. s. fir; ceann m. a head, end, g. s. cinn; preas m. a bush, g. s. pris; breac f. the small-pox, g. s. brice; cearc f. a hen, g. s. circe; leac f. a flag, g. s. lice. Gleann m. a valley, adds e, g. s. glinne. Some add a to the nominative; as, speal m. a scythe, g. s. speala. Dream f. people, race, gean m. humour, have their genitive like the nominative. Feall f. deceit, g. s. foill or feill. Geagh m. a goose, makes g. s. geoigh. 7. Nouns in eu followed by a liquid, change u into o and insert i after it; as, neul m. a cloud, g. s. neoil, eun m. a bird, g. s. eoin; feur m. grass, g. s. feoir; meur m. a finger, g. s. meoir; leus m. a torch, g. s. leois. Beul m. the mouth, g. s. beil or beoil; sgeul. m. a tale, g. s. sgeil or sgeoil. Other nouns characterised by eu add a for the gen., as, treud m. a flock, g. s. treuda; feum m. use, need, g. s. feuma; beum m. a stroke, g. s. beuma. Meud m. bulk, beuc m. a roar, freumh f. a fibre, root, hardly admit of a, but have their gen. rather like the nom. 8. Monosyllables characterised by ia change ia into ei; as, sliabh m. a moor, g. s. sleibh; fiadh m. a deer, g. s. feidh; biadh m. food, g. s. beidh or bidh; iasg m. fish, g. s. eisg; grian f. the sun, g. s. greine; sgiath f. a wing, g. s. sgeithe. Except Dia m. God, g. s. De; sgian f. a knife, g. s. sgine. Piuthar f. a sister, has g. s. peathar; leanabh m. a child, g. s. leinibh; ceathramh m. a fourth part, g. s. ceithrimh, leabaidh or leaba f. a bed, g. s. leapa; talamh m. earth, g. s. talmhainn. The Dative singular of masculine nouns is like the nominative; of feminine nouns, is like the genitive; as, tobar m. a well, d. s. tobar; clarsach f. a harp, g. s. and d. s. clarsaich; misneach f. courage, g. s. and d. s. misnich. Particular Rules for the Dative of Feminine Nouns.—1. If e was added to the nominative in forming the genitive, it is thrown away in the dative; as, slat f. a rod, g. s. slaite—d. s. slait; grian f. the sun, g. s. greine, d. s. grein. 2. If the nominative suffered a syncope in forming the genitive, or if the last vowel of the genitive is broad, the dative is like the nominative; as, buidheann f. a company, g. s. buidhne, d. s. buidheann; piuthar f. a sister, g. s. peathar, d. s. piuthar. The Vocative of masc. nouns is like the genitive; of feminine nouns is like the nominative; as, bÀs m. death, g. s. bÀis, v. s. bhais; cu m. a dog, g. s. coin, v. s. choin; grian f. the sun, v. s. ghaoth. Plural Number. Nominative. Masculine nouns which insert i in the gen. sing. have their nom. plur. like the gen. sing.; as, oglach m. a servant, g. s. oglaich, n. p. oglaich; fear m. a man, g. s. and n. p. fir. Many of these form their nom. plur. also by adding a short a to the nominative singular. Other masculine nouns, and all feminine nouns, have their nom. plural in a, to which n is added, euphoniÆ causa, before an initial vowel[37]. Particular Rules for forming the Nom. Plur. in a or an. 1. By adding a to the nom. singular; as, dubhar m. a shadow, n. p. dubhara; rioghachd f. a kingdom, n. p. rioghachdan. Under this Rule, some nouns suffer a syncope; as, dorus m. a door, n. p. dorsa for dorusa. 2. Nouns ending in l or nn, often insert t before a; as, reul m. a star, n. p. reulta; beann f. a pinnacle, n. p. beannta. So lÒn m. a marsh, n. p. lÒintean. 3. Some nouns in ar drop the a, and add to the nom. sing. the syllable aich; and then the final a becomes e, to correspond to the preceding small vowel; as, leabhar m. a book, n. p. leabhraiche; tobar m. a well, n. p. tobraiche; lann. f. an enclosure, inserts d, n. p. lanndaiche. Piuthar f. a sister, from the g. s. peathar, has n. p. peathraiche; so leaba f. a bed, g. s. leapa, n. p. leapaiche. Bata m. a staff, n. p. batacha; la or latha a day, n. p. lathachan or laithean. 4. Some polysyllables in ach add e or ean to the genitive singular; as, mullach m. summit, g. s. mullaich, n. p. mullaichean; otrach m. a dunghill, n. p. otraichean; clarsach f. a harp, n. p. clarsaichean; deudach f. the jaw, n. p. deudaichean. So sliabh m. a moor, g. s. sleibh, with t The following Nouns form their Nominative Plural irregularly: Dia m. God, n. p. dÉe or diathan; scian f. a knife, n. p. sceana or scinichean; sluagh m. people, n. p. sloigh; bo. f. a cow, n. p. ba. Genitive. 1. Monosyllables, and nouns which form their nominative plural like the genitive singular, have the genitive plural like the nominative singular; as, geug f. a branch, g. p. geug; coimhearsnach m. a neighbour, g. s. and n. p. coimhearsnach. 2. Polysyllables which have their nominative plural in a or an, form the genitive like the nominative; leabhar m. a book, n. p. and g. p. 'leabraichean'—When the nominative plural is twofold, the genitive is so too; as 'fear' n. a man, n. p. fir, or sometimes feara, g. p. fear or feara. Cu m. a dog has its g. p. con; caora f. a sheep, g. p. caorach; sluagh m. people, g. p. sluagh or slogh. Dative. The dative plural is formed either from the nominative singular or from the nominative plural. If the nominative plural ends in a consonant, the dative plural is formed by adding ibh to the nominative singular; as, crann m. a tree, n. p. croinn, d. p. crannaibh; mac m. a son, n. p. mic, d. p. macaibh. If the nominative plural ends in a vowel, the final vowel is changed into ibh; as, tobar a well, n. p. tobraiche, d. p. tobraichibh. 2. Monosyllables ending in an aspirated consonant, which have their nominative plural like the genitive singular, form their dative plural like the nominative plural; as, damh an ox, g. s. and n. p. daimh, d. p. daimh, not damhaibh; fiadh m. a deer, g. s. and n. p. and d. p. feidh. So sluagh m. people, host, g. s. sluaigh, n. p. and d. p. sloigh. Nouns ending in ch, of three or more syllables, form their dative plural like the nominative plural, rather than in ibh; as, coimhearsnach m. a neighbour, d. p. coimhearsnaich rather than coimhearsnachaibh; phairiseach m. a Pharisee, d. p. phairisich rather than phairiseachaibh. Vocative. The vocative plural is like the nominative plural, terminating in a, but seldom in an; as, fear m. a man, n. p. fir or feara, v. p. fheara; oglach m. a servant, n. p. oglaich, v. p. oglacha. Except perhaps monosyllables which never form their nominative plural in a, nor their dative plural in ibh; as, damh m. an ox, n. p. daimh, v. p. dhaimh; a shloigh, Rom. xv. 11. The irregular noun Bean f. a woman, is declined thus:
SECOND DECLENSION.
Formation of the cases of nouns of the second Declension. Singular Number. General Rule for the Genitive. The genitive of polysyllables is like the nominative; of monosyllables is made by adding e to the nominative; as, caraid m. a friend, g. s. caraid; aimsir f. time, g. s. aimsir; tigh m. a house, g. s. tighe; ainm m. a name, g. s. ainme; im m. butter, g. s. ime; craig f. a rock, g. s. craige. Particular Rules for the Genitive. 1. Feminine nouns in ail and air drop the i and add ach; if the nominative be a polysyllable, ai is thrown away; as, sail f. a beam, g. s. salach; dail f. a plain, g. s. dalach; lair f. a mare, g. s. lÀrach; cathair f. a seat, g. s. cathrach; nathair f. a serpent, g. s. nathrach; lasair f. a flame, g. s. lasrach. To these add cÒir f. right, g. s. cÒrach or cÒire. 2. Monosyllables characterised by oi drop i and add a; as, feoil f. flesh, g. s. feola; tÒin f. bottom, g. s. tÒna; srÒin f. the nose, g. s. srÒine or srÒna. 3. Monosyllables characterised by ui change ui into a or o, and add a; as, muir f. the sea, g. s. mara; fuil f. blood, g. s. fola or fala; druim f. a ridge, g. s. droma. Except sÙil f. the eye, g. s. sÙla; cuid f. a part, g. s. codach or cuid. 4. A few feminine polysyllables in eir form their genitive like monosyllables; as, inneir f. dung, g. s. inneire; suipeir f. supper, g. s. suipeire. 5. The following dissyllables seem to have formed their genitive like monosyllables, and then suffered a contraction. Sometimes the characteristic vowel is retained, and sometimes it is thrown away, the final e of the genitive being converted into a, when requisite to suit an antecedent broad vowel.
6. The following nouns form their genitive by dropping the characteristic small vowel; athair m. a father, g. s. athar; mathair f. a mother, g. s. mathar; brathair m. a brother, g. s. brathar; namhaid m. an enemy, g. s. namhad. Cnaimh m. a bone, g. s. cnamha; uaimh f. a cave, g. s. uamha. Mil f. honey, has g. s. meala. 7. A few monosyllables ending in a vowel have their genitive like the nominative; as, ni m. a thing, ti m. a person, rÉ m. the moon; to which add righ m. a king. Dative. The dative singular is like the nominative; as, duine m. a man, d. s. duine; madainn f. morning, d. s. madainn. Vocative. The vocative singular is like the nominative, as, caraid m. friend, v. s. charaid; mathair f. mother, v. s. mhathair. Plural Number. Nominative.—General Rule. The nominative plural is formed by adding to the nominative singular a or an, written e or ean to correspond to a preceding small vowel; as, piobair m. a piper, n. p. piobairean; aimsir f. time, season, n. p. aimsirean. Some nouns suffer a contraction in the nominative plural; as, caraid m. a friend, n. p. cÀirdean; naimhaid m. an enemy, n. p. naimhdean; fiacail f. a tooth, n. p. fiaclan. Particular Rules. 1. Some nouns, whose last consonant is l or n, insert t in the nominative plural; as, tuil f. a flood, n. p. tuilte; smuain f. thought, n. p. smuaintean; coille f. a wood, n. p. coilltean; Àithne f. a command, n. p. Àithnte. The t is aspirated in dail f. a plain, n. p. dailthean; sail f. a beam, n. p. sailthean. 2. Some nouns in air, chiefly such as form their genitive singular in ach, retain the same syllable in the nominative plural, and insert i after a; as,
So also cuid f. a part, from the g. s. codach, has the n. p. codaichean; athair m. a father, n. p. aithrichean; mathair f. a mother, n. p. maithrichean. To which add amhainn f. a river, n. p. aimhnichean; uisge m. water, n. p. uisgeachan; cridhe m. the heart, n. p. cridheachan. The following nouns form their nominative plural irregularly; duine m. a man, n. p. daoine; righ m. a king, n. p. righre; ni m. a thing, n. p. nithe; cliamhuinn m. a son-in-law, or brother-in-law, n. p. cleamhna. Genitive. The genitive plural of monosyllables and masculine polysyllables is twofold, like the nominative singular, and like the nominative plural; as, righ m. a king, g. p. righ or righre. The genitive plural of feminine polysyllables is like the nominative plural only; as, amhainn f. a river, g. p. aimhnichean. Suil f. the eye, has its g. p. sÙl. Dative. The dative plural is formed from the nominative plural by changing the final vowel into ibh; as, coluinn f. the body, n. p. coluinne, d. p. coluinnibh; cridhe m. the heart, n. p. cridheacha, d. p. cridheachaibh. Vocative. The vocative plural is like the nominative plural; as, duine m. a man, n. p. daoine, v. p. dhaoine. Final a or e in all the singular cases of polysyllables is occasionally cut off, especially in verse; as, leab bed, teang tongue, coill wood, cridh heart. Of the Initial form of Nouns. In nouns beginning with a consonant, all the cases admit of the aspirated form. In the vocative singular and plural the aspirated form alone is used, except in nouns beginning with a lingual, which are generally in the primary form, when preceded by a lingual; as, a sheann duine old man. Nouns beginning with s followed by a mute consonant have no aspirated form, because s in that situation does not admit of the aspirate. In nouns beginning with l, n, r, a distinction is uniformly observed in pronouncing the initial consonant, corresponding precisely to the distinction of primary and The general use of the singular and plural numbers has been already mentioned. A remarkable exception occurs in the Gaelic. When the numerals fichead twenty, ceud a hundred, mile a thousand, are prefixed to a noun, the noun is not put in the plural, but in the singular number, and admits no variation of case. The termination of a noun preceded by da two, is the same with that of the dative singular, except when the noun is governed in the genitive case, and then it is put in the genitive plural[38]; when preceded by fichead, ceud, &c., the termination is that of the nominative singular; thus da laimh two hands, da chluais two ears, dÀ fhear two men, fichead lÀmh twenty hands, ceud fear a hundred men, mÌle caora a thousand sheep, deich mÌle bliadhna ten thousand years[39]. CHAPTER III.OF ADJECTIVES. An adjective is a word used along with a noun, to express some quality of the person or thing signified by the noun. Adjectives undergo changes which mark their relation to other words. These changes are made, like those on nouns, partly on the beginning, and partly on the termination, and may be fitly denominated by the same names. The changes on the beginning are made by aspirating an initial consonant. The numbers and cases, like those of nouns, are distinguished by changes on the termination. The gender is marked partly by the initial form, partly by the termination. Adjectives whereof the characteristic vowel is broad, follow, Example of Adjectives of the First Declension.
