We will consider now the case of a steamship to be lighted by means of incandescent lamps. It is sometimes a matter of some difficulty to fix on a suitable position for the dynamo and engine, especially in ships which have already been running for some time. Position for dynamo. In selecting a position, it must be borne in mind that a dynamo will work best in a cool clean place, cleanliness being most important. If a lot of coal dust is flying about where the dynamo is working, it will be drawn into it, and tend to impair its electrical, as well as mechanical efficiency. Dynamo to be kept clean and cool. If the dynamo is kept properly lubricated, it will work well enough in a hot place, but we must remember that the heating of the wire which makes up a large portion of the dynamo, reduces its conductivity, so that the cooler it is kept the better. The dynamo should be so placed that the engineer can get to every side of it easily. Quick-speed engines. If a quick-speed engine is to be used for driving it direct, it will make a very compact installation, but there seems to be some difficulty as yet in getting suitable reliable engines, besides which many marine engineers object to quick-speed engines altogether. Slow-speed engines with belts. If a slow-speed engine is to be used, a belt is of course required to get the necessary speed on the dynamo, and various precautions are needful to prevent the belt slipping off the pulley when the ship is rolling about in a sea-way. In all cases, the engine and dynamo should be placed with their spindles fore-and-aft, or in a line with the ship’s keel, the rolling being felt more than the pitching. Means of keeping belt on the pulley. There are various ways of keeping the belt from slipping off the pulley. Some have flanges on the pulley, others have guides or rollers on each side of the belt, each plan having its advantages and disadvantages; but some plan must be used, otherwise the belt slips off, usually in the middle of the first-saloon dinner, and out go all the lights, besides which the belt may be considerably damaged before the engine can be stopped. Engine must work steadily. The engine must be one that will work very steadily, otherwise the lights will pulsate at each revolution of the engine, which is most unpleasant. If the engine is a single one, it must have a large fly-wheel, or a driving-wheel large and heavy enough to answer the same purpose. A good sensitive governor wanted. The engine requires a good sensitive governor, so as to keep the speed regular when some of the lamps are turned on or off. When the engine and dynamo are in the main engine-room, the throttle-valve, or a stop-valve, should be in a convenient place for the engineer on watch to get at so as to instantly shut off the steam if the belt slips off or breaks. In ships where an electrician is carried there will not be the same necessity for this precaution. The belt must be kept tight. It is necessary to have some means of tightening up the belt, so as to keep it from slipping round the pulley. Where the engine and dynamo are on the same level there may be a screw arrangement in the base-plate of the latter by which the distance between centres can be increased. Where the engine and dynamo are on different levels, and the latter is a fixture, recourse must be had to a roller, bearing against the upper part of the belt and capable of screw adjustment. If link leather belting is used, it will be found necessary to take out several rows of links each day until it has finished stretching. A handy belt stretcher. A very handy thing to use for this purpose, and which can be made on board by an engineer, is a double clamp with a screw in between, just like the ones which are being sold for stretching trousers which have got baggy at the knees. Whatever belt is used, it is very important that there should be no joint or inequality which can cause a jump or slip when going over the pulley, as this will cause the lights to pulsate each time. Friction gearing. In America friction gearing has been tried, but I do not know with what success. From my experience of friction gearing, I am inclined to think it might do very well. There is certainly no doubt that direct-acting quick-speed engines are the ones to use, and it is only a question of getting a suitable one.

Switch-board near dynamo. The dynamo being firmly fixed in position, the main leads are connected to it, and carried along to the switch-board, which should be in a convenient position near at hand. On this switch-board are usually placed the large safety fuses. The board should have a cover to it, to prevent any one meddling with it, and to keep it clean. The main leads are of a large size, and from these other smaller ones branch off, being spliced and soldered to them. Leads of different colours. It is a very good practice to use leads of two different colours, as we can then work by the following rule: Never connect together two leads of different colours except by means of a lamp or other resistance. The size of the various leads depends on the current to be conveyed, and is a matter for the electricians. Main leads and branch leads. On the main-deck of a large passenger steamer, the main leads may be carried along side by side under the upper deck, and from these, smaller ones branch off into the various sets of rooms, smaller ones still going into each room. In each room there will be one lamp with its switch to turn it on or off as desired, and a safety fuse. Lamps held in frosted globes. The lamps are held in small brackets, and are contained when desired in frosted globes, which diffuse the light and make it very pleasant. When these globes are held rigidly in the brackets, the least knock breaks them. A very good bracket I have seen in use is one which allows the globe to move about on its support when touched, being at the same time sufficiently a fixture to resist the motion of the ship; and in the particular ship in which I saw these used in the first saloon, there was not a single breakage during a four months’ voyage. Switches for each lamp. The switches for turning each light on or off can be under the control of the passengers, or, on the other hand, they can be fitted to work with keys kept by the stewards, as thought most desirable.

