South America, like North America, was occupied by Indians at the time of the discovery. The tribes differed in appearance, language, and customs, but all were true American Indians. To be sure, some tribes were dark, others light; some were tall, others short; some were true savages, while others were almost civilized.

Probably the most advanced tribes lived along the Pacific border. In Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chili many relics of ancient art and many ruins of old buildings are found. Here and there east of the mountains similar evidences of culture are found, but they are less known. Best known of all are those of Peru.

The ancient Indians of Peru were industrious and hard workers. Their rulers, the Incas, were called “the children of the sun.” The old Peruvians had important towns and cities. They diligently cultivated their fields and irrigated them by great systems of canals. They wove capital cotton cloth, from which they made good clothing. Their cloth was often decorated with pretty inwoven designs in colored threads. They tamed and bred the llama, and trained it for a pack animal. They could not write, but kept accounts by knotted cords called quipus. Differently colored cords were used for different things, and knots of varying sizes stood for varying numbers. Thus an owner of llamas might use a white cord for males, a reddish cord for females, and a yellow cord for young. A simple knot might stand for one, and larger knots might mean five, ten, or twenty. In this way the herder might keep exact account of his animals.

The old Peruvians were great potters and thousands of their old water vessels and food dishes, which were buried with the dead, have been dug up. These had curious forms and were often adorned with colored patterns. Some of these jars were shaped like human faces, human figures, or animals. Sometimes they were “whistling jars,” which were so made that they whistled when water was poured in or out of them. The old Peruvians were skilled in working copper, silver, and gold, and made many ornaments and figures in these metals.

They disposed of their dead carefully, and many of the dried bodies, or “mummies” have been found in the ancient graves. The dead were folded into a sitting position and bound; they were then wrapped about with fine cloths. After the last wrapping was in place, it was painted, a false face was marked on the cloth or placed over the proper place, and imitation ear ornaments were hung at the sides of the head. Many objects were buried with the dead,—vessels of food and drink, and the objects they had used in life,—with a woman, cotton, spindle, and work-basket; with a man, weapons and ornaments. The old Peruvians built fine public buildings, and temples of stone and some ruins of such buildings still remain.

After the discovery of America two nations chiefly gained possession of South America—Spain and Portugal. Portugal secured what is now Brazil; Spain gained almost all the rest. The Spaniard settled chiefly where the native tribes had already been living a quiet and settled life. In those districts, just as in Mexico, there was much mixture between the two peoples, and to-day there is a large mestizo population, whose mode of life has been influenced by that of Spain. In Peru, Brazil, Chili, and the Argentine Republic we find lands which are making progress, and in whose beautiful cities are fine buildings, handsome parks, and artistic statuary. It is a great mistake to think of any of the South American countries as uncivilized.

Still, even in countries like Peru and Chili, centres of old and interesting settled life, there are plenty of pure-blood Indians to-day. These still keep up much of their old life and customs. And when, instead of looking at the old culture centres, we examine the tribes which were truly wild at the time of the conquest, we find little change. On the eastern slope of the Andes, in the valleys of those streams which unite to form the Amazon, in the dense forests which border that mighty river itself, are many truly savage tribes to-day—or, when not savage, in low barbarism. Some of these tribes use the blow-gun in hunting. This is a tube, eight or ten feet long, made from a cane or bored out of wood. It is carefully straightened and smoothed on the inside. The shaft of the little arrow used with this is slender and ends in a sharp point; a tuft of cottony material, which just fits the bore of the blow-gun, is wrapped about the upper end of the arrow and fastened. When the arrow is placed in the blow-gun, this is raised to the lips, and a sharp puff of air from the mouth sends the little weapon on its way. These arrows go a long distance and with great force; as they make no noise they are especially good for bird-hunting. The arrows not only kill by their sharpness, but by poison, which is put on their tips. Several of these Indian tribes know how to make deadly poisons, chiefly from plants.

Many of these wild tribes delight in bright feathers. They make necklaces, head-dresses, arm-rings, bracelets, leg-bands, aprons, and capes from them. Not that a single tribe makes all of these many ornaments; some will use the feathers in one way, others in another. Among the tribes of Brazil, the Botocudo are famous for the ornaments they wear in their lips and ears. These ornaments are mere disks or plugs of wood, which are inserted in holes pierced in the ears and lower lip. Some Botocudo lip plugs are three inches in diameter. Such a lip ornament holds the lip out almost like a shelf.

In eastern Ecuador and on the eastern slope of the Andes, near the Amazonian headwaters, are several tribes who cut off the heads of slain enemies as trophies. Best known of these tribes are the Mundurucus and Jivaros. The Mundurucus, after cutting off the heads, paint the faces, comb the hair, add feather ornaments, and then so dry the head that it retains its natural size and form. The heads that are kept by the Jivaros are even more curious. After they have been cut off the bones of the skull are removed piecemeal from below. The heads are then shrunken by means of astringent fluids, smoke, and pressure, until they are no larger than the fist. The features retain their form, but everything is reduced in size. It is hard to believe, when seeing one of these, that it could ever have been a full-sized human head. Believing that the spirit of the dead man will curse them and thus harm them, the Jivaros sew the lips of the trophy together with cords.

In Guiana some of the Indians make beautiful baskets of split cane. The splints are sometimes stained black or brown, and thus pretty patterns are woven in color. These patterns look like simple geometrical designs—diamonds, meanders, etc.—but often they are really pictures of snakes, monkeys, or human beings. These tribes use cassava for making bread. The roots or tubers, when first dug, are poisonous and unfit for food. These are first grated on a board set with sharp bits of stone. The shredded or grated pulp is then packed into a great tube of basketwork closed at the bottom. This is hung to a beam and a pole is passed through a loop at the lower end. By turning this pole the basket tube is twisted, and the cassava pulp is squeezed so tightly that the poisonous sap runs out, leaving the wholesome flour.