Formation of the Cases of Adjectives of the First Declension. Singular. Nominative. The feminine gender is, in termination, like the masculine. The other cases, both mas. and fem., are formed from the nominative, according to the rules already given for forming the cases of nouns of the first declension. Take the following examples in adjectives:— Genitive.—General rule. Marbh dead, g. s. m. mhairbh, f. mairbhe; dubh black, g. s. m. dhuibh, f. duibhe; fadalach tedious, g. s. m. fhadalaich, f. fadalaich. Particular rules. 1. Sona happy, g. s. m. shona, f. sona; aosda aged, g. s. m. and f. aosda; beo alive, g. s. m. bheo, f. beo. 2. Bochd poor, g. s. m. bhochd, f. bochd; gearr short, g. s. m. ghearr, f. gearr. 3. Breagh fine, g. s. m. bhreagha, f. breagha. 4. Crion little, diminutive, g. s. m. chrÌn, f. crÌne. 5. Donn brown, g. s. m. dhuinn, f. duinne; gorm blue, g. s. m. ghuirm, f. guirme; lom bare, g. s. m. luim, f. luime. 6. Cinnteach certain, g. s. m. chinntich, f. cinntich; maiseach beautiful, g. s. m. mhaisich, f. maisich. Tearc rare, g. s. m, theirc, f. teirce; dearg red, g. s. m. dheirg, f. deirge; deas ready, g. s. m. dheis, f. deise. Breac speckled, g. s. m, bhric, f. brice; geal white, g. s. m. ghil, f. gile. 7. Geur sharp, g. s. m. ghÉir, f. gÉire; like the nouns breug, geug. 8. Liath hoary, g. s. m. leith, f. lÉithe; dian keen, g. s. m. dhÉin, f. dÉine. Irregulars. Odhar pale, g. s. m. and f. uidhir; bodhar deaf, g. s. m. bhuidhir, f. buidhir. Dative.—General rule. Uasal noble, d. s. m. uasal f. uasail; bodhar deaf, d. s. m. bodhar, f. bhuidhir. Particular rule. 1. Trom heavy, d. s. m. trom, f. thruim. Vocative. Beag small, v. s. m. bhig, f. bheag. Plural. In Monosyllables the plural, through all its cases, is formed by adding a to the nom. sing.; in Polysyllables, it is like the nom. sing.; as, crom crooked, pl. croma; tuirseach melancholy, pl. tuirseach. A few Dissyllables form their Plural like Monosyllables, and suffer a contraction; as, reamhar fat, pl. reamhra, contracted for reamhara. Gen. xli. 20. Adjectives of the Second Declension. All the Cases of Adjectives of the Second Declension are formed according to the general rules for nouns of the second declension; that is, Monosyllables add e for the gen. sing. fem. and for the plural cases; Polysyllables are like the nom. sing. throughout. In the Second Declension, as in the First, Dissyllables sometimes suffer a contraction in the plural; as, milis sweet, pl. milse contracted for milise. Of the Initial Form of Adjectives. Adjectives admit the aspirated form through all the Numbers and Cases. In Adjectives beginning with a Labial or a Palatal, the aspirated form alone is used in the gen. and voc. sing. masc. the nom. dat. and voc. sing. feminine. Comparison of Adjectives. There are in Gaelic two forms of Comparison, which may be called the First and the Second Comparative. The First Comparative is formed from the gen. sing. mas. by adding e; as, geal white, g. s. m. gil, comp. gile, ghile; ciontach guilty, g. s. m. ciontaich, comp. ciontaiche. Some Adjectives suffer a contraction in the Comparative; as, bodhar deaf, comp. buidhre for buidhire; boidheach pretty, comp. boidhche for boidhiche. If the last letter of the gen. be a, it is changed into e, and i inserted before the last consonant; as, fada long, g. s. m. fada, comp. faide; tana thin, g. s. m. tana, comp. taine. The Second Comparative is formed from the first, by changing final e into id; as, trom heavy, 1. comp. truime, 2. comp. truimid; tiugh thick, 1. comp. tiuighe, 2. comp. tiuighid. Many Adjectives, especially Polysyllables, do not admit of the Second Comparative. Both these forms of Comparison have an aspirated as well as a primary form, but are otherwise indeclinable. The following Adjectives are compared irregularly.
To these may be added the nouns— Moran a great number or quantity, and Tuilleadh more. The Superlative, which is but a particular mode of expressing comparison, is the same in form with the First Comparative. An eminent degree of any quality is expressed by putting one of the particles ro, glÉ, before the Positive; as, ro ghlic very wise, glÉ gheal very white. The same effect is produced by prefixing fior true, sÀr exceeding, &c., which words are, in that case, used adverbially; as, fior mhaiseach truly beautiful, sÀr mhaith exceedingly good. Cardinal Numbers.
Cardinal Numbers joined to a Noun.
Ordinal Numbers.
The following numeral Nouns are applied only to persons:—
CHAPTER IV.OF PRONOUNS. The Pronouns are, for the most part, words used instead of nouns. They may be arranged under the following divisions: Personal, Possessive, Relative, Demonstrative, Interrogative, Indefinite, Compound. The Personal Pronouns are those of the 1st, 2d, and 3d persons. They have a Singular and a Plural Number, a Simple and an Emphatic Form. They are declined thus:—
The Pronoun 'sibh' you, of the plural number is used almost universally in addressing a single person of superior rank or of greater age; while 'tu' thou, of the singular number is used in addressing an inferior or an equal. But the degree of seniority or of superiority, which is understood to entitle a person to this token of respect, varies in different parts of the Highlands[41]. The Supreme Being is always addressed by the pronoun 'tu' thou, of the singular number. The Possessive Pronouns correspond to the Personal Pronouns, and, like them, may be called those of the 1st, 2d, and 3d persons singular, and 1st, 2d, and 3d persons plural. They have an Emphatic Form, which is made by connecting the syllable sa with the possessive pronoun of the 1st, 2d, These Pronouns are as follow:—
If the noun be followed by an adjective, the emphatic syllable is affixed to the adjective; as, do lÀmh gheal-sa thy white hand. The possessive pronouns mo, do, when followed by a vowel, commonly lose the o, whose absence is marked by an apostrophe; as, m' aimn my name; d' athair[42] thy father. The same pronouns when preceded by the preposition ann in, suffer a transposition of their letters, and are written am, ad, one broad vowel being substituted for another, as, ann ad chridhe in thy heart, 1 Sam. xiv. 7, ann am aire in my thoughts. The possessive pronoun a his, is often suppressed altogether after a vowel; as, na sanntaich bean do choimhearsnaich, no oglach, no bhanoglach, no dhamh, no asal, covet not thy neighbour's wife, or his man-servant, or his maid-servant, &c., Exod. xx. 17. In these and similar instances, as the tense is but imperfectly expressed (especially when the noun begins with a vowel), and cannot be gathered with certainty from any other part of the sentence, perhaps it might The word fein corresponding to the English words self, own, is subjoined occasionally both to the personal and possessive pronouns: thus mi fein myself, mise fein I myself, thu fein thyself, thusa fein thou thyself, or thy own self, mo shluagh fein my own people. The other Pronouns are as follow:—
CHAPTER V.OF VERBS. A word that signifies to be, to do, or to suffer anything, is called a Verb. The Verb in Gaelic, as in other languages, is declined by Voices, Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. The Voices are two: Active and Passive. The Moods are five: the Affirmative or Indicative, the Negative or Interrogative, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. Many, but not all, Transitive Verbs have a Passive Participle. The Tenses are three: the Present, the Preterite, and the Future. The Numbers are two: Singular and Plural. The Persons are three: First, Second, and Third. The The inflections of Verbs, like those of nouns, are made by changes at the beginning, and on the termination. The changes on the termination are made according to one model, and by the same rules. But for the sake of stating some diversity in the initial changes, it may be convenient to arrange the verbs in two conjugations, whereof the first comprehends those verbs which begin with a consonant, the second, those verbs which begin with a vowel. Verbs beginning with f, followed by a vowel, are ranged under the second conjugation, along with verbs beginning with a vowel. The verb Bi be, which is used as an auxiliary to other verbs, is declined as follows:— Bi, be. Affirmative or Indicative Mood.
Negative or Interrogative Mood.
Subjunctive Mood.
Compound Tenses.
The present affirmative ta is often written tha. This is one of many instances where there appears reason to complain of the propensity remarked in Part I. in those who speak the Gaelic, to attenuate its articulations by aspiration. Another corrupt way of writing ta which has become common, is ata. This has probably taken its rise from uniting the relative to the verb; as, an uair ata mi; instead of an uair a ta, &c., mar a ta, &c. Or perhaps it may have proceeded from a too compliant regard to a provincial pronunciation. The pret. neg. robh appears to be made up of the verbal participle ro, the same with do, and bha, throwing away the last vowel; ro bha, robh. The verb and pronoun of the 1st per. sing. and 3d per. plur. are frequently incorporated into one word, and written taim I am, taid they are. The pres. neg. loses the initial bh after the participle cha not, mur if not, nach that not; n is inserted, euphoniae causa, betwixt the participle cha and the verb; as, cha n 'eil, mur 'eil, nach 'eil. This Tense is often pronounced beil after the participle am; as, am beil e? is it? In the North Highlands, the pret. neg. often takes the common verbal participle do before it; as, cha do robh mi, or cha d'robh mi, I was not. Initial b of the fut. neg. is aspirated after the participle cha not; as, cha bhi. Initial bh of the pret. subj. loses the aspiration after the The subjunct. and imper. often suffer a contraction, by changing ithea into io; as, biodh, biom, bios, &c. Some of the compound tenses of Bi are rarely if ever used. They are here given complete, because they correspond to the analogy of other verbs; and show how accurately the various modifications of time may be expressed by the substantive verb itself. Example of a verb of the First Conjugation. Buail to strike. ACTIVE VOICE. Simple Tenses. Affirmative or Indicative Moods.
Negative or Interrogative Mood.
Subjunctive Mood.
Compound Tenses. Affirmative Mood.
Negative Mood
Subjunctive Mood.
PASSIVE VOICE. Affirmative Mood. Simple Tenses.
Negative Mood.
Subjunctive Mood.
Compound Tenses Affirmative Mood.
Negative Mood.
Subjunctive Mood.
Examples of Verbs of the Second Conjugation. Orduich, to appoint. ACTIVE VOICE. Simple Tenses
Folaich, to hide. ACTIVE VOICE.
The Compound tenses may be easily learned from those of the Verb Buail in the first Conjugation, being formed exactly in the same manner. Formation of the Tenses. Of the Initial Form. An Initial Consonant is aspirated in the Preterite Tense, through all the Moods and Voices, except in the Preterite Subjunctive after the Particles ni, mur, nach, gu, an, am. An initial Consonant is occasionally aspirated in the Future Tense, and in the Infinitive and Participle, indicating their connection with the preceding word. In the first Conjugation, do is prefixed to the Pret. Aff. and Neg. Active and Passive. However, it often is, and always may be, omitted before the Pret. Aff. It is sometimes omitted in the Pret. Neg. in verse, and in common conversation. In the second Conjugation, the same Particle do is prefixed to the Preterite through all the Moods and Voices, and to the Fut. Subj. excepting only the Subjunctive Tenses after ni, mur, nach, gu, an, am. In this Of the Termination. In all regular Verbs, the Terminations adjected to the Root are, strictly speaking, the same in Verbs characterised by a small vowel. But where the first vowel of the Termination does not correspond in quality to the last vowel of the Root, it has become the constant practice to insert in the Termination a vowel of the requisite quality, in order to produce this correspondence. Thus a variety has been introduced into the Terminations even of regular Verbs, prejudicial to the uniformity of inflection, and of no use to ascertain either the sense or the pronunciation[50]. In the foregoing examples of regular Verbs, the common mode of Orthography has been followed, but in the following rules the simple Terminations only are specified. ACTIVE VOICE. Simple Tenses. The Theme or Root of the Verb is always found in the second Per. sing. of the imperative. The Preterite Affirm. and Negat. is like the Root, and has no distinction of Number or Person. In most of the editions of the Gaelic Psalms, some inflections of the The Future Affirm. adds idh to the Root; in the Negat. it is like the Root; and in the Subjunct. it adds as. A poetic Future Tense terminating in ann or onn, is frequent in the Gaelic Psalms; as, gairionn will call, seasfann will stand, do bheirionn, will give, &c. The Future has no distinction of Number or Person. The Termination of the Future Affirm. and Negat. in many Verbs was formerly fidh, like the Irish; of which many examples occur in the earlier editions of the Gaelic Psalms. In later Gaelic publications, the f has been uniformly set aside[51]. The Termination of the first pers. and third pers. plur. is often incorporated with the corresponding Pronoun; as, seinnam cliu I will sing praise, Psal. lxi. 8., Ni fuigham bÀs, ach mairfam beo, I shall not die, but shall remain alive, Ps. cxviii. 17., Ithfid, geillfid, innsid, they will eat, they will submit, they will tell, Ps. xxii, 26, 29, 31. [52]. In the Imperative Mood, the second pers. sing. is the Root of the Verb. The other persons are distinguished by these Terminations; 1st pers. sing. am, 3d pers. sing. adh, 1st pers. plur. amaid, 2d pers. plur. ibh, 3d pers. plur. adh. The Terminations peculiar to the 1st pers. sing. and plur. of the Pret. Subj. and of the Imperat. supply the place of the Personal Pronouns; as does also the Termination of the 2d pers. plur. of the Imperative. The Infinitive is variously formed. General Rule. The Infinitive is formed by adding adh to the Root; as, aom bow, incline, Infin. aomadh; ith eat, Infin. itheadh. 1. Some Verbs suffer a syncope in the penult syllable, and are commonly used in their contracted form; as,
Observe that Verbs which thus suffer a syncope in forming 2. A considerable number of Verbs have their Infinitive like the Root; as,
3. Polysyllables in ch, whose characteristic Vowel is small, either throw it away, or convert it into a broad Vowel and add adh; as,
Most Monosyllables in sg, and a few others, follow the same Rule; as,
4. Many Verbs, whose characteristic Vowel is small, either throw it away, or convert it into a broad Vowel, without adding adh; as,
5. The following Verbs in air add t to the Root:—
6. These Monosyllables add sinn to the Root:—
7. These Monosyllables add tuinn or tinn to the Root:—
8. The following Monosyllables add ail to the Root:—
9. These Monosyllables add amh to the Root:—
10. The following Verbs form the Infinitive irregularly:—
Compound Tenses. The compound Tenses of the first order are made up of the several simple Tenses of the auxiliary verb Bi be, and the Infinitive preceded by the Preposition ag at. Between two Consonants, ag commonly loses the g, and is written a'; as, The compound Tenses of the second order are made up of the simple Tenses of Bi and the Infinitive preceded by the Preposition iar after[54]. PASSIVE VOICE. Simple Tenses. The Preterite Affirm. and Negat. is formed from the same Tense in the Active, by adding adh. The Preter. Subj. adds teadh. The Future is formed from the Fut. Act. by changing the Terminations in the Affirm. and Subj. into ar, (more properly far, as of old) and adding the same syllable in the Negative. The Imperative is formed from the Imperat. Act. by adding to the second pers. sing. tar, thar, or ar.[55] The Participle is formed by adding te to the Root[56]. There is no distinction of Number or Person in the Tenses of the Passive Voice. Verbs which suffer a syncope in the Infinitive, suffer a like syncope in the Pret. Aff. and Neg. throughout the Future Tense, and in the Imperative. Compound Tense. The compound Tenses of the first order are made up of the simple Tenses of the auxiliary Bi and the Passive Participle. The compound Tenses of the second order are made up of the simple Tenses of Bi and the Infinitive preceded by the Preposition iar and the Possessive Pronoun corresponding in Person to the Pronoun, or to the Noun, which is the Nominative to the verb. Use and Import of the Moods and Tenses. The Affirmative or Indicative Mood expresses affirmation, and is used in affirmative propositions only, as, Do bhuail mi I struck, bha mi ag bualadh I was striking. The Negative or Interrogative Mood is used in negative propositions and interrogative clauses, after the Particles ni not, cha not, nach which not, that not, not? mur if not; also, gu, gur, that, an, am, whether used relatively or interrogatively; as, cha d'fholaich mi I did not hide, mur buail sinn if we shall not strike, nach robh iad that they were not, gu robh iad that they were; am buail mi? shall I strike? It is used in the Future Tense after ged although; as, ged bhuail e mi, though he strike me[57]. The Subjunctive Mood is used in the Preterite, either with or without conjunctions; as, bhuailinn I would strike, na'm, mur, nach, &c., buailinn if, unless, &c., I should strike. In the Future it is used only after the conjunctions ma if, o, o'n since, and the Relative a expressed or understood; as, ma bhuaileas mi if I shall strike, am fear a bhuaileas mi the man The Imperative Mood expresses desire, whether purpose, command, or request; as, buaileam let me strike, buailibh strike ye. The Infinitive[58] is, in all respects, a noun, denoting the action or energy of the verb, and commonly preceded by a Preposition which marks the time of the action; as, ag bualadh at striking, am bualadh the striking, the threshing. It assumes a regular genitive case, bualadh g. s. bualaidh; as, urlar-bualaidh a threshing floor. The Infinitive sometimes loses the termination, and is regularly declined in its abridged form; thus, cruinnich assemble, inf. cruinneach-adh per. apocop. cruinneach g. s. cruinnich; hence, Àite-cruinnich a place of meeting, Acts xix. 29, 31, so, fear-criochnaich, Heb. xii. 2, fear-cuidich, Psalm xxx. 10, liv. 4, ionad-foluich, Psalm xxxii. 7, cxix. 114, litir-dhealaich, Matt. v. 31[59]. There is no part of the Active Voice that can, strictly speaking, be denominated a Participle. The Infinitive preceded by the Preposition ag at, corresponds in meaning to the present Participle; and preceded by iar after, it corresponds to the participle of the past time; as, ag bualadh at striking, or striking; iar bualadh after striking, or struck[60]. Many words, expressing state or action, take the Preposition ag before them, and may be considered as Infinitives of Verbs, whereof the other parts are not in use; as, ag atharrais mimicking, ag gÀireachdaich laughing, a' fanoid, a' magadh mocking, jeering. The Participle passive is an adjective, denoting the completion of the action or energy expressed by the verb; as, arbhar buailte threshed corn. The Simple Tenses which belong to all verbs are the Preterite or Future, besides which the verb Bi to be, and the defective verb Is I am, have a Present Tense[61]. The Present expresses present existence, state, or energy. The Preterite Affirmative and Negative expresses past time indefinitely. The Preterite Subjunctive corresponds to the English Tenses formed by the auxiliaries would, could, &c. In general it denotes that the action or energy of the verb takes place eventually or conditionally. The Pret. Aff. or The Future marks future time indefinitely. This Tense is used in a peculiar sense in Gaelic, to signify that an action or event takes place uniformly, habitually, according to ordinary practice, or the course of nature. Thus; Blessed is he that considereth the poor, expressed according to the Gaelic idiom, would be, Blessed is he that will consider, &c. A wise son maketh a glad father, in Gaelic would run, A wise son will make, &c. Your patient, I am told, is in a bad way; he neither enjoys rest, nor takes medicine. Nay, his situation is worse than you know of; yesterday, he became delirious, and is now almost unmanageable; he tosses his arms, and endeavours to beat every one within his reach. In Gaelic, will enjoy—will take—will toss—will endeavour. In like manner, a great many Gaelic Proverbs express a general truth by means of the Future tense; e.g., bithidh dÙil ri fear feachd, ach cha bhi dÙil ri fear lic, There is hope that a man may return from war, but there is no hope that a man may return from the grave; literally, there will be hope—there will be no hope. Teirgidh gach ni r' a chaitheamh, every thing wears out in the using; literally,—will wear out[62]. The Compound Tenses mark different modifications of time, In the Active Voice, the compound tenses of the first order denote that the action is going on, but not completed at the time specified by the auxiliary verb, or its adjuncts; as, ta mi ag bualadh, I am at striking, i.e., I am striking; bha mi ag bualadh an dÉ, I was striking yesterday. Those of the second order denote that the action is newly completed and past, at the time marked by the auxiliary verb; ta mi iar bualadh, I am after striking, i.e., I have struck, Je viens de frapper; Bha mi iar bualadh, I was striking, i.e., I had struck. In the Passive Voice, the compound tenses of the first order denote that the action is finished at the time marked by the auxiliary verb; ta mi buailte, I am struck. Those of the second order denote that the action is newly finished at the time marked by the auxiliary[63]; ta mi iar mo bhualadh, I am after my striking, or, I am after the striking of me, which has always a passive signification; that is, it is always understood, from this form of expression, that striking is the action of some agent different from the person struck. It is equivalent to I have been struck, Je viens d'etre frappÉ. A set of Compound Tenses, of a structure similar to these last, having the preposition ag, in place of iar, is sometimes used, and in a passive sense, denoting that the action is going on at the time marked by the auxiliary; as, tha 'n tigh 'g a thogail, the house is at its building, i.e., a-building; sea bliadhna agus da fhichead bha 'n teampull 'g a thogail, forty and six years was this temple in building. John ii. 20, 1 Kings vi. 7. Bha an crodh 'g an leigeadh, the cows were a-milking; bidh deudaichean 'g an rusgadh. "Gillies' Collect." p. 82. So The following scheme shows the different modifications of time, as expressed by the several Tenses of the Gaelic Verb, brought together into one view, and compared with the corresponding Tenses of the Greek Verb in Moor's Greek Grammar.