Lamps of various candle-powers. The lamps used can be of various candle-powers, within certain limits, and of whatever make is considered best. They can also be of various makes, as long as they are constructed to stand the same E.M.F. The lamps in the passenger berths give quite sufficient light if of 10-candle power; the ones for lighting the saloons, passages, and other large spaces, may with advantage be of 20-candle power. In these days of luxurious travelling, when the various lines are trying to attract passengers to their particular ships, what follows may be thought worth consideration. In steamers going through the tropics to India, China, Australia, &c., it is usual to get up dances, concerts, and other entertainments on the quarter-deck, at times when it would be impossible to do anything below on account of the heat. Plan for lighting quarter-deck at times. The quarter-deck then has to be lighted up. This is effected by means of globe oil-lamps hung about here and there, two being hung in front of the piano, in unpleasant proximity to the head of the obliging lady pianist. Now in a ship lighted by electricity, there is no reason why a couple of leads should not be brought up from below through a skylight or other opening, on to the quarter-deck. Arrangement of temporary leads. Indeed the leads might be arranged to screw into a place in the deck, or on the side of a skylight, just in the same manner as a hose is connected for washing decks. These leads would have holders for lamps fitted permanently at intervals, and when required for use would be stopped up along the awning-spar or ridge-chains, and the lamps screwed or hooked into the holders. With a few handy men, five or ten minutes would suffice to arrange the whole thing after the leads had once been fitted. Leads and lamps always ready, and easily fixed up. The leads once fitted for this purpose would be always ready for use, and could be kept coiled away in a box which might also have a compartment to contain the dozen or so of lamps required.

If the dynamo is already running as many lamps as it is capable of, some of the bedroom lights may be turned off while the quarter-deck is being lighted. Another thing which I think has not yet been done is the following. Lighting of ships’ holds. When working cargo at night, and indeed during the day to some extent, lights are of necessity used in the holds. Danger of fire with oil lamps. The theory is, that no naked lights shall be allowed, but the practice is this: lamps are taken below, get knocked about, the wicks fall down and want pricking up, the lamps are opened for this purpose, and as they are found to give more light without a dusty glass round them than with it, they are left open. Candles are often taken below lighted, and even matches struck to see the mark on a bale. I am aware that arc lamps are used in the Royal Albert Docks, London, in connection with the dock lighting, lamps being carried below when required, with flexible leads attached, and that, in some few steamers, arc lamps have been used in the same manner in connection with their own plant. Arc lamps not suitable. These arc lamps are, I think, not nearly as suitable as incandescent lamps for the purpose of lighting up a ship’s hold; the light is too glaring, and casts deep shadows amongst the bales and cases, besides which, the lamps are large and clumsy. Arrangement of leads for incandescent lamps. I would suggest that leads should be carried behind the stringer-battens in the ship’s side, or along under the next upper-deck, having simple sockets or holders for incandescent lamps at certain intervals. Whoever might be in charge of the hold would screw or hook on the lamps as required, and so light up every part of the hold thoroughly while work was going on. Work carried on better, and pilfering of cargo prevented. There would be no risk of fire, and I am convinced that the extra leads and lamps would pay for themselves in a very short time, because work would get on more quickly, and pilfering of the cargo would be in a great measure put a stop to. Hold leads disconnected while at sea. The leads for the holds could be so arranged as to be quite unconnected with the dynamo while at sea, so that there could not be the remotest possibility of the current finding its way below when not wanted. In fine, there is no reason whatever why a ship’s hold should not be lighted up when required, as well as a warehouse or store on shore.