It will afford satisfaction to the grammatical reader, to see how correctly the various modifications of time, as distinguished and arranged by Mr Harris, are expressed in the Gaelic verb, by the auxiliaries, bi be, and dol going. See Hermes B. I. c. 7.
Irregular Verbs of the First Conjugation.
Irregular Verbs of the Second Conjugation.
The verbs Tabhair, Abair, Faic, Faigh, have a double Preterite Subjunctive. The latter form of it, which is derived regularly from the Root, is used after the same particles which are prefixed to the Negative Mood, viz. ni, cha, nach, mur, gu, an, am. Of Defective Verbs. The following defective verbs are in common use. Arsa said, quoth, indeclinable; used only in the Pret. Aff. through all the persons; arsa Donull, quoth Donald. Tiucainn come along, tiucainnibh come ye along, used only in the 2d pers. sing. and plur. of the Imperative. Theab mi I was near to, I had almost; used through all the persons of the Pret. Aff. and Neg.; as, theab iad bhith caillte they had nearly perished. Is mi I am, used in the Pres. and Pret. Tenses, which are declined as follows:— Affirmative Mood.
Negative Mood.
Subjunctive Mood.
The only varieties of form which this Verb admits of, are the two syllables is and bu. Each of these syllables It is remarkable, that in the Pres. Neg. the Verb disappears altogether, and the preceding Particle, ni, cha, nach, gur, &c., and the subsequent Pronoun, or Noun, are always understood to convey a proposition, or a question, as unequivocally as though a Verb had been expressed; as, cha tu thou art not, nach e? is he not? is it not he? am mise e? is it I? cha luchd-brathaidh sinn we are not spies, Gen. xlii. 31. Am mÒ thusa na Abraham? Art thou greater than Abraham? gur cÒir urnuigh a dheanamh that it is proper to pray, Luke xviii. 1[70]. Of the Reciprocating State of Verbs. Any transitive Verb may be so combined with a Pronoun, either Personal or Possessive, that it shall denote the agent to be also the object of the action. This may be called the reciprocating state of the Verb. It is declined as follows:— Buail thu fein, strike thyself. ACTIVE VOICE. Simple Tenses. Affirmative Mood.
Negative Mood.
Infinitive Mood.
Compound Tenses. Affirmative Mood.
Negative Mood.
Subjunctive Mood.
From the foregoing example it appears that the Verb, in its reciprocating state, retains its original form throughout its several Moods, Tenses, and Persons. In the simple Tenses, the Personal Pronoun immediately following the Verb is the Nominative to the Verb. The same pronoun repeated is to be understood as in the objective state. The word fein, corresponding to the English self, accompanies the last Pronoun. In the compound Tenses, the auxiliary Verb, as usual, is placed first; then follows the Personal Pronoun as its Nominative, then the Prep. ag abridged to 'g in the compound Tenses of the first order, iar in those of the second order; after which follows the Possessive Pronoun, corresponding in Person to that which is the Nominative to the Verb; and lastly the Infinitive, which is the noun to the Possessive Pronoun. Mo and do are here changed, by Metathesis and the substitution of one broad vowel for another, into am and ad. Ta mi 'g am bhualadh fein, rendered literally, is, I am at my own striking, i.e., I am at the striking of myself, equivalent to, I am striking myself. The reciprocal fein is sometimes omitted in the compound Tenses, but is generally retained in the 3d Persons, to prevent their being mistaken for the same persons when used without reciprocation: ta e 'g a bhualadh, he is striking him, ta e 'g a bhualadh fein, he is striking himself. Of the Impersonal Use of Verbs. Intransitive Verbs, though they do not regularly admit of a Passive Voice, yet are used impersonally in the 3d Pers. Sing. of the Passive Tenses. This impersonal use of the Passive of intransitive Verbs is founded on the same principle with the Latin Impersonals concurritur, pugnatum est, To the class of Impersonals ought to be referred a certain part of the Verb which has not yet been mentioned. It resembles in form the Fut. Negat. Passive; buailear, faicear, faighear, &c. In signification, it is Active, Present, and Affirmative. In the course of a narrative, when the speaker wishes to enliven his style by representing the occurrences narrated as present, and passing actually in view, instead of the Preterite Tenses, he adopts the Part of the Verb now described, employing it in an impersonal acceptation, without a Nominative to it expressed. One or two examples will serve to exhibit the use and effect of this anomalous Tense:—Shuidh an Òg bhean air sgeir, is a sÙil air an lear. Chunnaic i long a' teachd air barraibh nan tonn. Dh' aithnich i aogas a leannain, is chlisg a cridhe 'n a com. Gun mhoille gun tamh, buailear dh' fhios na traighe; agus faighear an laoch, 's a dhaoine m' a thimchioll. In English thus: The young woman sat on a rock, and her eye on the sea. She spied a ship coming on the tops of the waves. She perceived the likeness of her lover, and her heart bounded in her breast. Without delay or stop, she hastens to the shore; and finds the hero, with his men around him. Again: Mar sin chuir sinn an oidhche tharuinn. 'S a' mhadainn dh' imich sinn air ar turus. O bha sinn 'n ar coigrich anns an tir, gabhar suas gu mullach an t-sleibh, direar an tulach gu grad, agus seallar mu 'n cuairt air gach taobh. Faicear thall fa 'r comhair sruth cas ag ruith le gleann cumhann, &c. Thus we passed the night. In the morning we pursued our journey. As we were strangers in the land, we strike up to the top of the moor, ascend the hill with speed, and look around us on every side. We see over against us a rapid stream, rushing down a narrow valley, &c. The scrupulous chastenesss of style maintained in the Gaelic version of the Sacred Scriptures, has totally excluded this form of expression. It is, however, universally known and acknowledged, as an established idiom of the Gaelic, very common in the mouths of those who speak it, and in animated narration almost indispensable[71]. Of Auxiliary Verbs. It has been already shown how bi be, is used as an Auxiliary in the declension of all verbs. There are two other verbs which are occasionally employed in a similar capacity; the one with an Active the other with a Passive effect. These are dean to do or make, and rach to go. The simple tenses of dean combined with the Infinitive of any verb, correspond to the English auxiliary do, did. It sometimes adds to the emphasis, but not to the sense. The following are examples of this Auxiliary combined with the Infinitive of an Intransitive verb:—Rinn e seasamh he made standing, i.e., he did stand; dean suidhe make sitting, i.e., sit down; dheanainn gul agus caoidh I would make weeping The Simple Tenses of rach, combined with the Infinitive of a transitive verb, correspond to the Passive Voice of the verb; as, chaidh mo bhualadh my striking went, i.e., came to pass, or happened, equivalent to I was struck; rachadh do mharbhadh your killing would happen, i.e., you would be killed. In phrases where either of the auxiliaries dean or rach is combined with a transitive verb, as above, the possessive pronoun may be exchanged for the corresponding personal pronoun in the emphatic form, followed by the preposition do before the Infinitive. The preposition in this case is attenuated into a, which, before a verb of the second conjugation is dropped altogether. Thus, rinn e mo bhualadh he struck me, rinn e mis' a bhualadh he struck ME, chaidh mo bhualadh I was struck, chaidh mis' a bhualadh I myself was struck. In like manner, a noun, or a demonstrative pronoun, may occupy the place of this personal pronoun; as, chaidh an ceannard a mharbhadh[72], agus na daoine chur san ruaig, the leader was killed, and the men put to flight; theid am buachaill a bhualadh, agus an treud a sgapadh, the shepherd will be smitten, and the sheep scattered; is math a chaidh sin innseadh dhuit, that was well told you. CHAPTER VI.OF ADVERBS. An Adverb, considered as a separate part of speech, is a single indeclinable word, significant of time, place, or any other circumstance or modification of an action or attribute. The number of simple Adverbs in Gaelic is but small. Adverbial phrases, made up of two or more words, are sufficiently numerous. Any adjective may be converted into an adverbial expression, by prefixing to it the preposition gu to; as, fÌrinneach true, gu fÌrinneach [corresponding] to [what is] true, ?ata t? a???e?, i.e., truly. Adverbs of this form need not be enumerated. It may be useful, however, to give a list of other adverbs and adverbial phrases, most commonly in use; subjoining, where it can be done, a literal translation of their component parts, and also the English expression which corresponds most nearly to the sense of the Gaelic phrase. Adverbs of Time. A cheana; already, truly. A chianamh; a little while ago. A chlisge; quickly, in a trice. A choidhche, Choidh; for ever. A nis, Nise; now. A rÌs, Rithist; again. Ainmic, Ainmeach; seldom. Air ball; on [the] spot, immediately. Air dheireadh; hindmost. Air thoiseach; foremost. Air tÙs; in the beginning, at first. Air uairibh; at times, sometimes. Am bliadhna; this year. Am feadh; whilst. Am feasd; for ever. Am mÀireach; to-morrow. An ceart uair; the very hour, presently. An comhnuidh; in continuation, continually. An dÉ; yesterday. An deigh laimh; behind hand, afterwards. An diugh; the [present] day, to-day[73]. An ear-thrath, An iar-thraith; the after time, the day after to-morrow. An nochd; the [present] night, to-night. An raoir, An reidhr; yesternight. An sin; in that [time], then. An trath; the time, when. An trÀth so, An trÀs'; this time, at present. An uair; the time, when. An uiridh; last year. Aon uair; one time, once. Cia fhada; how long. Cia minic, Cia tric; how often. C'uine; what time, when. Do la, A la; by day[74]. Dh' oidhche; by night[74]. Do ghnÀth; [according] to custom, always. Fa dheoidh; at the end, at last. Fathast, FÒs; yet, still. Gu brÀth[75], Gu la bhrÀth; to the general conflagration, for ever. Gu dÌlinn[75]; to the expiration of time, or till the deluge, for ever. Gu minic; often. Gu siorruidh; to ever-flowing, for ever. Gu suthainn; for ever. Gu tric; often. Idir; at all. Mar tha; as it is, already. Mu dheireadh; at last. O cheann tamuill; a while ago. O chian; from far, of old, long ago. RÈ seal, RÈ tamuill; for a time. Riamh; ever, said of past time only. Roimh lÀimh; before hand. Uair eigin; some time. Adverbs of Place. A bhos, Bhos; on this side, here below. A leth taobh; to one side, aside. A mach, A muigh; without, out. A mhÀn[76]; downwards, down. An aird; to the height, upwards, up. A nall, Nall; to this side. A nuas; from above, down hither. A null, Null, nunn; to the other side. A thaobh; aside. Air aghaidh, Air adhart; on [the] face, forward. Air ais; backwards. Air dheireadh; hindmost. Air thoiseach; foremost. Am fad, An cÉin; afar. An gar; close to. An laimh; in hand, in custody. An sin; in that [place], there. An so; in this [place], here. An sud; in yon [place], yonder. An taice; close adjoining, in contact. Asteach, Astigh;[77] within, in. C' Àite; what place, where. Cia an taobh; what side, whither. C' ionadh; what place, whither. Fad as; afar off. Fad air astar; far away. Far; where,—relatively. Fogus, Am fogus; near. H-uig' agus uaith; to and fro. Iolar, Ioras; below there, below yonder. Le leathad; by a descent, downwards. Leis; along with it, down a stream, declivity, &c. Mu 'n cuairt; by the circuit, around. Ri bruthach; to an ascent, upwards. Ris; in an exposed state, bare, uncovered. Seachad; past, aside. Sios, a sios; downwards. Suas, a suas; upwards. Shios; below there, below yonder. Shuas; above there, above yonder. Tarsuing; across. Thairis; over. Thall; on the other side. Uthard; above there, above yonder. Tuath; north. Gu tuath; northward. A tuath; from the north. Ear, Oir, Soir; east. Gus an aird an ear; eastward. O'n ear; from the east. Adverbs of Manner. Air achd; in a manner. Air a' chuthach, Air boile; distracted, mad. Air chall; lost. Air chÒir; aright. Air chor; in a manner. Air chor eigin; in some manner, somehow. Air chuairt; sojourning. Air chuimhne; in remembrance. Air Éigin; with difficulty, scarcely. Air fogradh; in exile, in a fugitive state. Air ghleus; in trim. Air iomadan; adrift. Air iomroll; astray. Air iunndrain; amissing. Air lagh; trimmed for action, as a bow bent, a firelock cocked, &c. Air leth; apart, separately. Air seacharan; astray. Air sgeul; found, not lost. AmhÀin; only. Amhuil, Amhludh; like as. Am bidheantas; customarily, habitually. Am feabhas; convalescent, improving. An coinnimh a chinn; headlong. An coinnimh a chÙil; backwards. An deidh, An geall; desirous, enamoured. An nasgaidh; for nothing, gratis. An tÒir; in pursuit. Araon; together. As an aghaidh; out of the face, to the face, outright. As a chÉile; loosened, disjointed. Car air char; rolling, tumbling over and over. Cia mar; as how, how. C' arson; on account of what, why, wherefore. C' ionnas; what manner, how. Cha, cho; not. Comhla[80], mar chomhla, Cuideachd; together, in company. C'uime, for what, why. Do dheoin, a dheoin; spontaneously, intentionally. Dh' aindeoin; against one's will. Do dhÌth, a dhÌth; a-wanting. Do rÌreadh; really, actually, indeed. Fa leth; severally, individually. Gle; very. Gu beachd; to observation, evidently, clearly. Gu buileach; to effect, thoroughly, wholly. Gu dearbh; to conviction, truly, certainly. Gu deimhin; to assurance, assuredly, verily. Gu leir; altogether. Gu leor; to sufficiency, enough. Gun amharus; without doubt, doubtless. Gun chÀird; without rest, incessantly, without hesitation. Leth mar leth; half and half. Le chÉile; with each other, together. Maraon; as one, together, in concert. Mar an ceudna; in like manner, likewise. Mar sin; as that, in that manner. Mar so; as this, thus. Mar sud; as yon, in yon manner. Mu seach; in return, alternately. Na, Nar; let not,—used optatively, or imperatively. Nach; that not, who not, not? Ni; not. Ni h-eadh[81]; it is not so. Os Àird; openly. Os barr; on top, besides. Os iosal; secretly, covertly. Ro; very. Roimh a cheile; prematurely, too hastily. Seadh[81]; it is so. Thar a chÉile, Troimh a chÉile; in disorder, in confusion, stirred about. Theagamh; perhaps. Uidh air 'n uidh; stage by stage, gradually. CHAPTER VII.OF PREPOSITIONS. The Prepositions, strictly so called, are single words, most of them monosyllables, employed to mark relation. Relation is also expressed by combinations of words which often correspond to simple prepositions in other languages. These combinations are, not improperly, ranked among the prepositions. The following lists contain first the Prepositions properly so called, which are all simple; secondly, improper Prepositions, which, with one or two exceptions, seem all to be made up of a simple Preposition and a Noun. Proper Prepositions.
The Preposition ann is often written double, ann an eolas, in knowledge; ann an gliocas, in wisdom. The final n or nn is changed into m before a labial; as, am measg, among; ann am meadhon, in midst. Before the Article or the Relative, this Preposition is written anns; as, anns an toiseach, in the beginning, an cor anns am bheil e, the condition in which he is; and in this situation the letters ann are often dropped, and the s alone retained, 's an toiseach, in the beginning. De, so far as I know, is found in no Scottish publications. The reasons which have induced me to assign it a place among the prepositions will be mentioned in treating of the combinations of the Proper Prepositions with the Personal Pronouns. The Preposition do, like the verbal particle, and the Possessive Pronoun of the same sound, loses the o before a vowel, and the consonant is aspirated; thus, dh' Albainn, to Fa has been improperly confounded with fuidh or fo. That fa signifies upon, is manifest from such phrases as fa 'n bhord, upon the board, said of a dead body stretched upon a board; leigeader fa lÀr, dropped on the ground, Carswell: fa 'n adhbhar ud, on that account, equivalent to air an adhbhar ud, see Psal. cvi. 42, and xlv. 2, metr. version. The reason for admitting iar after, has been already given in treating of the Compound Tenses of Verbs in Chap. V. The manner of combining these prepositions with nouns will be shown in treating of Syntax. The manner of combining them with the personal pronouns must be explained in this place, because in that connection they appear in a form somewhat different from their radical form. A Proper Preposition is joined to a Personal Pronoun by incorporating both into one word, commonly with some change on the Preposition, or on the Pronoun, or on both. The following are the Prepositions which admit of this kind of combination, incorporated with the several Personal Pronouns:
In most of these compound terms, the fragments of the Pronouns which enter into their composition, especially those of the first and second Persons, are very conspicuous[82]. These fragments take after them occasionally the emphatic syllables sa, san, ne, in the same manner as the Personal Pronouns themselves do; as, agamsa at ME, aigesan at HIM, uainne from US. The two prepositions de and do have long been confounded together, both being written do. It can hardly be supposed that the composite words dhiom, dhiot, &c. would have been distinguished from dhomh, dhuit, &c., by orthography, pronunciation, and signification, if the Prepositions, as well as the Pronouns, which enter into the composition of these words, had been originally the same. In dhiom, &c., the initial Consonant is always followed by a small vowel. In dhomh, &c., with one exception, it is followed by a broad vowel. Hence it is presumable that the Preposition which is the root of dhiom, &c., must have had a small vowel after d, whereas the root of dhomh, &c., has a broad vowel after d. De is a preposition preserved in Latin (a language which has many marks of affinity with the Gaelic), in the same sense which must have belonged to the root of dhiom, &c., in Gaelic. The preposition in question itself occurs in Irish, in the name given to a Colony which is supposed to have settled in Ireland, A.M. 2540, called Tuath de Danann. (See Lh. "Arch. Brit." tit. x. voc. Tuath; also Miss Brooke's "Reliques of Irish Poetry," p. 102.) These facts afford more than a presumption that the true root of the Composite dhiom, &c., is de, and that it signifies of. It has therefore appeared proper to separate it from do, and to assign to each its appropriate meaning[83]. Dhiom, dhiot, &c., and dhomh, dhuit, &c., are written with a plain d after a Lingual; diom, domh, &c. Eadar is not incorporated with the pronouns of the singular number, but written separately; eadar mis agus thusa, between me and thee. In combining gu and mu with the pronouns, the letters of the Prepositions suffer a transposition, and are written ug, um. The former of these was long written with ch prefixed, thus chugam, &c. The translators of the Scriptures, observing that ch neither corresponded to the pronunciation, nor made part of the radical Preposition, exchanged it for th, and wrote thugam. The th, being no more than a simple aspiration, corresponds indeed to the common mode of pronouncing the word. Yet it may well be questioned whether the t, even though aspirated, ought to have a place, if g be the only radical consonant belonging to the Preposition. The component parts of the word might be exhibited with less disguise, and the common pronunciation (whether correct or not), also represented, by retaining the h alone, and connecting it with the Preposition by a hyphen, as when written before a Noun, thus h-ugam, h-ugaibh, &c. Improper Prepositions. Air cheann; at [the] end, against a certain time. Air feadh, Air fad; throughout, during. Air muin; on the back, mounted on. Air sgÀth; for the sake, on pretence. Air son; on account. Air tÒir; in pursuit. Air beulaobh; on the fore side, before. Air culaobh; on the back side, behind. Am fochair; in presence. Am measg; in the mixture, amidst, among. An aghaidh; in the face, against, in opposition. An ceann; in the end, at the expiration. An comhail, An coinnimh; in meeting, to meet. An cois, A chois; at the foot, near to, hard by. An dÀil; in the rencounter, to meet. An diaigh, An deigh, An deaghaidh, An dÉis; probably for an deireadh; in the end, after. An eiric; in return, in requital. Am fianuis, An lathair; in presence. An lorg; in the track, in consequence. As eugais, As easbhuidh; in want, without. As leth; in behalf, for the sake. A los; in order to, with the intention of. Car; during. Do bhrigh, a bhrigh; by virtue, because. Do chÒir, a chÒir; to the presence, near, implying motion. Do chum, a chum[84]; to, towards, in order to. Do dhÌth, a dhÌth, Dh' easbhuidh; for want. Dh' fhios; to the knowledge, to. Dh' ionnsuidh; to the approach, or onset, toward. Do rÉir, a rÉir; according to. Do thaobh, a thaobh; on the side, with respect, concerning. Fa chÙis; by reason, because. Fa chomhair; opposite. Mu choinnimh; opposite, over against. Mu thimchoill, timchioll; by the circuit, around. O bharr, bharr; from the top, off. Os ceann; on the top, above, atop. RÉ; duration, during. TarÉis; after[85]. Trid; through, by means. It is evident, from inspection, that almost all these improper Prepositions are compounded; and comprehend, as one of their component parts, a Noun, which is preceded by a simple or Proper Preposition; like the English, on account, with respect, &c. The words ceann, aghaidh, lorg, barr, taobh, &c., are known to be real Nouns, because they are employed in that capacity in other connections, as well as in the phrases here enumerated. The case is not so clear with regard to son, cum, or cun, reir, which occur only in the above phrases; but it is probable that these are nouns likewise, and that, when combined with simple Prepositions, they constitute phrases of precisely the same structure with the rest of the foregoing list[86]. Comhair is probably comh-aire mutual attention. DÀil and cÒir, in the sense of proximity, are found in their compounds comh-dhail and fochair [fa chÒir.] TÒir, in like manner, in its derivative tÒireachd, the act of pursuing. Dh' fhios, to the knowledge, must have been originally applied to persons only. So it is used in many Gaelic songs: beir mo shoiridh le dÙrachd dh' fhios na cailinn, &c., bear my good wishes with cordiality to the knowledge of the maid, &c., i.e., present my affectionate regards, &c. This appropriate meaning and use of the phrase came by degrees to be overlooked; and it was employed, promiscuously with do chum and dh' ionnsuidh, to signify unto in a more general sense. If this analysis of the expression be just, then ghios[87] must be deemed only a different, and a corrupt manner of writing dh' fhios. In the improper preposition os ceann, the noun has almost The use of the proper Prepositions has been already shown in the composition of adverbial phrases, and of the improper Prepositions. The following examples show the further use of them in connection with Nouns and Verbs, and in some idiomatic expressions which do not always admit of being literally rendered in English. Ag, aig. At: aig an dorus, at the door; aig an tigh, at the house, at home. By reason of: aig ro mheud aighir 's a shÒlais, by reason of his great joy and satisfaction, Smith's Seann dÀna, p. 9; ag meud a mhiann through intense desire, Psal. lxxxiv. 2, metr. vers.; ag lionmhoireachd, Psal. xl. 5. Signifying possession: tha tuill aig na sionnaich, the foxes have holes; bha aig duine araidh dithis mhac, a certain man had two sons; cha n'eil fhios agam, I have not the knowledge of it, I do not know it. Chaidh agam air, I have prevailed over him, Psal. xiii. 4, metr. vers. Joined to the Infinitive of Verbs: ag imeachd, a-walking, walking. Air. On, upon: air an lÀr, on the ground; air an lÀ sin, on that day; air an adhbhar sin, on that account, for that reason. Denoting claim of debt: ioc dhomh na bheil agam ort, pay me what thou owest me, Matt. xviii. 28; cia meud ata aig mo thighearn ortsa? how much owest thou unto my lord? Luke xvi. 57.[90] Denoting an oath: air m' fhocal, upon my word; air lÀimh d' athar 's do sheanathar, by the hand of your father and grandfather. Tha eagal, mulad, sgÌos, ocras, &c., air, he is afraid, sad, fatigued, hungry, &c. Thig mo bheul air do cheartas, is air do chliÙ, my mouth shall speak of thy justice and thy praise, Psal. xxxv. 28. metr.; thig mo bheul air gliocas, my mouth shall speak of wisdom, Psal. xlix. 3, metr. v.; sin cÙis air am bheil mi nis a' teachd, that is the matter of which I am now to treat. Tog ort, rouse thyself, bestir thyself, Psal lxxiv. 22, metr. v. Chaidh agam air, I prevailed over him, Psal. xiii. 4.; metr.; 'S ann ormsa chaidh, it was I that was worsted. Thug e am monadh air, he betook himself to the mountain. In respect of: cha 'n fhaca mi an samhuil air olcas, I never saw their like for badness, Gen. xli. 19; air a lughad, however small it be. Joined with, accompanied by: mÒran iarruinn air bheag faobhar, much iron with little edge, McIntyre's Songs. Oidhche bha mi 'n a theach, air mhÒran bÌdh 's air bheagan eudaich, I was a night in his house, with plenty of Denoting measure or dimension: dÀ throidh air Àirde, two feet in height. Olc air mhath leat e, whether you take it well or ill. Ann, ann an, anns. In.: Anns an tigh, in the house; anns an oidhche, in the night; ann an dÒchas, in hope; anns a' bharail sin, of that opinion. Denoting existence: ta abhainn ann, there is a river, Psal. xlvi. 4, metr.; nach bithinn ann ni 's mÒ, that I should not be any more; b' fhearr a bhi marbh na ann, it were better to be dead than to be alive; ciod a th' ann? what is it? is mise th' ann, it is I; mar gu b' ann, as it were; tha e 'n a dhuine ionraic, he is a just man; tha i 'n a bantraich, she is a widow[91]. Marking emphasis: is ann air eigin a thÀr e as, it was with difficulty he got off; an Àite seasamh is ann a theich iad, instead of standing (keeping their ground) they fled; nach freagair thu? fhreagair mi ann, will you not answer? I have answered. As. Out of: as an dÚthaich, out of the country. Denoting extinction: tha an solus, no an teine, air dol as, the light, or the fire, is gone out. As an alt, out of joint; as a' ghualainn, as a' chruachainn, as an uilinn, &c., dislocated in the shoulder, hip, elbow-joint. Chaidh e as, he escaped. Cuir as da, destroy him, or it. Chaidh as