Installation complete. Now, we will suppose that our installation is complete, ready for working, everything having been pronounced in order by the electrician who has looked after the work. Lights wanted as night approaches. Evening is approaching, and the lights will soon be required; we must therefore see that our engine and dynamo are ready for a start. Precautions before starting dynamo. If the engine and dynamo are separate, the belt must be felt, to see that it is tight enough, otherwise it must be tightened by whatever means are provided for the purpose. Lubrication must be perfect. We must also see that the engine and dynamo are properly oiled, and that the worsteds are down the tubes of the oil-cups, and working properly, not dry, as I have known them to be, with fatal results to the dynamo. Commutators and collectors require very little oil. If the lubrication is performed by means of tubes leading to each bearing from an elevated oil-box, we must see that the oil really gets to the bearings, and regulate its flow as required. The commutators and collector-rings and rubbers require only a wipe of oil, just sufficient to prevent undue wearing of the surfaces; if too much is put on them, they will spark a great deal, and sparking will wear them away more quickly than friction. Position of brushes. The brushes of copper wire which collect the current of the exciter dynamo, and others of similar pattern, must be placed so that the ends press on the commutator as shown in Fig. 21. The ends should project just a little way beyond the point or line of contact, and when the dynamo is running, there should be very little sparking. I am supposing that our plant consists of an alternating-current dynamo with a small exciter. The wires leading from the exciter to the other dynamo remain always connected, as there is no need for meddling with them.

Start the engine. We will now start the engine, and thereby set the dynamo going round, slowly at first, and gradually up to the speed required. The main switches are not yet turned on, so there is no current going through the leads as yet; what then is being done? Switches not turned on. A current is being produced by the exciter only, and is magnetising the electro-magnets of the larger dynamo, No current except from exciter. and if we want to know if it is really doing its work as intended, we just hold a small pocket-compass over the ends of two opposite magnets of the dynamo, and observe how the needle points. Testing work of exciter. It should at once take up the position shown in Fig. 22, and if then held over the next couple in like manner, the needle should simply turn round, and point in exactly the opposite direction. If it points in any other direction, there is something wrong with the connections. If, however, the connections are right at starting, they will of course remain right, and there should be no need for this test. Dynamos very powerful magnets. It is well to remember that when dynamos are working, they are, or contain for the time being, very powerful magnets, therefore if we bend over them to examine them, Look out for your watches! our watches will get magnetised, which does not improve their qualities as time-keepers. Say that our dynamo is now going round at the required speed, which may be 500 or 600 revolutions per minute; the engine is not using much steam as yet, because very little work is being done. Switch on the lamps. We now switch on a set of lamps; this closes the circuit, and the large dynamo begins to produce its alternating current, which goes through the lamps and lights them up. Current is produced in large dynamo. This, however, gives the engine more work to do, and more steam must be turned on, otherwise the necessary speed will not be kept up. We switch on all the other lamps as required, and must see that the speed of the dynamo is kept constant. Difference of a few lamps compensated by governor. A difference of a few lamps, affecting the engine to a small extent only, should be compensated automatically by the governor. If the brightest lamps are not bright enough, the speed should be increased a little, but care must be taken not to overdo it, because if the current is too strong, some of the safety fuses will melt, and the corresponding lamps will go out. It must not be inferred from what I have said, that it is necessary to run the dynamo at first without switching on any lamps. Turn all lamps on, and light up gradually. On the contrary, a better effect will be produced if all the lamps are switched on before starting, as they will then gradually work up to their full brilliancy; whereas, if one set of lamps is started first, and run bright, and we then switch on another set, the current at first will be too small for the two sets, and the first set will get quite dull, remaining so until the dynamo is going at its proper speed again. Inequality of light in different lamps. When lighted up for the first time, it will be found that some of the lamps are much brighter than others; this is because the lamps at present made are not of perfectly equal resistances. We must go round, then, and note where the dull ones are, and we can either at once, or during next day, shift them into the bathrooms and places where such a perfect light is not required. All the lamps in one room, the first saloon, or music room, for instance, should be equalised as much as possible, and in such places the brightest should be used. Nothing looks worse than to see a couple of dull lights in the same room as a lot of bright ones. By seeing to these matters we can make the lighting much more satisfactory than it otherwise would be. During the first few evenings we shall probably have some of the lamps go out through the filaments breaking. Weeding out of bad lamps. This I consider a weeding out of defective lamps, because if it were that the current was too strong, the fuses would have given way. Some of the fuses give way when the current is not too strong; this is owing to imperfections in the fuses, and they must be replaced by spare ones. Lamps not to be run too bright. For the sake of economy, it is well not to run the lamps too bright. Without giving the lamps the maximum current a very good light can be obtained, and they will last all the longer. I need hardly say that there is a medium in this as in everything else, and it does not look well when a candle is placed alongside of an electric lamp to enable a person to read or write in comfort.