da, he is perished, undone. Thug e na buinn as, he scampered off. Dubh as, blot out. De. Of: Armailt mhÒr de dhaoinibh agus a dh' eachaibh, a great army of men and horses. Off: Bha na geugan air an sgathadh dheth, the branches were lopped off; thug iad an ceann deth, they beheaded him. Dh' aon rÙn, with one consent, with one purpose; dh' aon bharail, with one mind, judgment. A lÀ agus a dh' oidhche, i.e., de lÀ agus de oidhche, by day and by night. Lat. de nocte, Hor. Saidhbhreas mÓr d'a mheud, riches however great. Psal. cxix. 14, metr. Do. To: Tabhair dhomh, give to me, give me; thug sinn a bos mÌn do Dhearg, we gave her soft hand to Dargo. Dh' eirich sud dha gu h-obann, that befell him suddenly. Mar sin duinne gu latha, so it fared with us till day, so we passed the night; ma 's olc dhomh, cha n-fhearr dhoibh, if it goes ill with me, they fare no better. Latha dhomhsa siubhal bheann, one day as I travelled the hills; latha dhuinn air machair Alba, one day when we were in the lowlands of Scotland; on Scotia's plains. Eadar. Between: eadar an dorus agus an ursainn, between the door and the post. Dh' eirich eadar mi agus mo choimhearsnach, a quarrel arose betwixt me and my neighbour. Eadar mhÒr agus bheag, both great and small, Psal. xlix. 2, metr.; Rev. xix. 5, eadar bhochd agus nochd, both the poor and the naked. Fa. Upon: Fa 'n bhÒrd, upon the board; leigeadar fa lÀr, was dropped on the ground, omitted, neglected. Carswel. Fa 'n adhbhar ud, on that account; creud fa 'n abradh iad? wherefore should they say? Fa sheachd, seven times, Psal. vii. 6, metr.; fa cheud, a hundred times, Psal. lxii. 9, metr. Fuidh, fo. Under: Fuidh 'n bhÒrd, under the board; fuidh bhlÀth in blossom; tha an t-arbhar fo dhÉis, the corn is in the ear; fuidh smuairean, under concern; fo ghruaim, gloomy; fo mhi-ghean, in bad humour; fuidh mhi-chliu, under bad report. Denoting intention or purpose: air bhi fuidhe, it being his purpose, Acts xx. 7; tha tighinn fodham, it is my intention or inclination. Gu, Gus. To: O thigh gu tigh, from house to house; gu crÌch mo shaoghail fein, to the end of my life; gus an crion gu luaithre a' chlach, until the stone shall crumble to dust. Sm. Seann dÀna. A' bhliadhna gus an Àm so, this time twelvemonth, a year ago; a sheachduin gus an dÉ, yesterday se'ennight. Mile gu leth, a mile and a half; bliadhna gu leth, a year and a half. Gun. Without: Gun amharus, without doubt; gun bhrogan, without shoes; gun fhios, without knowledge, unwittingly; gun fhios nach faic thu e, in case you may see him, Iar. After: Iar sin, after that; iar leughadh an t-Soisgeil, after the reading of the Gospel; iar tuiteam sios da aig a chosaibh, having fallen down at his feet; bha mi iar mo mhealladh, I was received. Le, leis. With: Chaidh mi leis a' chuideachd mhÒir, I went with the multitude. Denoting the instrument: mharbh e Eoin leis a' chlaidheamh, he killed John with the sword. Denoting the agent: thomhaiseadh le Diarmid an torc, the boar was measured by Diarmid. Denoting possession: is le Donull an leabhar, the book is Donald's; cha leis e, it is not his. Denoting opinion or feeling: is fada leam an lÀ gu h-oidhche, I think the day long, or tedious, till night come; is cruaidh leam do chor, I think your case a hard one; is dÒcha leam, I think it probable; is doilich leam, I am sorry; is aithreach leis, he repents. Along: leis an t-sruth along the stream; leis an leathad, down the declivity. Leig leam, let me alone; leig leis, let him alone. Mu. About: ag iadhadh mu a cheann, winding about his head; labhair e mu Iudas, he spoke about Judas; nuair smachduichear duine leat mu 'lochd, when thou O. From: O bhaile gu baile, from town to town; o mhadainn gu feasgar, from morning to evening; o 'n lÀ thainig mi dhachaidh, from the day that I came home; o 'n lÀ, is often abridged into la; as, la thainig mi dhachaidh, since I came home. Since, because: thugamaid uil' oirnn a' bhanais, o fhuair sinn cuireadh dhol ann, let us all to the wedding, since we have been bidden to it. Denoting want in opposition to possession, denoted by aig: na tha uainn 's a b' fheairrd sinn againn, what we want and should be the better for having. Implying desire: ciod tha uait? what would you have? Tha claidheamh uam, I want a sword. Os. Above: Mar togam os m' uil' aoibhneas Àrd cathair Ierusaleim, if I prefer not Jerusalem above my chief joy, Psal. cxxxvii. 6, metr.; os mo cheann, above me, over me. Ri, ris. To: cosmhuil ri mac righ, like to the son of a king; chuir iad teine ris an tigh, they set fire to the house. Maille ri, together with. Laimh ris a' bhalla, nigh to the wall. Ri lÀ gaoithe, on a day of wind; ri fad mo rÉ 's mo lÀ, during all the days of my life; ri lÌnn Righ Uilliam, in the reign of King William. Na bi rium, don't molest me. Feuch ris, try it. Cuir ris, ply your work, exert yourself; cuirear na Exposed: tha an craicionn ris, the skin is exposed, or bare; leig ris, expose or make manifest. Roimh. Before: roimh 'n charbad, before the chariot; roimh 'n chamhair, before the dawn; roimh na h-uile nithibh, before, in preference to, all things; chuir mi romham, I set before me, purposed, intended. Imich romhad, go forward; dh' fhalbh e roimhe, he went his way, he went off. Seach. Past: chaidh e seach an dorus, he passed by the door. In comparison with: is trom a' chlach seach a' chlÒineag, the stone is heavy compared with the down. Tar, thar. Over, across: chaidh e thar an amhainn, thar a' mhonadh, he went over the river, over the mountain; tha sin thar m' eolas, thar mo bheachd, &c., that is beyond my knowledge, beyond my comprehension, &c. Tre, troimh, throimh. Through: tre uisge is tre theine, through water and through fire. Of Inseparable Prepositions. The following initial syllables, used only in composition, are prefixed to nouns, adjectives, or verbs, to modify or alter their signification:— An[92], Di, Ao, ea, eu, eas, Mi, Neo:—Privative syllables signifying not, or serving to change the signification of the words to which they are prefixed into its contrary; as, socair ease, anshocair distress, uneasiness; ciontach guilty, dichiontach innocent; treabh to cultivate, dithreabh an uncultivated place, a desert; dionach tight, close, aodionach leaky; cÒir justice, eucoir injustice; slÀn whole, in health, easlan sick; caraid a friend, eascaraid an enemy; buidheachas gratitude, mibhuidheachas ingratitude; claon awry, neochlaon unbiassed, impartial; duine a man, neodhuine a worthless unnatural creature. An, ain, intensitive, denoting an immoderate degree, or faulty excess; as, tighearnas dominion, aintighearnas tyranny; tromaich to make heavy, antromaich to make very heavy, to aggravate; teas heat, ainteas excessive heat; miann desire, ainmhiann inordinate desire, lust. Ais, ath, again, back; as, eirigh rising, aiseirigh resurrection; beachd view, ath-bheachd retrospect; fÀs growth, ath-fhÀs after-growth. Bith, continually; as, bithdheanamh doing continually, busy; am bithdheantas incessantly. Co, com, comh, con, together, equally, mutually; as, gleacadh fighting, co-ghleacadh fighting together; lion to fill, colion to fulfil, accomplish; ith to eat, comith eating together; radh saying, comhradh conversation, speech; trom weight, cothrom equal weight, equity; aois age, comhaois a contemporary. Im, about, round, entire; as, lÀn full, iomlan quite complete; gaoth wind, iomghaoth a whirlwind; slainte health, iom-shlainte perfect health. In, or ion, worthy: as, ion-mholta worthy to be praised: ion-roghnuidh worthy to be chosen, Psal. xxv. 12, metr. vers. So, easily, gently: as, faicsin seeing, so-fhaicsin easily seen; sion weather, soinion [so-shion] calm weather; sgeul a tale, soisgeul a good tale, gospel. Do, with difficulty, evil; as, tuigsin understanding, do-thuigsin difficult to be understood; doinion stormy weather; beart deed, exploit. do-bheart evil deed. CHAPTER VIII.OF CONJUNCTIONS. Under this class of words, it is proper to enumerate not only those single Particles which are usually denominated Conjunctions; but also the most common phrases which are used as Conjunctions to connect either words or sentences. Ach; but. Agus, is; and. A chionn gu; because that. A chum as gu; in order that. A chum as nach; that not. Air chor as gu; so that. Air eagal gu, D' eagal gu; for fear that, lest. Air son gu, Du bhrigh gu; by reason that Bheil fhios, 'l fhios? is there knowledge? is it known? an expression of curiosity, or desire to know. Co; as. Ged, giodh; although[93]. Ged tha, ge ta; though it be, notwithstanding. Gidheadh; yet, nevertheless. Gu, gur; that. Gun fhios; without knowledge, it being uncertain whether or not, in case not. Ionnas gu; insomuch that, so that. Ma; if. Mar; as, like as. Mar sud agus; so also. Ma seadh, Ma ta; if so, if it be so, then. Mur; if not. Mur bhiodh gu; were it not that. Mus an, mu 'n; before that, lest. Na; than. Nach; that not. Na'n, na'm; if. No; or. O; since, because. Oir; for. Os barr; moreover. Sol, suil; before that. Tuille eile; further. Uime sin; therefore. CHAPTER IX.OF INTERJECTIONS. The syllables or sounds, employed as expressions of various emotions or sensations, are numerous in Gaelic, but for the most part provincial, and arbitrary. Only one or two single vocables, and a few phrases, require to be noticed under this division. Och! Ochan! alas! Ochan nan och! alas and well-a-day! Fire faire! what a pother! Mo thruaighe! my misery! Mo chreachadh! my despoiling! woe's me! Mo nÀire! my shame, for shame! fy! H-ugad, at you, take care of yourself, gardez-vous. Feuch! behold! lo! PART III.OF SYNTAX. Syntax treats of the connection of words with each other in a sentence; and teaches the proper method of expressing their connection by the Collection and the Form of the words. Gaelic Syntax may be conveniently enough explained under the common divisions of Concord and Government. CHAPTER I.OF CONCORD. Under Concord is to be considered the agreement of the Article with its Noun;—of an Adjective with its Noun;—of a Pronoun with its Antecedent;—of a Verb with its Nominative;—and of one Noun with another. Section I. Of the Agreement of the Article with a Noun. Collocation. The article is always placed before its Noun, and next to it, unless when an Adjective intervenes. Form. The article agrees with its Noun in Gender, Number, and Case. Final n is changed into m before a plain Labial; as, am baile the town, am fear the man. It is usually cut off before an aspirated Palatal, or Labial, excepting fh; as, a' chaora the sheep, a' mhuc the sow, a' choin of the dog. In the Dat. Sing. initial a is cut off after a Preposition ending in a Vowel; as, do 'n chloich to the stone[94]. A Noun, when immediately preceded by the Article, suffers some changes in Initial Form:—1. With regard to Nouns beginning with a Consonant, the aspirated form is assumed by a mas. Noun in the gen. and dat. singular; by a fem. noun in the nom. and dat. singular. If the Noun begins with s followed by a vowel or by a Liquid, instead of having the s aspirated, t is inserted between the Article and the Noun, in the foresaid cases; and the s becomes entirely quiescent[95]. 2. With regard to Nouns beginning with a Vowel, t or h is inserted between the Article and the Noun in certain Cases, viz. t in the Nom. sing. of mas. Nouns, h in the gen. sing. of fem. Nouns, and h in the nom. and dat. plur. of Nouns of either gender. Throughout the other sing. and plur. Cases, all Nouns retain their Primary form. The following examples show all the varieties that take place in declining a Noun with the Article. Nouns beginning with a Labial or a Palatal.