All this time the dynamo is running, and we must feel the bearings occasionally to see if they are keeping cool. No trouble with dynamo if oiling is attended to. There will be no trouble if the lubrication is all right. If the oil does not get into the bearings as it should do, they will heat, jam the spindle, or seize, and bring up the engine or break the belt. The lights will then all go out, and everybody will say hard things of the electric light, while the fault really rests with us. Seizing. Sometimes seizing occurs through the spindle not being slack enough in the bearings, but this generally occurs while testing the dynamo at the works.

Oil must be thin. It must be borne in mind that in dynamos the spindle must be a good fit, and there may be room in the bearings for ordinary engine-oil while there may not be for a thicker oil, such as castor oil. Therefore, if the bearings show a tendency to heat, it may improve matters to thin the oil used with petroleum. While giving the dynamo its proper supply of oil, we must only apply it in the proper places. If we let the bobbins get smothered in oil, the insulating material on the wire will get rotted, and a short circuiting will probably take place. The dynamo must be kept clean. The dynamo cannot be kept too clean, and there should be a canvas cover to put over it while not in use, especially while coaling. We will suppose that all is going on right; a steward comes along and says: Little troubles with the lamps. “Mr. So-and-so, I cannot get the lamp in number 6 berth to light although I have turned the switch the right way.” “All right, I will go and look at it,” you answer. Now, let us see what is the matter. We unhook or unscrew the lamp, and look at the filament; it is not broken. We replace the lamp again, and are careful that it makes good contact; but still no light. No safety fuse. Let us look at the safety fuse; why, there is none! it has been missed out. We get one of the spare ones out of our electric store, and put it in its place, and the lamp lights properly at once. We find another lamp out, and look at it. We see at once that the filament is broken, so there is no question about this one; it must be changed. Hallo! what is up with this one? it goes in and out all the time like a flash light. The current must be getting to it all right, otherwise it would not light at all. I see what it is; it is a Swan lamp, and the spring is not pressing quite fairly on it, so that one hook is making good contact, Effect of vibration of ship on lamps. while the other tightens and slacks with the vibration of the ship. This is soon set right by turning the spring round a little, or hooking the lamp the other way. What to look to if a lamp is out. Or it is an Edison lamp, which has got slightly unscrewed, and no longer makes good contact at the back end of the holder. In some lamp-fittings the ends of the leads are held in a spring grip in the base of the bracket, and it may happen that they have slipped out, and so broken the circuit, and extinguished the light. In the Swan lamps, and others of a similar pattern, one of the little platinum loops in the base of the lamps sometimes gets broken off; the lamp is then of no further use. Recapitulation. To recapitulate, if a lamp goes out, the first thing is to see if the filament is broken, next if it makes good contact. If it does not then light up, see if there is any current getting to it; this may be found out by touching the two hooks in a Swan holder, or the back and side of an Edison screw holder, with a moistened finger. A current of 50 volts is hardly felt. With a current of 50 volts a slight tickling sensation will be felt if the current is passing through. If this cannot be felt, there must be some part or other disconnected, perhaps the safety fuse has given out, or the ends of the leads got adrift from the bracket. If in any doubt about the lamp, try another in the same place.