The initial Form of Adjectives immediately preceded by the Article, follows the same rules with the initial Form of Nouns. Besides the common use of the Article as a Definitive to ascertain individual objects, it is used in Gaelic— 1. Before a Noun followed by the Pronouns so, sin, or ud; as, am fear so, this man; an tigh ud, yon house. 2. Before a Noun preceded by the Verb is and an Adjective; as, is maith an sealgair e, he is a good huntsman; bu luath an coisiche e, he was a swift footman. 3. Before some names of countries; as, righ na Spainne, the king of Spain; chaidh e do 'n Fhrainc, he went to France; but righ Bhreatain, the king of Britain; chaidh e dh' Eirin, he went to Ireland, without the Article. Section II. Of the Agreement of an Adjective with a Noun. Collocation. When an Adjective and the Noun which it qualifies are in the same clause or member of a sentence, the Adjective is usually placed after its Noun; as, ceann liath, a hoary head; duine ro ghlic, a very wise man. If they be in different clauses, or if the one be in the subject, and the other in the predicate of a proposition, this rule does not apply; as, is glic an duine sin, that is a wise man; cha truagh leam do chor, I do not think your case unfortunate. 1. Numerals, whether Cardinal or Ordinal, to which add, iomadh many, gach every, are placed before their Nouns; as, tri lathan, three days; an treas latha, the third day; iomadh duine, many a man; gach eun g' a nead, every bird to its nest.—Except such instances as the following : Righ Tearlach a h-Aon, King Charles the First; Righ Seumas a Cuig, King James the Fifth. 2. The possessive pronouns mo, do, &c., are always placed before their nouns; as, mo lamh, my hand. The interrogatives co, cia, &c., are placed before their nouns, with the article intervening; as, cia am fear? which man? 3. Some adjectives of one syllable are usually placed before their Nouns; as, deadh dhuine, a good man; droch ghniomh, a bad action; seann sluagh, old people. Such Adjectives, placed before their Nouns, often combine with them, so as to represent one complex idea, rather than two distinct ones; and the adjective and noun, in that situation, may rather be considered as one complex term, than as two distinct words, and written accordingly; as, oigfhear, a young man; ogbhean, a young woman; garbhchriochan, rude regions[97]. Form. Though a Gaelic Adjective possesses a variety of Forms, yet its Form is not always determined by the Noun whose signification it modifies. The Form of the Adjective depends on its Noun, when it immediately follows the Noun, or only with the intervention of an intensitive Particle, ro, gle, &c., and when both the Noun and the Adjective are in the Subject, or both in the Predicate, or in the same clause or member of a sentence. In all other situations, the form of the Adjective does in no respect depend on the Noun; or, in other words, the Adjective does not agree with the Noun[98]. To illustrate this rule, let the following examples be attentively considered:—Is beag orm a' ghaoth fhuar, I dislike the cold wind; is beag orm fuaim na gaoithe fuaire, I dislike the sound of the cold wind; is beag orm seasamh anns a' ghaoith fhuair, I dislike standing in the cold wind. In these examples, the Adjective and the Noun are both in the same clause or member of a sentence, and therefore they must agree together. In the following examples the Adjective and the Noun do not necessarily agree together:—Is fuar a' ghaoth Á tuath, cold is the wind from the north; is tric leis a' ghaoith Á tuath bhi fuar, it is usual for the wind from the north to be cold. In these examples, the Noun is in the Subject, and the Adjective in the Predicate of the proposition. The grammatical distinction observable in the following examples is agreeable to the strictest philosophical propriety:—Rinn mis an scian gheur, I made the sharp knife: here the Adjective agrees with the Noun, for it modifies the Noun, distinguishing that knife from others. Rinn mis an scian geur, I made the knife sharp: here the Adjective does not agree with the Noun, for it modifies not the Noun but the Verb. It does not characterize the object on which the operation is performed, hut it combines with the Verb in specifying the nature of the operation performed. The expression is equivalent to gheuraich mi an scian, I sharpened the knife. So also, mhothaich mi a' ghaoth fhuar, I felt the cold wind; but mhothaich mi a' ghaoth fuar, I felt the wind cold. In the former of these examples the Adjective modifies the Noun, and agrees with it; in the latter it does not agree with the Noun, for its use is to modify the Verb, or to specify the nature of the sensation felt. In like manner, dh' fhÀg iad an obair criochnaichte, they left the work finished; fhuaradh an Òigh sÌnte, marbh, the maid was found stretched out dead. And so in other similar instances. 1. When an Adjective and Noun are so situated and related, that an agreement takes place between them, then the Adjective agrees with its noun in Gender, Number, and Case. A Noun preceded by the Numeral da two, though it be in the Singular Number, [see conclusion of Part II. Chap I.] takes an Adjective in the Plural; as, da iasg bheaga, two small fishes, John, vi. 9. The Initial Form of the Adjective depends partly on the Gender of the Noun, partly on its Termination, and partly on its being preceded by the Article. The following examples of an Adjective declined along with its Noun, exhibit the varieties in the Initial Form, as well as in the Termination of the Adjective:—
An Adjective, beginning with a Lingual, and preceded by a Noun terminating in a Lingual, retains its primary Form in all the Singular cases; for the sake, it would seem, of preserving the agreeable sound arising from the coalescence of the two Linguals; as, nighean donn a brown maid, instead of nighean dhonn; a' choin duibh of the black dog, instead of a' choin dhuibh; air a' chois deis on his right foot, instead of air a chois dheis. II. A Noun preceded by an Adjective assumes the aspirated Form; as, ard bheann a high hill, cruaidh dheuchainn a hard trial. 1. A Noun preceded by a Numeral is in the primary Form; as, tri meoir three fingers; to which add iomadh many, gach every; as, iomadh fear many a man; gach craobh every tree.—Except aon one, da two; ceud first; as, aon fhear one man, da chraoibh two trees. 2. A Noun preceded by any of the following Possessive Pronouns, a her, ar our, bhur your, an their, is in the primary 3. A Noun beginning with a Lingual, preceded by an Adjective ending in n, is in the primary Form; as, aon duine one man, seann sluagh old people. Section III. Of the Agreement of a Pronoun with its Antecedent. The Personal and Possessive Pronouns follow the Number of their Antecedents, i.e. of the Nouns which they represent. Those of the 3d Pers. Sing. follow also the Gender of their antecedent; as, sheas a'bhean aig a chosaibh, agus thoisich i air am fliuchadh leis a deuraibh, agus thiormaich i iad le gruaig a cinn, the woman stood at his feet, and she began to wet them with her tears, and she wiped them with the hair of her head, Luke vii. 38. They follow, however, not the Gender of the Antecedent, but the sex of the creature signified by the Antecedent, in those words in which Sex and Gender disagree, as, an gobhlan-gaoithe mar an ceudn' do sholair nead dh'i fein the swallow too hath provided a nest for herself, Psal. lxxxiv. 3. Gobhlan-gaoithe a swallow, is a mas. Noun, as appears by the mas. Article: but as it is the dam that is spoken of, the reference is made by the Personal Pronoun of the fem. gender. Ta gliocas air a fireanachadh leis a cloinn Wisdom If the Antecedent be a sentence, or clause of a sentence, the Pronoun is of the 3d Pers. Sing. masculine; as, dh' ith na bÀ caola suas na bÀ reamhra, agus cha n-aithnichteadh orra e, the lean cattle ate up the fat cattle, and could not be known by them. If the Antecedent be a collective Noun, the Pronoun is of the 3d Pers. Plur. as, thoir Àithne do 'n t-sluagh, d' eagal gu m bris iad asteach charge the people lest they break in, Exod. xix. 21. An Interrogative combined with a Personal Pronoun, asks a question without the intervention of the Substantive verb; as, co mise? who [am] I? co iad na daoine sin? who [are] those men? cia i a' cheud Àithne? which [is] the first commandment? In interrogations of this form, the noun is sometimes preceded by the Personal Pronoun, and sometimes not; as, co e am fear? who [is] the man? co am fear? what man? Co am fear? is evidently an incomplete sentence, like what man? in English. The ellipsis may be supplied thus; co e am fear a ta thu ciallachadh? who is the man whom you mean? This example may be abridged into another common interrogation, in which the Interrogative is immediately followed by the Relative; as, co a ta thu ciallachadh? who [is he] whom you mean? ciod a ta thu faicinn? what [is it] that you see? In an interrogative sentence including a Personal Pronoun and a Noun, as, co e am fear sin? if the Noun be restricted in Section IV. Of the Agreement of a Verb with its Nominative. As the Verb has no variation of form corresponding to the Person or Number of its Nominative, the connection between a Verb and its Nominative can be marked only by its collocation. Little variety therefore is allowed in this respect. The Nominative, whether Noun or Pronoun, is ordinarily placed after the Verb; as, ta mi I am, rugadh duine-cloinne a man-child is born[102]. The Article or an Adjective, is frequently The word denoting the object of the verbal action, can never, even in poetry, be placed between the Verb and its Nominative, without altering the sense. Hence the arrangement in the following passages is incorrect:—Ghabh domblas agus fiongeur iad, they took gall and vinegar. "Buch. Gael. Poems," Edin. 1767. p. 14. The collocation should have been ghabh iad domblas, &c. Do chual e 'n cruinne-cÉ, the world heard it, id. p. 15, ought to have been, do chual an cruinne-cÉ e. So also, do ghabh truaighe, Iosa dhoibh, Jesus took pity The Relatives a who, nach who not, are always put before the verb; as, am fear a thuit, the man who fell; am fear nach dean beud, the man who will not commit a fault. In poetry, or poetical style, where inversion is allowed, the Nominative is sometimes placed before the Verb; as doimhneachd na talmhain ta 'n a laimh, in his hand is the depth of the earth. Psal. xcv. 4. Oigh cha tig le clÀr 'n an comhdhail, No virgin with harp will come to meet them. Smith's "Ant. Gal. Poems," p. 285. Gach doire, gach coire, 's gach eas, Bheir a' m' chuimhne cneas mo Ghraidh. Each grove, each dell, and each water-fall, will bring to my remembrance the form of my love. Id. p. 30. An la sin cha tigh gu brÀth, A bheir dearrsa mo ghraidh gu tuath. That day shall never come, which shall bring the sun-beam of my love to the North. Fingal II. 192. Am focail geilleam do Mhorlamh; Mo lann do neach beo cha gheill. In words I yield to Morla; my sword to no living man shall yield. Fing. II. 203. This inversion is never admitted into plain discourse or unimpassioned narrative. In those Persons of the Verb in which the terminations supply the place of the Personal Pronouns, no Nominative is expressed along with the Verb. In all the other Persons of the Verb, a Noun or a Pronoun is commonly expressed as its Nominative. In sentences of a poetical structure, the Nominative is sometimes, though rarely, omitted; as, am fear nach A Gharna, cuim a sheas? a Ghuill, cuim a thuit? Garno, why stoodst? Gaul, why didst fall? Smith's "Ant. Gal. Poems," p. 153. The Infinitive often takes before it the Nominative of the Agent; in which case the Preposition do is either expressed or understood before the Infinitive; as, feuch, cia meud a mhaith, braithre do bhi 'n an comhnuidh ann sith! behold how great a good it is, that brethren dwell in peace! Psal. cxxxiii, 1. Is e mi dh' fhantuinn 's an fheoil, a 's feumaile dhuibhse, my abiding in the flesh is more needful for you, Phil. i. 24, Cha n'eil e iomchuidh sinne dh' fhagail focail DÉ, agus a fhrithealadh do bhordaibh, it is not meet that we should leave the word of God, and serve tables, Acts vi. 2. The Preposition do, being softened as usual into a, readily disappears after a Vowel; as, air son mi bhi a rÌs a lathÀir maille ribh, by my being again present with you, Phil. i. 26[104]. Section V. Of the Agreement of one Noun with Another. When in the same sentence two or more Nouns, applied as names to the same object, stand in the same grammatical relation to other words, it should naturally be expected that their Form, in so far as it depends on that relation, should be the same; in other words, that Nouns denoting the same object, and related alike to the governing word, should agree in Case. This accordingly happens in Greek and Latin. In Gaelic, where a variety of form gives room for the application of the same rule, it has been followed in some instances; as, Doncha mac Chailain mhic Dhonuil, Duncan the son of The translators of the Scriptures into Gaelic, induced probably by the reasonableness and utility of the rule under consideration, by the example of the most polished Tongues, and by the usage of the Gaelic itself in some phrases, have uniformly adhered to this rule when the leading Noun was in the Genitive; as, do mhacaibh Bharsillai a' Ghileadaich, 1 Kings ii. 7; righ-chathair Dhaibhi athar, 1 Kings ii. 12; do thaobh Bheniamin am brathar, Judg. xxi. 6; ag gabhail nan clar chloiche, eadhon chlar a' cho-cheangail, Deut. ix. 9. The rule seems to have been disregarded when the leading Noun was in the Dative. See 1 Kings i. 25, Ruth iv. 5, Acts xiii. 33. CHAPTER II.OF GOVERNMENT. Under this head is to be explained the Government of Nouns, of Adjectives, of Verbs, of Prepositions, and of Conjunctions. Section I. Of the Government of Nouns. One Noun governs another in the Genitive. The Noun governed is always placed after that which governs it; as, ceann tighe, the head of a house or family; solus na grÉine, light of the sun; bainne ghabhar milk of goats. The Infinitives of Transitive Verbs, being themselves Nouns, (See Part II. Chap. V. p. 86.) govern in like manner the Genitive of their object; as, ag cur sÌl, sowing seed; a dh' fhaicinn an t-sluaigh, to see the people; iar leughadh an t-soisgeil, after reading the gospel[105]. Although no good reason appears why this rule, which is common to the Gaelic with many other languages, should ever be set aside, yet it has been set aside in speaking, and sometimes in writing Gaelic. 1. When the Noun governed does in its turn govern another Noun in the Genitive, the former is often put in the Nominative instead of the Genitive case. The following instances of this anomaly occur in the Gaelic Scriptures:—Guth briathran an t-sluaigh, instead of, bhriathran, the voice of the words of the people, Deut. v. 28; do mheas craobhan a' gharaidh, instead of, chraobhan, of the fruit of the trees of the garden, 2. Such expressions as the following seem to be exceptions to the rule:—Dithis mac, 2 Sam. xv. 27, 36; ceathrar mac, 1 Chron. xxi. 20; leanabaibh mac, Matt. ii. 16. In the following similar instances, the rule is observed:—Dithis mhac, Gen. xli. 50; dithis fhear, 2 Sam. xii. 1; ceathrar fhear, Acts xxi. 23; ceathrar mhaighdiona, Acts xxi. 9. The same anomaly takes place in the regimen of the infinitive, as in that of other Nouns. Though an Infinitive be in that grammatical relation to a preceding Noun which would require its being put in the Genitive, yet when itself also governs another noun in the Genitive, it often retains the form of the Nominative. The Infinitives naomhachadh, gnathachadh, briseadh, admit of a regular Genitive, naomhachaidh, gnathachaidh, brisidh. In the following examples, The Infinitive is not put in the Genitive, when preceded This coincidence in the Regimen of the Infinitive in two similar situations, viz., when limited by a Possessive Pronoun, and when limited by a subsequent Noun, furnishes no slight argument in support of the construction defended above, of putting the Infin. in the Nom. case when itself governs a Noun in the Genitive; for we find the Infin. is invariably put in the Nom. when limited in its signification by a Possess. Pronoun. When one Noun governs another in the Genitive, the Article is never joined to both, even though each be limited in its signification, as, mac an righ, the son of the king, not am mac an righ; taobh deas a' bhaile, the south side of the town, not an taobh deas a' bhaile[109]. For the most part, the Article is thus joined to the latter Noun. Sometimes it is joined to the former Noun; as, an ceann tighe, the head of the family; an ceann iuil, the pilot; but in such instances the two Nouns figure as one complex term, like paterfamilias, rather than as two terms. The following examples, in which the Article is joined to both Nouns, seem to be totally repugnant to the Gaelic idiom: cuimhneachadh nan cÙig aran nan cÙig mÌle, Matt. xvi. 9; nan seachd aran nan ceithir mÌle, Matt. xvi. 10[110]. A Possessive Pronoun joined to the Noun governed excludes, in like manner, the Article from the Noun governing; as, barr-iall a bhrÒige, the latchet of his shoe, not am barr-iall a bhrÒige; obair bhur lamh, the work of your hands, not an obair bhur lamh. The Noun governed is sometimes in the Primary, sometimes in the Aspirated Form. Proper Names of the Masculine Gender are in the Aspirated Form; as, brÀthair Dhonuill, Donald's brother; uaigh Choluim, Columba's grave. Except when a final and an initial Lingual meet; as, clann Donuill, Donald's descendants; beinn Deirg Dargo's hill. When both Nouns are Appellatives, and no word intervenes between them, the initial Form of the latter Noun follows, for the most part, that of an Adjective agreeing with the former Noun. See p. 144. Thus, d' a ghÀradh fiona, g' a ghÀradh fiona, without the Article, Matt, xx. 1, 2, like do dhuine maith; but do 'n ghÀradh fhiona, with the Article v. 4, 7, like do 'n duine mhaith. So we should say do 'n ard fhear-chiuil, rather than do 'n ard fhear-ciuil, as in the title of many of the Psalms. Except.