Incandescent lights for side lights. In some steamers incandescent lamps are used in the side lamps; they can easily be fitted for this purpose, especially when the ship is provided with lighthouses built in, as in the Anchor Line steamers. Two or more incandescent lamps can be arranged on a small stand, which will slide into the lantern, taking the place of the regulation oil lamp, and connected by flexible leads to the other leads. It would be easy to put six 20-candle power lamps in a group in each lantern, as it does not matter in what position they are placed; two might be used on ordinary occasions, while on a foggy night, the whole six could be switched on. If one lamp went out through the filament giving way, it would not affect the others, so that there would still be a light in the lantern. If, through some breakdown of the engine or dynamo, the electric current were no longer to be had, then it Mast-head light. would only be necessary to withdraw the stand of lamps, and put in the ordinary regulation oil-lamp. The mast-head lamp could also be fitted with the electric light, as indeed has already been done. Arc light should never be used. On no account, however, should an arc light be used, as besides being too dazzling, it is much too uncertain; in fact many other reasons could be given for rejecting it. It is even a question whether it is an advantage to have incandescent lamps for a mast-head light. There is certainly the great advantage of not having to pull the lamp up and down to trim it, a rather risky performance in heavy weather, and also of the light not being affected by any wind that may get into the lamp; though as regards the first, English officers would never be satisfied to see a lamp dangling on the stay all day long, as appears to be the custom in some foreign steamers, besides which it would have to be lowered to be cleaned outside.

Present mast-head lights quite powerful enough. The present mast-head lights are quite powerful enough already, too much so when compared with the side lights. I am not aware of any collisions having occurred through a mast-head light not being seen in time, but how many from the side lights not being seen! It was no doubt contemplated, as indeed the regulations show, that no lights should be visible about a vessel, except the regulation lights; On passenger steamers, side one blaze of light, and side lights barely visible. but many who have seen a large passenger steamer go past will have noticed how her side was—one, two, or three rows of dazzling bright lights, and will have looked almost in vain for the green or red light dimly visible in the midst of all the bright ones. If bright electric lights, therefore, are shining through the ports, we must have our side lights at least as bright, so as to give them a chance of being seen. If electric lamps are used as side lights, the dynamo must be kept running all night. If it is thought desirable to put out all unnecessary lights at 11 p.m., the leads can be so arranged that these lights can be all on one or more circuits, and the necessary ones on another.

Speed of dynamo constant, but steam power used in proportion to number of lamps in use. Although the dynamo will have to go at nearly the same speed throughout the night, it will not have the same amount of work to do, and the engine will therefore use much less steam, the consumption being in proportion to the number of lights used. An economical engineer will therefore see that bedroom lamps are not kept lighted all the evening without any necessity. On shore we should never think of keeping gas-lights blazing away for no purpose, and why should we use electricity with more lavishness, especially when it is so easy to turn a light on or off. The switches might with advantage be painted with Balmain’s luminous paint, and there would then be no trouble in finding them in the dark. No danger to life from electric current on board ship. It is well to know that on board ship, probably in all cases of electric lighting, there is no danger to life to be apprehended from touching any of the leads where bare, or indeed any part of the dynamos, as the E.M.F. is usually not more than 50 volts. It is best, however, not to try any experiments, and it is a good general rule, not to touch a bare part of a dynamo or lead with both hands at the same time. The fear of getting hurt has the good effect of keeping passengers and others from meddling with their lamps.

Binnacle lamps. Electric light not suitable. I have said nothing about the use of electric lights in binnacles, though it would be a great advantage to be able to supply them with a good steady light quite unaffected by wind. There is an obstacle to their use for this purpose, in that the electric current being used near the compass, the latter is affected by it. In theory, an alternating current should have no effect; but it would require very exhaustive experiments to be made before enough confidence could be inspired concerning its innocence, and I fancy it would usually be looked upon with great suspicion by captains and officers of ships. Dynamo, if near a compass, will affect it. The dynamo being made up of powerful magnets, must of course be always at a good distance from the compasses. In some installations on iron steamers, the return leads have been dispensed with, the iron of the ship carrying the current back, in the same way that the earth or sea does it in a telegraph circuit.

Notes. It is to be observed that a dynamo with brushes on the commutator is not necessarily a Brush dynamo as a good many people seem to think, the latter being named after its inventor, Mr. Brush.

A dynamo is not a battery as some people call it, and there is no need for multiplying names.

A pocket speed-indicator should be supplied for testing the speed of the dynamo, to see that it is kept up to proper speed, and that the belt (if used) does not slip to an unreasonable extent.

I think I have now said enough to redeem my introductory promise, and if I have, so to speak, let more electric light on to a subject previously dark to a good many people, I shall be well satisfied with my labour, and I hope that those who peruse this book will be induced to go more deeply into the subject by means of the many good books which have been written by cleverer men than I, and which enter more thoroughly into all its details.