—If the latter Noun denote an individual of a species, that is, if it take the Article a before it in English, it is put in the primary form, although the former Noun be feminine; as, sÙil caraid, the eye of a friend, not sÙil charaid, like sÙil mhor, duais fÀidh, a prophet's reward, Matt. x. 4, not duais fhÀidh, like duais mhÒr. Chum maitheanais peacaidh, Acts, ii. 38, signifies for the remission of a sin; rather chum maitheanais pheacaidh for the remission of sin. Section II. Of the Government of Adjectives. Adjectives of fulness govern the Genitive; as, lÀn uamhainn full of dread, Acts, ix. 6, buidheach beidh, satisfied with meat. The first Comparative takes the Particle na than, before the following Noun; as, ni 's gile na an sneachdadh, whiter than the snow, b' fhaide gach mios na bliadhna, each month seemed longer than a year. Smith's "Ant. Poems," p. 9. The second Comparative is construed thus: is feairrd mi so, I am the better for this; bu mhisd e am buille sin, he was the worse for that blow; cha truimid a' choluinn a ciall, the body is not the heavier for its understanding. Superlatives are followed by the Preposition de or dhe of; as, am fear a 's Àirde dhe 'n triuir, the man who is tallest of the three, the tallest man of the three. Section III. Of the Government of Verbs. A Transitive Verb governs its object in the Nominative or Objective Case; as, mharbh iad an righ, they killed the king; na buail mi, do not strike me. The object is commonly placed after the Verb, but never between the Verb and its Nominative. [See Part III. Chap. I., Sect. IV.] Sometimes the object is placed, by way of emphasis, before the Verb; as, mise chuir e rÌs ann am Àite, agus esan chroch e, me he put again in my place, and him he hanged, Gen. xli. 13. An t-each agus a mharcach thilg e 's an fhairge, the horse and his rider hath he cast into the sea, Exod. xv. 1. Many Transitive Verbs require a Preposition before their object; as, iarr air Donull, desire Donald; labhair ri Donull, speak to Donald; leig le Donull, let Donald alone; beannuich do Dhonull, salute Donald; fiosraich de Dhonull, enquire of Donald. Bu was, requires the following initial Consonant to be aspirated; as, bu mhaith dhuit, it was good for you; bu chruaidh an gnothuch, it was a hard case; except initial d, and t which are not aspirated; as, bu dual duit, it was natural for you; bu trom an eallach, the burden was heavy; bu ghearr a lo, 's bu dubh a sgeul, short was her course, and sad was her story. Smith's "Ant. Poems." Section IV. Of the Government of Adverbs. The collocation of Adverbs is for the most part arbitrary. The Adverbs ro, gle, very, are placed before the Adjectives they modify, and require the following initial Consonant to be aspirated; as, ro bheag, very little; gle gheal, very white. The Negative cha or cho not, when followed by a word beginning with a Labial or Palatal, requires the initial Consonant to be aspirated; as, cha mhÒr e, it is not great; cha bhuail mi, I will not strike; cha chuala mi, I did not hear; but an initial Lingual remains unaspirated; as, cha dean mi, I will not do; cha tog e, he will not raise; cha soirbhich iad, they will not prosper. N is inserted between cha and an initial Vowel or an aspirated f; as, cha n-e, it is not; cha n-Éigin, it is not necessary; cha n-fhaca mi, I saw not. The Negative ni requires h before an initial Vowel; as, ni h-iad, they are not; ni h-eudar, it may not. Section V. Of the Government of Prepositions. The Proper Prepositions aig, air, &c., govern the Dative; as, aig mo chois, at my foot; air mo laimh, on my hand. They are always placed before the word they govern. The following Prepositions require the Noun governed to be put in the Aspirated Form, viz., de, do, fuidh, fo, fa, gun, mar, mu, o, tre. Air sometimes governs the Noun in the Aspirated Form; as, air bharraibh sgiath na gaoithe, on the extremities of the The Prepositions as, gus, leis, ris, are used before the Monosyllables an, am, a'. The corresponding Prepositions a, gu, le, ri, often take an h before an initial Vowel; as, a h-Eirin, out of Ireland; gu h-ealamh, readily; le h-eagal, with fear. The Improper Prepositions govern the following Noun in the Genitive; as, air feadh na tÌre, throughout the land; an aghaidh an t-sluaigh, against the people; rÉ na h-Ùine, during the time. It is manifest that this Genitive is governed by the Noun feadh, aghaidh, rÉ, &c., which is always included in the Preposition. See Part II. Chap. VII. Prepositions are often prefixed to a Clause of a sentence; and then they have no regimen; as, gus am bord a ghiulan, to carry the table, Exod. xxv. 27; luath chum fuil a dhortadh, swift to shed blood, Rom. iii. 15. Edit. 1767; an dÉigh an obair a chriochnachadh, after finishing the work. Section VI. Of the Government of Conjunctions. The Conjunctions agus and, no or, couple the same Cases of Nouns; as, air feadh chreagan agus choilltean, through rocks and woods; ag reubadh nam bruach 's nan crann, tearing the banks and the trees. When two or more Nouns, coupled by a Conjunction, are governed in the Dative by a Preposition, it is usual to repeat the Preposition before each Noun; as, air fad agus air leud, in length and in breadth; 'n an cridhe, 'n an cainnt, agus 'n am beus, in their heart, in their speech, and in their behaviour. Co as, prefixed to an Adjective, commonly requires the initial consonant of the Adj. to be aspirated; as, co mhaith, as good, co ghrinn, as fine. But sometimes we find co mÒr, as great, co buan, as durable, &c., without the aspirate. Sometimes the aspirate is transferred from the Adj. to the Conjunct. as, cho beag, as little, for co bheag. In the North Highlands, an adjective preceded by co is commonly put in the Comparative form; as, co miosa, as bad; co treise, as strong. The Conjunctions mur if not, gu, gur that, are always joined to the Negative Mood; as, mur 'eil mi, if I be not; gu robh e, that he was. M or n is often inserted, euphoniÆ causa, between gu and an initial Consonant; viz., m before a Labial, n before a Palatal or Lingual; as, gu-m faca tu, that you saw; gu-n dubhairt iad, that they said[111]. The Conjunctions ma if, o, o'n because, since, are joined to the Pres. and Pret. Affirmative, and Fut. Subjunctive; as, ma ta e, if he be; o'n tha e, since he is; ma bhuail e, if he struck; o'n bhuail e, because he struck; ma bhuaileas tu, if you strike; o bhitheas sinn, since we shall be. Na'm, na'n if, is joined only to the Pret. Subjunctive. Ged although, is used before the Present and Preterite Affirmative, the Fut. Negative, and the Pret. Subjunctive; as, ged tha e, though he be; ged bha mi, though I was; ge do bhuail thu mi, though you struck me; ged bhuail thu mi, though you strike me; ged bheireadh e dhomh, though he should give me[112]. PART IV.OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. CHAPTER I.OF DERIVATION. The Parts of Speech which are formed by derivation from other words are Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. These are chiefly derived from Nouns and Adjectives, and a few from Verbs. I. Nouns. Derivative Nouns may be classed as follows, according to the varieties of their termination. 1. Abstract Nouns in as, formed from Adjectives or Nouns; as, from ceart just, ceartas justice; from diomhan idle, vain, diomhanas idleness, vanity; from caraid a friend, cairdeas contracted for caraideas friendship; from namhaid an enemy, naimhdeas contracted for namhaideas enmity. 2. Abstract Nouns in achd, formed from Adjectives, and sometimes, though more rarely, from Verbs and Nouns; as, from naomh holy, naomhachd holiness; from domhain deep, doimhneachd contracted for domhaineachd depth; from righ a king, rioghachd a kingdom; coimhid to keep, coimheadachd keeping; clachair a mason, clachaireachd mason-work; gobhain a smith, goibhneachd contracted for gobhaineachd iron-work, or rather the trade or occupation of a smith. 3. Abstract Nouns formed from the genitive of Adjectives, by adding e; as, from dall gen. doill blind, doille blindness; from geal gen. gil white, gile whiteness; from leasg gen. leisg lazy, leisge laziness; tearc gen. teirc rare, teirce rarity; trom gen. truim heavy, truime heaviness; truagh gen. truaigh unhappy, truaighe misery; uasal gen. 4. Abstract Nouns in ad, formed from the Comparative of Adjectives, and used in speaking of the degree of a quality; as, gilead whiteness, boidhchead beauty, doimhnead depth, lughad smallness, tainead thinness; these are construed with the Prepositions de, air; as, cha n-fhaca mi a samhuil air bhoidhchead, I have not seen her match for beauty; air a lughad or d' a lughad, however small it be. 5. Nouns in air or oir, ach, iche, derived, most of them, from nouns, and signifying persons or agents, as, pÌobair a player on the pipe, from pÌob a pipe; clÀrsair a player on the harp, from clÀrsach a harp; cealgair or cealgoir a deceiver, from cealg deceit; sealgair or sealgoir a huntsman, from sealg hunting; marcach a rider, from marc a horse; athach a man of terror, a gigantic figure, from atha fear; oibriche a workman, from obair work; sgeulaiche a reciter of tales, from sgeul a tale; ceannaiche a merchant, from ceannaich to buy[113]. 6. Diminutives in an, and in ag or og, formed from Nouns or Adjectives; as, lochan a small lake, from loch a lake; from braid theft, bradag a thievish girl; from ciar dark-coloured, ciarag a little dark-coloured creature. These Diminutives are often formed from the Genitive of their Primitives; as, from feur gen. feoir grass, feoirnean a pile of grass; moll gen. muill chaff, muillean a particle of chaff; folt gen. fuilt hair, fuiltean a single hair; clag gen. cluig a bell, cluigean a little bell; gual gen. guail coal, guailnean a cinder; smÙr gen. smÙir dust, smÙirnean a particle of dust, a mote; clÒimh plumage, clÒimhneag a small feather, a flake of snow. Some Nouns are formed in an, which are not Diminutives; as, from lÙb to bend, lÙban a bow; from buail to beat, thresh, 7. Collective Nouns in ridh or ri, derived from Nouns or Adjectives; as, from Òg young, Òigridh youth, in the collective sense of the word; from mac a son, macruidh sons, young men, Psal. cxlviii. 12;[114] from laoch a hero, laochruidh a band of heroes, Psal. xxix. 1. Macfarlan's Paraph. vi. 15, from ceol music, ceolraidh the muses. A. Macdonald's Songs, p. 7, from cos the foot, coisridh infantry, a party on foot. McIntyre's Songs, Edin. 1768, p. 110, from gas a lad, gasradh a band of domestic attendants. O'Brien's Ir. Dict. voc. gas; eachradh, eachruith cavalry, Fingal. IV. 299, Carthon, 59.—This termination is probably the Noun ruith a troop. See Lhuyd et O'Brien, in voc.[115] 8. Nouns in ach, chiefly Patronymics, formed from Proper Names, thus; from Donull Donald, is formed Donullach a man of the name of Macdonald; from Griogar Gregor, Griogarach a Macgregor; so Leodach a Macleod, Granntach a Grant, &c., from Albainn Scotland, Albannach a Scotsman; from Eirin Ireland, Eirineach an Irishman. These Nouns form their Plural regularly, Donullaich, Leodaich, Albannaich, Eirinich. So the following Gentile Nouns, which occur in the Gaelic Scriptures, are regularly formed from their respective Primitives, Partuich Parthians, Medich Medes, Elamuich Elamites, Acts ii. 9. Macedonaich Macedonians, 2 Cor. ix. 2, 4. See also Gen. xv. 19, 20, 21; Exod. xxiii. 23, 28.[116]. 9. Collective Nouns in ach; as, duille a leaf, duilleach foliage; giuthas fir, giuthasach a fir wood; iughar yew, iugharach a yew copse; fiadh a deer, fiadhach deer, a herd of deer; crion diminutive, shrunk, crionach decayed wood. II. Adjectives. 1. Adjectives in ach, formed generally from Nouns; as, from fÌrinn truth, fÌrinneach true, faithful; from sunnt glee, sunntach cheerful; crÀdh pain, crÀiteach painful; togradh desire, togarrach willing, desirous. 2. Adjectives in mhor or or, derived from Nouns; as, from Àdh felicity, adhmhor happy, blessed; from feoil flesh, feolmhor carnal; from neart strength, neartmhor strong. 3. Adjectives in ail derived from Nouns; as, from fear man, fearail manful; from caraid a friend, cairdail contr. for caraidail friendly; from namhaid an enemy, naimhdail contr. for namhaidail hostile; from sÙrd alertness, surdail alert[117]. 4. A few Adjectives in ta or da, derived from Nouns; as, Gaelta belonging to the Gael; Eireanda Irish; Romhanta Roman; Kirk. fÌreanta righteous, Matt. xxiii. 35. III. Verbs. Verbs in ich, for the most part Transitive, and implying causation, derived from Nouns or Adjectives; as, from geal CHAPTER II.OF COMPOSITION. All compound words in Gaelic consist of two component parts, exclusive of the derivative terminations enumerated in the preceding Chapter. Of these component parts, the former may be conveniently named the Prepositive, the latter the Subjunctive term. It sometimes happens, though rarely, that the Subjunctive term also is a compound word, which must itself be decompounded in order to find out the Root. In compounding words, the usual mode has been, to prefix to the term denoting the principal idea the word denoting the accessory idea or circumstance by which the signification of the principal word is modified. Accordingly we find Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs modified by prefixing to them a Noun, an Adjective, a Verb, or a Preposition. In forming compound words, a Rule of very general application is, that when the Subjunctive term begins with a Consonant, it is aspirated. From this Rule, however, are to be excepted, 1. Words beginning with s followed by a mute, which never admit the aspirate; 2. Words beginning with a Lingual when the Prepositive term ends in n; 3. A few other instances in which there is an euphonic agreement between the Consonants thus brought into apposition, which would be violated if either of them were aspirated. These observations will be found exemplified in the following Compounds:— I. Words Compounded with a Noun prefixed. Nouns Compounded with a Noun. Beart dress, equipage, ceann head—ceann-bheart head-dress, armour for the head. FÀinn a ring, cluas the ear—cluas-fhainn an ear-ring. Galar a distemper, crith shaking—crith-ghalar distemper attended with shaking, the palsy. Oglach a servant, bean (in composition, ban) a woman—banoglach a female servant. FÀidh a prophet, ban-fhaidh a prophetess. Tighearn a lord, baintighearn a lady. Adjectives Compounded with a Noun. Geal white, bian the skin—biangheal white-skinned. Lom bare, cas the foot—caslom bare-foot; ceann the head—ceannlom bare-headed. Biorach pointed, sharp, cluas the ear—cluasbhiorach having pointed ears. Verbs Compounded with a Noun. Luaisg to rock or toss, tonn a wave—tonn-luaisg to toss on the waves. Sleamhnuich to slide, cÙl the back—cÙl-sleamhnuich to back-slide. Folaich to hide, feall deceit—feall-fholaich to lie in wait. II. Words Compounded with an Adjective Prefixed. Nouns Compounded with an Adjective. Uisge water, fior true, genuine—fioruisge spring-water. Airgiod silver, beo alive—beo-airgiod quick-silver. Sgolt a crack, crion shrunk, decayed—crionsgolt a fissure in wood caused by drought or decay. Criochan bounds, regions, garbh rough—garbhchriochan rude mountainous regions. Adjectives Compounded with an Adjective. Donn brown, dubh black—dubh-dhonn dark-brown. Gorm blue, dubh black—dubh-ghorm dark-blue. Briathrach (not in use) from briathar a word, deas ready—deas-bhriathrach of ready speech, eloquent. Seallach (not in use) from sealladh sight, geur sharp—geur-sheallach sharp-sighted. Verbs Compounded with an Adjective. Ruith to run, dian keen, eager—dian-ruith to run eagerly. Lean to follow, geur sharp, severe—geur-lean to persecute. Buail to strike, trom heavy—trom-buail to smite sore, discomfit. Ceangail to bind, dlÙth closer—dlÙth-cheangail to bind fast. III. Words Compounded with a Verb prefixed. Art a stone, tarruing to draw—tarruing-art load-stone. SÙil the eye, meall to beguile—meall-shuil a leering eye. IV. Words Compounded with a Preposition. Radh a saying, roimh before—roimh-radh preface, prologue. Solus light, eadar between—eadar-sholus twilight. MÌnich to explain, eadar-mhÌnich to interpret. Gearr to cut, timchioll about—timchioll-ghearr circumcise. Lot to wound, troimh through—troimh-lot to stab, pierce through. Examples of words compounded with an inseparable Preposition are already given in Part II. Chap. VII. Compound Nouns retain the gender of the principal Nouns in their simple state. Thus crith-ghalar palsy, is masculine, because the principal Noun, Galar distemper, is masculine, although the accessary Noun crith, by which galar is qualified, be feminine. So cÌs-mhaor is masculine though cÌs be a feminine Noun, Luke xviii. 11; cÌs-mheasadh ought also to be masculine, Acts v. 37. Except Nouns compounded with Compound words are declined in the same manner as if they were uncompounded. In writing compound words, the component parts are sometimes separated by a hyphen, and sometimes not. The use of the hyphen does not seem to be regulated by any uniform practice. In the case of two vowels coming in apposition, the insertion of a hyphen seems indispensable; because, by the analogy of Gaelic orthography, two Vowels, belonging to different syllables, are scarcely ever placed next to each other without some mark of separation[118]. Thus so-aomaidh, easily induced, propense; so-iomchair, easily carried; do-innsidh, difficult to be told; and not soamaidh, doinnsidh, &c., without the hyphen. It was formerly remarked, Part I., that almost all Gaelic Polysyllables are accented on the first syllable. When, in pronouncing compound words, the accent is placed on the first syllable, the two terms appear to be completely incorporated into one word. When, on the other hand, the accent is placed, not on the first syllable of the Compound, but on the first syllable of the Subjunctive term, the two terms seem to retain their respective powers, and to produce their effect separately, and instead of being incorporated into one word, to be rather collaterally connected. A rule may then be derived from the pronunciation for the use of the hyphen in writing Compounds, viz., to insert the hyphen between the component parts, when the Prepositive term is not accented. Thus it is proposed to write aineolach ignorant, antromaich to exaggerate, comhradh conversation, dobheart a bad action, Let it be observed that, according to this rule, an Adjective preceding a Noun can never, but in the case just mentioned, be connected with it by a hyphen. For if the accent be wholly transferred from the Noun to the Adjective, then they are to be written as one undivided word; as, garbhchriochan highlands; but if the accent be not so transferred, the Adjective and the Noun are to be written as two separate words; as, seann duine an old man, deagh chomhairle good advice, droch sgeul a bad tale. It not unfrequently happens that two Nouns, whereof the one qualifies the meaning of the other, and connected by the common grammatical relation of the one governing the other in the Genitive, come through use to be considered as denoting only one complex object. The two Nouns in this case are sometimes written together in one word, and thus form a Compound of a looser structure than those which have been considered. Such are ceann-cinnidh, the head of a tribe or The different effects of these two modes of writing, with or without the hyphen, is very observable in such instances as the following:—Ainm dÙthcha, the name of a country, as Scotland, Argyle, &c.; ainm-dÙthcha, a country name, or Though few have exerted themselves hitherto in explaining the structure of the Gaelic language, in respect of its inflections, construction, and collocation, this cannot be said to be the case with regard to Etymology. Much has been attempted, and something has been done, toward analysing single vocables, particularly names of places. But this analysis seems to have been too often made rather in a way of random conjecture than by a judicious regard to the analogy of Derivation and Composition. The passion for analysing has even induced some to assert that all true Gaelic Primitives consist of but one syllable, that all Polysyllables are either derived or compounded, and therefore that there is room to search for their etymon. This seems to be carrying theory too far. It appears a fruitless and rather chimerical attempt to propose a system of directions by which all Polysyllables whatever may be resolved into component parts, and traced to a root of one syllable. All I have thought it necessary to do is to methodize and exemplify those general principals of Etymology which are obvious and unquestioned, and which regulate the composition and derivation of those classes of words whereof the analysis may be traced with some probability of success. EXERCISES IN READING, EXPLAINING, AND ANALYZING.From an Address to the Soldiers of a Highland Regiment, by D. Smith, M.D. Theid an deadh shaighdear gu h-aobhach suilbhear an dÀil gach tuiteamais a thig 'n a chrannchur. Ach 's e a's nÒs do 'n droch shaighdear a bhi gearan 's a' talach air gach lÀimh; beadaidh ri lÌnn socair, is diombach ann eiric caoimhneis; lag-chridheach ri h-am cruachais, agus dÌblidh ri h-uchd feuma. In English. The good soldier will advance, with spirit and cheerfulness, to any service that falls in his way. But it is the practice of the bad soldier to be complaining and grumbling on all occasions; saucy in time of ease, and peevish in return for kindness; faint-hearted under hardships, and feeble in encountering exigency. Analysis. Theid. 3. per. sing. Fut. Affirm, of the irregular Verb Rach, go. An. Nom. sing. of the Article an, the. Deadh. An indeclinable Adjective, always placed before its Noun. Shaighdear. Nom. sing. of the mas. noun saighdear, a soldier, in the aspirated form, because preceded by the Adj. deadh. Gram. p. 145. Gu. A proper Preposition, to, for. Aobhach. An Adject. of the first Declension, joyous, having an h before it, because preceded by the Prep. gu. Gram. p. 161. Gu h-aobhach, joyfully, cheerfully, an adverbial phrase. Gram. p. 109. Suilbhear. An Adject. cheerful. Gu is to be supplied from the former phrase; gu suilbhear, cheerfully, an adverbial phrase. An dÀil. An improper Preposition, to meet, to face, to encounter; made up of the proper Prep. ann, in, and the Noun dÀil, meeting. Gram. p. 121. Gach. An indeclinable Adj. Pronoun, each, every. Tuiteamais. Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun tuiteamas, an occurrence, accident, governed in the Gen. case by the improp. Prep. an dÀil (Gram. p. 161), derived from the Verb tuit. Infinitive tuiteam, to fall, befal. A. Nom. sing. Relative Pronoun, who, which. Thig. Fut. Affirm. of the irregular Verb thig, come. 'N. Contracted for ann, a proper Prep., in. A. Possessive Pronoun, his. Chrannchur. Mas. Noun, a lot; governed in the Dat. by the Prep. ann; in the aspirated form after the adject. Pron. a, 'his'—compounded of crann, a lot, and cur, casting, the Infinitive of the Verb cuir, to put, cast. Ach. Conjunction, but. Hebr. ??. 'S. for is, Pres. Indic. of the Verb is, I am. 'S e a 's it is [that] which is. NÒs. Noun mas., custom, habit. Do. Prep. to. An. the article, the. Droch. indeclinable Adject. bad; always placed before its Noun. Shaighdear. mas. Noun, soldier; governed in the Dative by the Prep. do; in the aspir. form after the Adject. droch. A bhi. for do bhi or do bhith, Infinit. of the irregular Verb bi, to be. Gearan. Infin. of the obsolete Verb gearain, to complain, ag being understood; ag gearan equivalent to a present Participle, complaining. Gram. p. 86. 'S. for agus, conjunction, and. A' talach. for ag talach, complaining, repining; Infin. of the obsolete Verb talaich, to complain of a thing or person. Air. Prep. on. Gach. Adject. Pron. indeclin. each, every. LÀimh. dat. sing. of the fem. Noun lÀmh, a hand; governed in the Dat. by the Prep. air, on. Air gach lÀimh, on every hand. Beadaidh. Adject. nice, fond of delicacies, saucy, petulant. Ri. Prep. to, at. LÌnn. Noun fem. an age, period, season. Ri lÌnn, during the time of any event, or currency of any period; ri lÌnn Fhearghuis, in the time, or reign of Fergus; gu faigheamaid sÌth r' ar lÌnn, that we may have peace in our time. Socair. Noun fem., ease, conveniency; governed in the Gen. by the Noun lÌnn. Is. for agus, Conjunct. and. Diombach, or diÙmach. Adject. displeased, indignant; derived from the Noun diom or diÙm, indignation. Ann. Prep. governing the Dat. in. Eiric. Noun femin., requital, compensation; governed in the Dat. by the Prep. ann. Caoimhneis. Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun caoimhneas, kindness; governed in the Gen. by the noun eiric, derived from the Adject. caomh, gentle, kind. Lag-chridheach. Adject. faint-hearted; compounded of the Adject. lag, weak, and cridhe, the heart. Ri. Prep. to, at. Am. Noun masc., time; governed in the Dat. case by the Prep. ri, and preceded by h. Gram. p. 161. Cruachais. Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun cruachas, hardship, strait; governed in the Gen. by the noun am; compounded of the Adject. cruaidh, hard, and cÀs, danger, extremity. Agus. Conjunct., and. DÌblidh. Adject., feeble, silly. Uchd. Noun mas. breast, chest; hence it signifies an ascent, a steep; in the Dat. case, preceded by h, after the Prep. ri: ri h-uchd, in ascending, breasting, encountering, assailing. Feuma. Gen. sing. of the Noun mas. feum, necessity, exigency; governed in the Gen. by the Noun uchd. Extract from an old Fingalian Tale or Legend. Dh' imich Garbh mac Stairn agus Dual a dh' fhaicinn Fhinn agus a threun fheara colgach, iomraiteach ann an gniomharaibh arm. Bha Fionn 's an Àm sin 'n a thigheadas samhraidh am Buchanti. 'N an turus d'a ionnsuidh, ghabh iad beachd air gach gleann agus faoin mhonadh, air gach allt agas caol choirean. Ghabh iad sgeul de gach coisiche agus gach fear a thachair 'n an cÒir. Ann an gleann nan cuach agus nan lon, chunnaic bÙth taobh sruthain; chaidh a steach, dh' iarr deoch; dh' eirich ribhinn a b' aluinne snuadh a dh' fhÀilteachadh an turuis le sÌth. Thug i biadh dhoibh r'a itheadh, dibhe ri Òl; dh' iarr an sgeul le cainnt thlÀ. Bhuail gaol o a sÙil an Garbh borb, agus dh' innis cia as doibh. "Thainig sinn o thÌr nan crann, far an lionor sonn—mac righ Lochlainn mise—m' ainm Garbh na'm b' aill leat—esan Dual, o thÌr nam beann, a thuinich ann Albainn o thuath—a ghabhail cairdeis gun sgÀth agus aoidheachd o 'n Àrd righ Fionn, sud fÀth ar turuis a Chiabh na maise—ciod am bealach am buail sinn? seol ar cos gu teach Fhinn, bi dhuinn mar iÙl, is gabh duais." "Duais In English. Garva the son of Starno and Dual, went to visit Fingal and his brave warriors, renowned for feats of arms. Fingal was at that time in his summer residence at Buchanti. On their journey thither, they took a view of every valley and open hill, every brook and narrow dell. They asked information of every passenger and person that came in their way. In the glen of cuckoos and ouzles they observed a cottage by the side of a rivulet. They entered; asked drink, a lady of elegant appearance arose and kindly bade them welcome. She gave the food to eat, liquor to drink. In mild speech she inquired their purpose. Love from her eye smote the rough Garva, and he told whence they were. "We are come from the land of Pines, where many a hero dwells—the son of Lochlin's king am I—my name is Garva, be pleased to know—my comrade is Dual, from the land of hills, his residence is in the north of Albion. To accept the hospitality and confidential friendship of the mighty prince Fingal, this is the object of our journey, O Lady fair[120]; say, by what pass shall we shape our course? Direct our steps to the mansion of Fingal, be our guide, and accept a reward." "Reward I never took," said the damsel of softest eye and rosiest cheek; "such was not the manner of [my father] Tedaco of the hill of hinds; Extract from Bishop Carsuel's Gaelic translation of the (From the Epistle Dedicatory.) Acht ata ni cheana is mor an leathtrom agas anuireasbhuidh ata riamh orainde gaoidhil alban & eireand, tar an gcuid eile don domhan, gan ar gcanamhna gaoidheilge do chur agclÓ riamh mar ataid agcanamhna & adteangtha fÉin agclÓ ag gach uile chinel dhaoine oile sa domhan, & ata uireasbhuidh is mÓ ina gach uireasbhuidh oraind, gan an Biobla naomhtha do bheith agclÓ gaoidheilge againd, marta sÈ agclÓ laidne agas bherla agas ingach teangaidh eile osin amach, agas fÓs gan seanchus arsean no ar sindsear do bheith mar an gcedna agclÓ againd riamh, acht ge tÁ cuid eigin do tseanchus ghaoidheal alban agas eireand sgriobhtha aleabhruibh lÁmh, agas adtamhlorgaibh fileadh & ollamhan, agas asleachtaibh suadh. Is mortsaothair sin re sgriobhadh do laimh, ag fechain an neithe buailtear sa chlÓ araibrisge agas ar aithghiorra bhios gach Én ni dhÁ mhed da chriochnughadh leis. Agas is mor an doille agas andorchadas peacaidh agas aineolais agas indtleachda do lucht deachtaidh agas sgriobhtha agas chumhdaigh na gaoidheilge, gurab mÓ is mian leo agas gurab mÓ ghnathuidheas siad eachtradha dimhaoineacha buaidheartha bregacha English Translation. [From the Report of the Committee of the But there is one great disadvantage which we the Gaeil of Scotland and Ireland labour under, beyond the rest of the world, that our Gaelic language has never yet been printed, as the language of every other race of men has been. And we labour under a disadvantage which is still greater than every other disadvantage, that we have not the Holy Bible printed in Gaelic, as it has been printed in Latin and in English, and in every other language; and also that we have never yet had any account printed of the antiquities of our country, or of our ancestors; for though we have some accounts of the Gaeil of Scotland and Ireland, contained in manuscripts, and in the genealogies of bards and historiographers, yet there is great labour in writing them over with the hand, whereas the work which is printed, be it ever so great, is speedily finished. And great is the blindness and sinful darkness, and ignorance and evil design of such as teach, and write, and cultivate the Gaelic language, that, with the view of obtaining for themselves the vain rewards of this world, they are more desirous, and more accustomed, to compose vain, tempting, lying, worldly histories, concerning the Tuath de dannan, and concerning warriors and champions, and Fingal the son of Cumhal, with his heroes, and concerning many others which From the Preface to a Metrical Version of the Book of Psalms Ataid na Psalma taitneamhach, tarbhach: beag nach mion-fhlaitheas lÁn dainglibh, Cill fhonnmhar le ceol naomhtha. Mur abholghort Eden, lionta do chrannaibh brioghmhoire na beatha, & do luibhennibh iocshlainteamhail, amhluidh an leabhar Psalmso Dhaibhioth, ata na liaghais ar uile anshocair na nanma. Ata an saoghal & gach beÓ chreatuir da bfuil ann, na chlarsigh; an duine, se is Clairseoir & duanaire, chum moladh an mor-Dhia mirbhuileach do sheinn; & ata Daibhidh do ghnÁ mar fhear don chuideachd bhias marso ag caoin-chaint gu ceolmhar ma nard-RÍ.... Do ghabhas mar chongnamh don obairsi, dioghlum ughdairidh an uile chÁil, ar sheannÓs, phriomh chreideamh & eachdardha na nGaoidheal, sgriobhta & clÓ-bhuailte: achd gu ba reula iuil & soluis dhamh, brÍdh na nSalm fein. Anois maseadh a Chomharbadha ro chaomh, ata mar phlaneidi dhealroidh ag sdiurughadh na ngcorp ioch dardha gan mhonmar, is deaghmhaise dhaoibh an tsaothairse a sgrudadh & a ghnathughadh gu neimhfhiat, gan ghuth ar bheiginmhe & neimhnitheachd an tsaothairigh. Griosam oraibhse a Uaisle, & a Thuatha charthanacha araon, gun Imthigh a Dhuilleachain gu dÁn, Le DÁn glan diagha duisg iad thall; Cuir failte ar Fonn fial na bFionn, Ar Gharbh chriocha, 's Indseadh gall. In English. The Psalms are pleasant and profitable. A church resounding with sacred melody is almost a little Heaven full of angels. As the Garden of Eden, replenished with trees of life of potent efficacy, and with medicinal plants, so is this Book of the Psalms of David, which contains a remedy for all the diseases of the soul. The world and every living creature it contains are the Harp; man is the Harper and Poet, who sings the praise of the great wonder-working God; and David is ever one of the company who are thus employed in sweetly and tunefully discoursing about the Almighty King.... I was assisted in this work by culling from authors of every kind, who have treated of the ancient manners, the primitive religion, and the history of the Gaels, both in manuscript and in print: but the star and light by which I steered was the sense of the Psalms themselves. Now, then, my very dear colleagues, who as shining luminaries guide the inferior bodies, it becomes you to examine and to use this work candidly, without regarding the meanness and insignificancy of the workman. I beseech you, men of high and of low degree alike, that you be not, like weak silly creatures, tossed to and fro by false conceits; but with firm, resolute, well-established hearts, adhere to Truth, Justice, and Temperance, as these Psalms exhort. There is honour and profit in complying with what is right, loss and disgrace in declining to what is wrong. Little Volume, move boldly on; In pure godly strains awaken yonder people; Salute the hospitable land of the Fingalians, The highland regions, and the Isles of strangers[122]. 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